语言学模拟题 16页

语言学模拟题一、Fillintheblanks(20分)1.Phonetic(语音学的),asoneofthesub-branchesoflinguistics,isthestudyofspeechsounds.P172.Thefieldofstudywhichinvestigates(研究)theinterrelationoflanguageandmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.P213.Themajorfunctionofgrammaticalwordsistoexpressgrammaticalmeaning.(whichisalsoknownasfunctionwords)P804.AccordingtoG.Leechthematic(主题的)meaningisrelatedwiththewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermoforderandemphasis.P1595.Thebasicrequirementsthatatestmustfulfillarevalidity（测验效度,有效性,真实性）andreliability(信度,可靠性).P381二、Answerthefollowingquestionsordefinethetermsasrequiredusingexamplesifnecessary.(40分)1.Whatisthesyntagmaticrelationship(组合关系)?P119InSaussure’sview,languageisasystemofsigns,eachofwhichconsistsoftwoparts:SIGNIFIED(所指，意味,意义)（concept）andSIGNIFIER（能指）(soundimage语音映像)).Andtherelationshipbetweenthesetwopartsisarbitrary.Thereforethelinguistcannotattempttoexplainindividualsignsinapiecemeal零碎的fashion.Insteadhemusttrytofindthevalueofasignfromitsrelationstoothers,orrather,itspositioninthesystem.ThetwoprincipaltypesofrelationswhichSaussureidentified确定aresyntagmatic组合关系andparadigmaticrelations聚合关系.Thesyntagmaticrelationshipisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent,suchastherelationbetweenweatherandtheothersinthefollowingsentence:Iftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.Therearesyntacticandsemantic语义的conditionsthewordsinasyntagmaticrelationmustmeet.Forexample,1belowisanacceptablesentence,but2and3arenot:1.Theboykickedtheball.2.Boytheballkickedthe.3.Theballkickedtheboy.Theparadigmaticrelation,SaussureoriginallycalledAssociative,isarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.Forexample,inthecontextThe____________issmiling,16\nthereareconstraintsonthepossibleelementsoccurringhere.2.Inwhatsenseistheanalysisofasentenceintermsoftheme主题andrheme表位,述位(指为主体提供新信息的句子成分)functional?P485Theanalysisofasentenceintermsof根据,按照,用...的话,在...方面themeandrhemeisfunctionalinthesensethatthisdistinctionhastodowiththesemantic语义的sideoftheconstituents要素ofasentenceratherthantheformalside.Theyhavetodowiththeinformationconveyed通知；通报；传达,whethertheknownornew,themoreimportantorlessimportant.Incontrast,theanalysisofasentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicate谓词isformal,e.g.thesubjectwillbeinthenominative主格的forminlanguageswithcase格distinctions,theformofthepredicateverbwillhavetobeinagreementwiththesubjectincertaincategories种类,别,范畴.OneofthemainideasofthePragueLinguisticCircleisthatasentencemaybeanalyzedfromthefunctionalsideaswellasthegrammaticalside.MathesiusheldthatApartfromtheanalysisofasentenceintermsofsubjectandpredicatefromtheformalpointofview,theremayalsobeafunctionalanalysisintermsofTHEMEandRHEME.Thefirsttermrefersto“thatwhichisknownoratleastobviousinthegivensituationandfromwhichthespeakerproceed进行,继续下去”,andthesecond“whatthespeakerstatesabout,orinregardto关于,thestartingpointoftheutterance说话”Mathesiusmaintainedthatitisnaturalforthespeakertostartfromtheknowntotheunknown,andthetheme-rhemeorderistheusualoneinunemotionalnarration,whichiscalledobjectiveorder.Inemotionalnarration,however,itmaybepossibletoreversetheordertoputrhemebeforetheme.Andthisisasubjectiveorder.Forexample:ThisletterwaswrittenbyfatherItwastheletterthatfatherwrote.3.Explaintheterm“deepstructure”.P132Wementionedinsectiononimmediateconstituent要素analysisthattherearesomeinherent固有的,内在的,与生俱来的inadequacies不充分init.NowChomsky’sfirstsolutiontothemisthesuggestionthatweshouldmakeadistinctionbetweentwolevelsofstructures:DEEPANDSURFACEstructures.TheformerDEEPstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentation表示法,表现,ofthesyntactic造句法的properties性质,特性ofaconstruction,i.e.16\ntheunderlying在下面的levelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.Incontrast,thelatteristhefinalstageinthesyntacticderivation来历,出处ofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.PhraseStructurecomponentMorpho-phonemicComponent形态音位成分InhisbookSyntacticStructurepublishedin1957,Chomskeyproposedalinguisticmodelconsistingofthreecomponents(P132)TransformationalComponentdeepstructure→surfacestructure→Thephrasestructurecomponenthasphrasestructurerulesasfollowing:S→NP+VP/VP→V+NP/NP→Det+N/Det→a/N→man/v→hitThatis,asentencesuchasThemanhitaballmayberewrittenasanounphrasethemanandaverbphrasehitaball;andthenounphrasetheman,oraball,asadeterminerthe,ora,andanounman,orballrespectively(P133)1.Whatcontributionscansociolinguisticsmaketotheforeignlanguageteaching?P241Asfaraslanguageteachingisconcerned,sociolinguisticsisbelievedtohaveprovidedsomeimportantcontributionswhichcanbesummarizedasfollows:a)Sociolinguisticshascontributedtoachangeofemphasisinthecontentoflanguageteaching;b)Ithasalsocontributedtoinnovations创新inmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroom;c)Ithascontributedtoafreshlookatthenatureoflanguagedevelopmentanduse;d)Ithascontributedtoamorefruitfulresearchinthisfield.2.Definetheterm“illocutionaryact”.P250InAustin’sopinion,therearethreesensesinwhichsayingsomething(e.g.GOODMORNING!)maybeunderstoodasdoingsomething.Thefirstsenseisanordinaryone.Thatis,whenwespeakwemoveourvocalorgansandproduceanumberofsounds,organizedinacertainwayandwithacertainmeaning.Inthissense,whensomebodysays“Morning!”,wecanaskaquestionlike”Whatdidhedo?”insteadof“Whatdidhesay?”Andtheanswercouldbethatheproducedasound,16\nwordorsentence—“Morning!”TheactperformedinthissenseiscalledaLOCUTIONARYACT发话行为.(theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteral照字面上的meaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon词汇,andphonology音系学.Namely,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminate确定的senseandreference涵义意思或含义.)Inotherwords,whenwespeak,wenotonlyproducesomeunitsoflanguagewithcertainmeanings,butalsomakeclearourpurposeinproducingthem,thewayweintendthemtobeunderstood,ortheyalsohavecertainforcesasAustinpreferstosay.Intheexampleof“Morning!”wecansayithastheforceofagreeting,oritoughttohavebeentakenasagreeting.Thisisthesecondsenseinwhichtosaysomethingistodosomething,andtheactperformedisknownasanILLOCUTIONARYACT言外之意.(theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidentical同一的,同样的withthespeaker’sintention.)Thethirdsenseinwhichtosaysomethingcanmeantodosomethingconcernstheconsequentialeffectsofalocution说话风格uponthehearer.Bytellingsomebodysomethingthespeakermaychangetheopinionoftheheareronsomething,ormisleadhim,orsurprisehim,orinducehimtodosomething,etc.Whetherornottheseeffectsareintendedbythespeaker,theycanberegardedaspartoftheactthespeakerhasperformed.Thisact,whichisperformedthrough,bymeansof,alocutionaryact,iscalledaPERLOCUTIONARYACT.（theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.）三、Elaborate[I5lAbErEt]详细阐述thefollowinginnolessthan300wordsforeach(90分)1.Whatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguage?P3-9Sowhatmakeshumanlanguagesocomplicatedandflexible,sounrestrained无限制的bytheimmediatecontextandsocapableofcreatingnewmeanings,inaword,sodistinctivefromlanguagesusedbyotherspecies?ThefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalledDESIGNFEATURES.Thefollowingarethefrequentlydiscussedones：1.Arbitrariness任意ThewidelyacceptedmeaningofthisfeaturewhichwasdiscussedbySaussurefirstreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.Forinstance,wecannotexplainwhyabookiscalleda/buk/andapena/pen/.16\nHoweverthereseemtobedifferentlevelsofARBITRARINESS.(1)Arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorpheme词素，语素anditsmeaning.Youmayobjecttothiswhenyouthinkofwordswithdifferentdegreesofonomatopoeia拟声,拟声法,象声词,namely,wordsthatsoundlikethesoundstheydescribe.E.g.theselinguisticformsseemtohaveanaturalbasis.ButinEnglish,totallydifferentwordsareusedtodescribethesound.Forexample,thedogbarkswowwowinEnglishbutwangwanginChinese.Buttherearesomemisunderstandingsabouttheonomatopoeiceffect.Asamatteroffact,arbitraryandonomatopoeiceffectmayworkatthesametime.Forexample,WiddowsoncitesalinefromKeats’OdetoaNightingaletoillustrate:Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.(2)ArbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevelAccordingtosystemic-functionalistsandAmericanfunctionalists,languageisnotarbitraryatthesyntacticlevel.Bysyntaxwerefertothewaysthatsentencesareconstructedaccordingtothegrammarofarrangement.So,inotherwords,especiallyinsofarasthiskindoforderisconcerned.Compare:a)Hecameinandsatdown.B)Hesatdownandcamein.C)Hesatdownafterhecamein.Thereforethefunctionalistsholdthatthemoststrictlyarbitraryleveloflanguageexistsinthedistinctiveunitsofsoundsbywhichwedistinguishpairsofwordslikepinandbin,orfishanddish.(3)Arbitrarinessandconvention习俗,惯例Whatthenisthelinkbetweenalinguisticsignanditsmeaning?ItisamatterofCONVENTION.Herewehavetolookattheothersideofthecoinofarbitrariness,namely,conventionality常规,惯例.Arbitrarinessoflanguagemakesitpotentiallycreative,andconventionalityoflanguagemakeslearningalanguagelaborious.Forlearnersofaforeignlanguage,itistheconventionalityofalanguagethatismorenoticingthanitsarbitrariness.1.Duality两重性“ByDUALITYismeantthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization”(Lyons,1982:20)Roughlyspeaking,theelementsofthespokenlanguagearesoundswhichdonotconveymeaninginthemselves.Theonlyfunctionofsoundsistocombinewithoneanothertoformunits16\nthathavemeaning,suchaswords.Wecallsoundsheresecondaryunitsaremeaninglessandtheprimaryunitshavedistinctandidentifiablemeaning.Thepropertyofdualitythenonlyexistsinsuchasystem,namely,withbothelementsandunits.Manyanimalscommunicatewithspecialcalls,whichhavecorrespondingmeanings.Thatis,theprimaryunitshavemeaningsbutcannotbefurtherdividedintoelements.Sowesayanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothavethisdesignfeatureofhumanlanguage—thepropertyofduality.Consequently,thecommunicativepowerofanimallanguageishighlylimited.Nowwecanperceivetheadvantageofduality,whichliesinthegreatproductivepowerourlanguageisendowed捐赠,赋予with.Alargenumberofdifferentunitscanbeformedoutofasmallnumberofelements—forinstance,tensofthousandsofwordsoutofasmallsetofsounds,around48inthecaseoftheEnglishlanguage.Andoutofthehugenumberofwords,therecanbeendlessofsentences,whichinturncanformunlimitednumberoftexts.1.CreativityBycreativitywemeanlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness递推,循环.Oneofthereasonswhylanguageisactuallyafarmorecomplicatedentitythantrafficlightsisthatwecanuseittocreatenewmeanings.Thisabilityisoneofthethingsthatsetshumanlanguageapartfromthekindofcommunicationthatgoeson,forexample,betweenbirds,whichcanonlyconveyalimitedrangeofmessage.Thecreativityoflanguagepartlyoriginatesfromitsdualitywhichwejustdiscussedintheabovesection,namely,becauseofdualitythespeakerisabletocombinethebasiclinguisticunitstoformaninfinitesetofsentences,mostofwhichareneverbeforeproducedorheard.Languageiscreativeinanothersense,thatis,it’spotentialtocreateendlesssentences.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthispossibility.2.DisplacementDISPLACEMENTmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunicationourlanguageenableustocommunicateaboutthingsthatdon’texistordon’tyetexist.Displacementbenefitshumanbeingsbygivingthemthepowertohandlegeneralizationandabstractions.Ina16\nword,theintellectualbenefitsofdisplacementtousisthatitmakesitpossibleforustotalkandthinkinabstractterms.2.Giveabriefnotetothefollowinglinguists,includingoneoftheirmajorworks.1)SaussureP392ModernlinguisticsbeganfromtheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure(1857-1913),whoisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”.Duringtheyearsbetween1907to1911,SaussurelecturedongenerallinguisticsintheUniversityofGeneva.Afterhediedin1913,hiscolleaguesandstudentsthoughtthathisideasconcerninglinguisticquestionswereoriginalandinsightful有深刻见解的andshouldbepreserved.Twoofhisstudentscollectedlecturenotesfromstudentsandputthemtogethertoproducethegreatbook,CourseinGeneralLinguisticsin1916.ThisbookbecamethemostimportantsourceofSaussure’sideaandofhisinfluenceuponsucceedinggenerationsoflinguists.MostpeopleagreethatSaussure’sworkmarkedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.Saussurewasthefirsttonoticethecomplexitiesoflanguage.Hebelievedthatlanguageissystemofsigns.Tocommunicateideas,signsmustbepartofasystemofsigns,calledconventions.Heheldthatthesignistheunionofthesignifier能指andthesignified所指.Byprovidinganswerstoquestionsconcerningmanyaspectsoflanguage,Saussuremadecleartheobjectofstudyforlinguisticsasascience.Hisideasonthearbitrarynatureofsign,ontherelationalnatureoflinguisticunits,onthedistinctionoflangue语言(与parole[言语])andparole特定的话语或单词andofsynchronic共时发生的anddiachronic历史语言学linguistics,etc.,pushedlinguisticsintoabrandnewstage.2)NoamChomskeyP433Inthelate1950s,anewtheoryappearedinAmericaandviolentlypunched驱动theprevailing盛行sturcturalistdescriptivelinguistics.ThefounderofthisnewtheorywasA.N.Chomskey(1928-).AsastudentofHebrewwiththestructuralistmethodology,Chomskeytriedtoopenupanewroutewhenhefoundthatclassificationofstructuralelementsoflanguageaccordingtodistribution归类andsubstitution置换haditslimitations.FromthispracticeChomskeygraduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar转换生成语法.ThepublicationofhisSyntacticStructure(1957)markedthebeginningoftheChomskeyRevolution.16\nFromitsbirthtothepresentday,TGGrammarhasseenfivestagesofdevelopment.TheClassicalTheoryaimstomakelinguisticsascience.TheStandardTheorydealswithhowsemantics语义学shouldbestudiedinalinguisticstheory.TheExtendedStandardTheoryfocusesdiscussiononlanguageuniversals通用的anduniversalgrammar.TheRevisedExtendedStandardTheory(orGB)focusesdiscussionongovernmentandbinding.ThelatestistheMinimalistProgram最简方案,afurtherrevisionoftheprevioustheory.3)M.A.KHallidayP408M.A.KHalliday(1925-)hasdevelopedtheideasstemming滋生fromFirth’stheoriesintheLondonSchool.HisSystemic-Functional(SF)Grammarisasociologicallyorientedfunctionallinguisticapproachandoneofthemostinfluentiallinguistictheoriesinthetwentiethcentury,suchaslanguageteaching,sociolinguistics,discourseanalysis,stylistics,andmachinetranslation.Oneofhiswell-knownworksisAnInstructiontoFunctionalGrammar.Systemic-FunctionalGrammarhastwocomponents:SystemicGrammarandFunctionalGrammar.Theyaretwoinseparablepartsforanintegralframeworkoflinguistictheory.Systemicgrammaraimstoexplaintheinternalrelationsinlanguageasasystemnetwork,ormeaningpotential.Andthisnetworkconsistsofsubsystemsfromwhichlanguageusersmakechoices.Functionalgrammaraimstorevealthatlanguageisameansofsocialinteraction,basedonthepositionthatlanguagesystemandtheformsthatmakeitupareinescapablydeterminedbytheusesorfunctionswhichtheyserve.3.Analyzefiveexamplesofsentencescontaininggrammaticalorlexicalerrorswhichyoubelievetobetheresultofnegativelanguagetransfer.P377LanguagelearnersattempttoTRANSFERthefeaturesoftheirmothertonguetothesecondlanguage.Whenthestructureofthetwolanguagesaresimilar,wecangetPOSITIVETRANSFERorFACILIATION.Whenthetwolanguagesaredifferentinstructures,NEGATIVETRANSFERorINTERFERENCEoccursandresultsinerrors.Consequently,acontrastiveanalysisofthelearner’snativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehasandthisinturndetermineswhatthelearnerhastolearnandwhattheteacherhastoteach.Attheleveloflexicon,somewordsareconstantlymixedup,e.g.borrowandlend,exceptandbesides.Insyntax,Chineselearners16\noftencommiterrorsintenseandperson-numberagreement.Forexamples:1)Heborrowedthebooktome.Influencedbythespeaker’sknowledgeaboutthestructureofhismothertongue.Itcan’tberecognizedwhetherthespeaker借来or借给inChinese.Ifitistheformer,therightstructureis“Heborrowedthebookfromme.”;ifthelatter,itshouldbelike“Helentthebooktome”,or“Helentmethebook.”2)Heforgothisbookathome.InEnglish,itisquitedifferenttosay忘了and忘在、拉在。Sotherightwayistosay“Helefthisbookathome.”3)HespeakEnglish.EnglishgrammarisdifferentfromChinese,especiallyintenseandtheperson-numberagreement.Soitisrighttosay“HespeaksEnglish”or“HespokeEnglish.”4)Threepolicearequestioningthethief.PoliceisacollectivenouninEnglish,anditcan’tbemodifiedbynumber.Sothesentenceshouldbechangedforthis“Threepolicemenarequestioningthethief.”5)Itrainyesterday.Ofcourse,tensemustbechangedaccordingtothetimeinEnglish,whilethisso-calledtenseismostlikelytobemadeclearbythetimewithoutanychangeofverbsinChinese.Sotherightsentenceis“Itrainedyesterday.”4.WhataretheimportantpointsofthePragueSchool?P394ThePragueSchoolhasthreepointsofspecialimportance.First,itwasstressedthatthesynchronic共时studyoflanguageisfullyjustified证明…有道理asitcandrawoncompleteandcontrollablematerialforinvestigationbutnorigid严格的theoreticalbarrier障碍物iserected竖起toseparatediachronic历时study.Second,thereisanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.Itwasarguedthatnoelementofanylanguagecanbesatisfactorilyanalyzedorevaluatedifviewedinisolation;assessmentcanonlybemadeifitsrelationshipisestablishedwiththecoexisting共存elementsinthesamelanguagesystem.Inotherwords,elementsareheldtobeinfunctionalcontrastoropposition.Third,languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense,thatis,asatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.5.Whatisschemata图式?Whatroledoesitplayinthetext16\ninterpretation?P207ItisbelievedthatSCHEMATA,meaningpacketsofstoredknowledge,playanimportantroleinlanguageprocessing.Thefeaturesofschemataareasfollows:1)Schematacanvaryconsiderablyintheinformationtheycontain,fromtheverysimpletotheverycomplex.2)Schemataarefrequentlyorganizedhierarchically分等级的.3)Schemataoperateinatop-downorconceptually概念地drivenwaytofacilitate促进interpretationofenvironmentalstimuli.Therearevariouscharacteristics特性,特征oflanguageprocessingwhichindicatethekeyroleplayedbyschematicandotherstoredknowledge.Forexample,languagecomprehensionfrequentlyrequiresustogofarbeyondtheliteralmeaningsofthesentenceswereadorhear.Essentialinformationisoftenonlyimplied,sothatitisnecessarytodrawinferencesinordertounderstandfullywhatisintended.Inthetextinterpretation,wemaymeetwithsuchaproverb:“Anydoghasitsday.”Mostofuswoulduseourstoredknowledgetodrawtheinferencethatadogwillhaveagooddayinitslife.Thissortofinferenceisdrawsoeffortlesslythatwearegenerallyunawarethatwehavedrawnaninferenceatall.However,schemataorscriptspresumably可能，大概，推测起来playapart.Inthisexample,someoftheerrorsobservedinmemoryseemtoreflecttheuseofschemata.Subsequently,theyfalselyrecognizedsentencesfittingintotheschematabutnotincludedintheimpliedmeaningintheproverbwhichmeans“Anybodywillhavehisbigdayorgoodtime.”Schematathusleadpeopletodrawschema-relevantinferencewhichfacilitatethetextinterpretationbutwhichmayimpair削弱memory.16\nKeywords一、Fillintheblanks(20分)1.Phonetic(语音学的)speechsounds2.languageandmindPsycholinguistics3.grammaticalwordsexpressgrammaticalmeaning4.thematic(主题的)meaning,orderandemphasis5.testrequirementsvalidity（测验效度）andreliability(信度)二、Answerthefollowingquestionsordefinethetermsasrequiredusingexamplesifnecessary.(40分)1.Whatisthesyntagmaticrelationship(组合关系)?Thesyntagmaticrelationshipisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent,2.Inwhatsenseistheanalysisofasentenceintermsoftheme主题andrheme表位,述位functional?Theanalysisofasentenceintermsof根据,按照,用...的话,在...方面theme主题andrheme表位,述位isfunctionalinthesensethatthisdistinctionhastodowiththesemantic语义的sideoftheconstituents要素ofasentenceratherthantheformalside.Theyhavetodowiththeinformationconveyed通知；通报；传达,whethertheknownornew,themoreimportantorlessimportant.3.Explaintheterm“deepstructure”DEEPstructuresmaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentation表示法,表现,ofthesyntactic造句法的properties性质,特性ofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlying在下面的levelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.4.Whatcontributionscansociolinguisticsmaketotheforeignlanguageteaching?a)Sociolinguisticshascontributedtoachangeofemphasisinthecontentoflanguageteaching;b)Ithasalsocontributedtoinnovations创新inmaterialsandactivitiesfortheclassroom;c)Ithascontributedtoafreshlookatthenatureoflanguagedevelopmentanduse;d)Ithascontributedtoamorefruitfulresearchinthisfield.5.Definetheterm“illocutionaryact”Tosaysomethingistodosomething,andtheactperformedisknownasanILLOCUTIONARYACT言外之意.(theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidentical同一的,同样的withthespeaker’sintention.)16\n三、Elaborate[I5lAbErEt]详细阐述thefollowinginnolessthan300wordsforeach1.Whatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguage?DESIGNFEATURES:1.Arbitrariness任意1）Arbitraryrelationshipbetweenthesoundofamorpheme词素anditsmeaning.2)Arbitrarinessatthesyntacticlevel3)Arbitrarinessandconvention习俗,惯例2.Duality两重性3.Creativity4.Displacement2.Giveabriefnotetothefollowinglinguists,includingoneoftheirmajorworks.1)SaussureModernlinguisticsbeganfromtheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure(1857-1913),whoisoftendescribedas“fatherofmodernlinguistics”CourseinGeneralLinguistics.Saussure’sworkmarkedthebeginningofmodernlinguistics.Saussurewasthefirsttonoticethecomplexitiesoflanguage.Hebelievedthatlanguageissystemofsigns.2)NoamChomskeyInthelate1950s,anewtheoryappearedinAmericaandviolentlypunched驱动theprevailing盛行sturcturalistdescriptivelinguistics.ThefounderofthisnewtheorywasA.N.Chomskey(1928-).Chomskeygraduallyestablishedthewell-knownTransformational-Generative(TG)Grammar转换生成语法.ThepublicationofhisSyntacticStructure(1957)markedthebeginningoftheChomskeyRevolution.3)M.A.KHallidayM.A.KHalliday(1925-)hasdevelopedtheideasstemming滋生fromFirth’stheoriesintheLondonSchool.HisSystemic-Functional(SF)Grammarisasociologicallyorientedfunctionallinguisticapproachandoneofthemostinfluentiallinguistictheoriesinthetwentiethcentury.Oneofhismostwell-knownworksisAnInstructiontoFunctionalGrammar.Systemic-FunctionalGrammarhastwocomponents:SystemicGrammarandFunctionalGrammar.3.Analyzefiveexamplesofsentencescontaininggrammaticalor16\nlexicalerrorswhichyoubelievetobetheresultofnegativelanguagetransfer.LanguagelearnersattempttoTRANSFERthefeaturesoftheirmothertonguetothesecondlanguage.Whenthestructureofthetwolanguagesaresimilar,wecangetPOSITIVETRANSFERorFACILIATION.Whenthetwolanguagesaredifferentinstructures,NEGATIVETRANSFERorINTERFERENCEoccursandresultsinerrors.4.WhataretheimportantpointsofthePragueSchool?ThePragueSchoolhasthreepointsofspecialimportance.First,itwasstressedthatthesynchronic共时studyoflanguageisfullyjustified证明…有道理.Second,thereisanemphasisonthesystemiccharacteroflanguage.Third,languagewaslookedonasfunctionalinanothersense5.Whatisschemata图式?Whatroledoesitplayinthetextinterpretation?ItisbelievedthatSCHEMATA,meaningpacketsofstoredknowledge,playanimportantroleinlanguageprocessing.Therearevariouscharacteristics特性,特征oflanguageprocessingwhichindicatethekeyroleplayedbyschematicandotherstoredknowledge.Forexample,languagecomprehensionfrequentlyrequiresustogofarbeyondtheliteralmeaningsofthesentenceswereadorhear.Essentialinformationisoftenonlyimplied,sothatitisnecessarytodrawinferencesinordertounderstandfullywhatisintended.16\nGrossaryarbitrariness任意barrier障碍物characteristics特性,特征coexisting共存conceptually概念地constituent要素convention习俗,惯例convey通知；通报；传达derivation来历,出处designfeatures结构特征determinate确定的diachronic历时displacement移位duality两重性endowed捐赠,赋予erect竖起facilitate促进hierarchically分等级的.identical同一的,同样的illocutionaryact话中行为，施为行为，言外之意immediateconstituent成分，要素analysis（IC）impair削弱inregardto关于intermsof根据inadequacy不充分inherent固有的,内在的,与生俱来的innovation创新literal照字面上的locutionaryact发话行为locution说话风格negativetransfer负迁移orinterferenceonomatopoeia拟声,拟声法,象声词paradigmaticrelation聚合关系perlocutionaryact言后行为piecemeal零碎的predicate[5predikit]谓词presumably可能，大概，推测起来prevail盛行proceed进行,继续下去16\nproperty性质,特性punch驱动recursiveness递推,循环reference涵义意思或含义reliability(信度)representation表示法,表现rheme表位,述位schemata图式signified(所指，意味,意义)（concept）signifier（能指）(soundimage语音映像))stem滋生synchronic共时syntagmaticrelationship(组合关系)thematic(主题的)theme主题Transformational-Generative(TG)grammar转换生成语法underlying在下面的unrestrained无限制的utterance说话validity（测验效度）-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ablative离格,夺格accusative宾格acoustic声学allomorph词素变体anatomy解剖学anthropologicalstudyoflinguistics语言学的人类学研究anthropological人类学的anthropology人类学articulatory发音auditory听觉connotative内涵的consonantalsound辅音dative与格denotative外延的dualistic二元的gender性genitive属格lexical词汇的lexicon词汇metalingual元语言的16\nmonistic一元论的morpheme形态素,词素morphemic词素的morphological形态学的morphologic词素的morphology形态学morpho-phonemiccomponent形态音位成分morphophonology形态音位学ormorphophonemics词素音位学.nominative主格paradigm（名词、动词的）词形变化phonematicunits音声单位.phoneme音素phonetic(语音学的)phonetics语音学phonological音位的phonologic音系phonology音系学physiology生理学pragmatic语用的psycholinguistics语言心理学psychology心理学psychometric心理测量学的semantics语义学semantic语义的semiotics记号语言学sociolinguisticstudyoflanguage语言的社会语言学sociolinguisticstudyofsociety社会的社会语言学sociological社会学的stylistics文体修辞学syllabic音节的syntactic句法的vocative呼格16