新编简明英语语言学教程 22页

---Linguistics：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.GeneralLinguistics：ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.language：Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumanmunication.DesignFeatures：Itreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofmunication.Linguistics：Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Thescopeoflinguistics：Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticmunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedinmunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarebinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）1.宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2.窄式音标NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4.浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorseveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it’sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8.音位变体AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.9.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it’saspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10.最小对立对Minimalpair-.可修编.\n---Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12.互补分布plementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeinplementarydistribution.13.语言的语音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumanmunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.14.爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]1.词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2.自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3.黏着词素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbebinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4.词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.5.词缀AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6.曲折词缀inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7.派生词缀DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.8.词干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9.形态学规则MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10.前缀PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes‘be-‘and‘en(m)-‘11.后缀Suffix-.可修编.\n---Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.1.句子sentenceAstructurallyindependentunitthatusuallyprisesanumberofwordstoformapletestatement,questionormand.2.语言运用LinguisticpetenceThesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.3.谓语PredicateThepartofasentencewhichprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.4.定式子句FiniteClauseAclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.5.从属子句EmbeddedClause(EC)Inapletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.6.主要子句MatrixClauseInaplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.7.层次结构HierarchicalstructureThesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.8.语法关系GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.9.句法类型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.10.表层结构S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.11.深层结构D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.12.普遍语法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.13.移动α规则MoveαAgeneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.14.句法移位SyntacticmovementSyntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.15.转换原则TransformationrulesSyntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.16.X标杆理论X-bartheoryAgeneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoa-.可修编.\n---singleformat:X”→（Spec）X(pl).1.命名论ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2.意念论TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.heraretwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.5.意义SenseIt’sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It’sthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.6.所指意义ReferenceItmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.7.同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.8.多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.9.同音(形)异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.10.同音异义HomophonesItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.11.同形异义HomographsItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.12.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamore-.可修编.\n---specificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.13.反义词AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.14.成分分析法ponentialAnalysis----分析词汇抽象意义It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningponents,calledsemanticfeatures.15.述谓结构分析PredicationAnalysis由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantmoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,mandsect.通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。16.先设前提PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.17.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.1.语境ContextThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,it’sgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.2.言语行为理论SpeechacttheoryIt’sanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.it’saphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticmunication.itaimstoanswerthequestion”whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Theconceptofcausativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,theperlocutionaryactandthe5categoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.3.叙述句ConstativesConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruth-value.;4.行为句PerformativesPerformativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.5.言内行为LocutionaryAct-.可修编.\n---Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.it’stheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.6.言外行为IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionit’stheactperformedinsayingsomething.7.言后行为PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.8.句子意义SentencemeaningItreferstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstractintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.9.话语意义UtterancemeaningItreferstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofmunication,itbeesandutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered.10.合作原则CooperativePrincipleIt’sproposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate,otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.11.会话含义ConversationalimplicaturesAccordingtoP.Grice,itreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedinthutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sLangue和parole的区别⑵U.S.AlinguistN.ChomskyN.Chomskyin1950针对Saussure’slangue&parole提出petence和performance⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofmunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Hall----languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumansmunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.⑷U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockettCharlesHockett----designfeatures1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.-.可修编.\n---2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics—descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology—descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning.4.what’saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?Minimalpair—twosoundbinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundbinationswiththeabovefeature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.有序规则SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthebinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby’copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略规则Deletionrule-.可修编.\n---It’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。1.语用学的几个重要的理论⑴言语行为理论Speechacttheory由英国哲学家JohnAustin在20世纪50年代末提出⑵会话原则CP逻辑哲学家PaulGrice提出;2.合作原则的准则4MaximofCooperativePrinciple数量themaximofQuantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired质量themaximofQuality-----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Donotsaywhatyoubelievetofalse.Donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence关系themaximofrelation-----使你的话与话题相关berelevant方式themaximofmanner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguity;Bebrief/beorderly.3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家JohnSearle对言外行为分成了5类阐述性Representatives---tomitthespeakertosomething’sbeingtheCase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.例词:stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing最有代表性,指令性Directives---areattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.例词:inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering是特有实例承诺性missives---whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderobligation.例词:promising,undertaking,vowing最典型表达类Expressives---thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs.例词:apologizing,thanking,congratulating宣告类Declarations---thesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.4.Semantics和Pragmatics的区分Pragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofmunication.Thebasicdifferencebetweenthemisthatpragmaticsconsidersmeaningincontext,traditionalsemanticsstudiesmeaninginisolationfromthecontextofuse.5.语境中听者与说话者sharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:Theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticmunicationistakingplace.6.Sentencemeaning与Utterancemeaning的区别Sentencemeaning---abstract,decontextualized.-.可修编.\n---Utterancemeaning---concrete,contextualizedit’sbasedonsentencemeaning,it’stherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofmunication,orsimplyinacontext.区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。7.Whilemostutterancestaketheformofsentences,i.e.mostutterancesarepletesentencesIntermsofsyntax,someutterancesarenot,andsomecan’tevenberestoredtopletesentences1.描述变化的本质characterizedthenatureoflanguagechangeAlllivinglanguageschangewithtime.languagechangeisnotonlyuniversalandinevitable,butalsosystematic,extensive,on-going,andgradual.Languagechangeisarule-governedbehavior,involvingallponentsofthegrammar.2.语言变化的原因listthemajorcausesoflanguagechangeSoundassimilation,Rulesimplificationandinternalborrowing与语法变化有关⑴语音同化SoundassimilationAssimilativeprocessesarephonologicalchangesduetophysiologicalmechanisms.italsoinvolvesvowelnasalizationandmorphologicalandlexicalchanges.⑵规则简化RulesimplificationIt’satypeofspontaneousmorphologicalrulechangeinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.thesamekindofanalogicchangeisexemplifiedbytheregularizationofsomeborrowedwordswhosepluralformationruleisdifferentfromtheregularenglish.⑶内部借用InternalBorrowingIt’smotivatedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemoryiscalledinternalborrowing.itrepresentsacontinualreadjustmentofalanguage’sgrammaticalsystemasitdevelopsfromonestateofequilibriumtoanother.⑷规则细化ElaborationItoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasemunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.⑸社会因素Socialtriggers⑹文化转移Culturaltransmission⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar.Agenerallyacceptedviewamonglanguageacquisitionscholarsisthatchildrenacquiretheirnativelanguagenotthroughformalinstrucationofgrammaticalrules,theyoftenconstructtheirpersonalinformationtheyhear.13.通用语LinguaFranca和洋泾浜语Pidgin的区别⑴Pidginisusedforsomepracticalpurposes,suchastrading,bygroupsofpeoplewhodonotknoweachother’slangauge.LinguaFrancamayhavenativespeakerssuchasEnglish,⑵Pidginisnotanativelanguageofaparticularregion,butsimplyamarginallanguageused-.可修编.\n---bypeoplewhoseculturesaresharplyseparatedandwhoesbusinesscontactisveryspecialized.10.法国外科医生Broca是第一个证明damagetoaspecificareaofthebrainresultsinaspeechproductiondeficit.11.德国内科医生CarlWernicke在1874发表的论文假设therewasmorethanonelanguageareaintheleftbrain.12.AngulargyrusliesbehindWernicke’sarea.thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,fortheprehensionofwrittenlanguageandrequireconnectionsbetweenvisualandspeechorgans.13.Whenwelisten,thewordisheardandprehendedviaWernicke’sarea.14.Thecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromabouttwotopuberty.定义！！15.Lenneberg的推断，推出了Cerebralplasticity.17.早期学者针对语言和思想的观点⑴Platosuggestedthatthoughtwasthesoul’sdiscoursewithitself.柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。⑵Aristotle,whoarguedthatmankindcouldnothavethesamelanguagesandthatlanguageswerebutsignsofpsychologicalexperiences.亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。Thedebatebetweenthem,onebeingmentalist,otherempiricist.两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。⑶Watson,thinkinginvolvedthesamemotoractivitiesusedinspeaking,Bloomfield,thinkingwasasystemofmovementsthathadbeenreducedfromactualspeechtothepointwheretheywerenolongervisible.美国的Watson承袭了Plato的观点，Bloomfield提出了近似的观点。三、问答题1.inwhatcorticalregionsarespeechandlanguagethoughttobelocalized?InwhathaveetobeknownasBroca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandangulargyrus,alllocatedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.2.howInyouropiniondoeslanguagerelatethoughtandculture?Languagedoesn’tdeterminethewaythespeakerperceivestheworld,butlargelyfunctionsasameansbywhichinformationcanbestoredandreceived,bywhichaculturetransmitsitsbelief,valuesandnorms,andbywhichthespeakerinteractsothermembersofthecultures.3.Describetheprocessesoflanguageperception,prehensionandproduction.It’sbeenproposedthatthebrainactivityinvolvedinhearing,understandingandthensayingawordwouldfollowadefinitepattern,-.可修编.\n---whenwelisten,thewordisheardandprehendedviaWernicke’sarea,thissignalisthentransferredtoBroca’sareawherepreparationsaremadetoproduceit.Asignalisthensenttothemotorareacontrollingthevocaltracttophysicallyarticulatetheword.Whenwespeak,wordsaredrawnfromWernicke’sareaandsenttoBroca’sareawhichdeterminesthedetailsoftheirformandpronunciation.Theappropriateinstructionsarethensenttothemotorarea.Interferencefromthemothertongue:Mothertongueinterferenceisfoundatthelevelofpronunciation,morphology,syntax,vocabularyandmeaning,andcanbepredicatedbycontrastingthegrammaticalorothersystemsofthenativeandtargetlanguages.Interlingualinterference:Interlingualinterference，orcross-association,occurswhenthelearnermixesrulesandpatternsofthetargetlanguageandproducehybridstructures.Overgeneralization：Theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations,i.e.theapplicationofaparticularpatternorruleofthetargetlanguageinmanyotherlinguisticsituations二、问答题1.whyisthewordorderinModernEnglishmorerigidthanthatinOldEnglish?BecauseinModernEnglishtherearenolongertheelaboratemorphologicalsystemusedinOldEnglish,suchasthecasemarkingsystem,tohelptoindicategrammaticalrelations.therefore,itisnolongerpossibletoidentifythefunctionalrolesofnounsbytheirinflectionalendings.Thefunctionalnotionsofsubjectandobjecthavetobeindicatedlargelybythesyntacticpositionofnounsinalinearorder,resultinginasystemwithstricterconstraintsonwordorder.2.whatfeaturesoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,prehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Languageisarule-governedsystem.Languageisbasicallyvocal.Languageisarbitrary.Languageisusedforhumanmunication.3.what’sBroca’sareaandwhatwillhappenifanydamageisinflicteduponit?⑴In1861,aFrenchsurgeonandanatomistPaulBrocadiscoveredthatsomewhereinthefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemispherehadsomethingtodowithspeechdifficulty.thisplaceisknownasBroca’sarea.⑵Anydamagetositesintheleftcerebralhemispherewillresultinapatient’slanguagedisorder,whereasdestructionofcorrespondingsitesintherighthemisphereleavelinguisticcapacitiesintact.⑶Thereforeifanydamageisinflicteduponthisarea,itwillresultinwordfindingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.-.可修编.\n---4.satebrieflyyourunderstandingofthedifferencesbetweenthetermacquisitionandthetermlearninginlanguageacquisitionstudy?⑴ThedistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearningwasproposedbytheAmericanSLAscholarStephenKrashenontheassumptionthattheyaredifferentprocesses.⑵Acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailymunicativesituations.⑶Learningisdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.⑷It’srecognizedthatchildrenacquiredtheirnativelanguagewithoutexplicitlearning,whichasecondlanguageismoremonlylearnedbuttosomedegreemayalsobeacquired,dependingontheenvironmentalsettingandtheinputreceivedbytheL2learner.⑸Arulecanbelearnedbeforeitisinternalized(i.e.acquired),buthavinglearnedaruledoesnotnecessarilyprecludehavingtoacquireitlater.5.suprasegmentalfeatures?howdoesitfunctioninconveyingmeaning?⑴thephonologicalfeaturesthatoccurabovethesoundsegmentallevelarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.⑵themajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishincludeswordstress,sentencestressandintonation.⑶Thesuprasegmentalfeaturesdistinguishmeaning.超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。超切分特征区分意义。6.whatisthenatureoflanguagechangeinhistoricallinguistics?语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？⑴languagechangeisinevitable.⑵asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuous,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.⑶languagechangeisextensive,takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar—inphonology,morphology,syntax,lexiconandsemantics.⑷whenlanguagechangeisinprogress,phonemes,morphemes,words,andgrammaticalrulesmaybeborrowed,added,lost,oraltered,andmeanwhile,themeaningofindividuallexicalitemsorstringsofwordsmayexpand,narrow,orshift.7.What’sthedifferencebetweentheinstrumentalmotivationandtheintegrativemotivationofthelearner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？⑴usually,adultsaremotivatedtolearnasecondlanguagebecauseofamunicativeneed,theymaylearnasecondlanguageinordertouseitfunctionallywhentheyintendtouseitasaninstrumentforthepurpose.⑵incertainsituationsanintegrativemotivationmaybemorepowerfulinfacilitationsmaycountformore.⑶whenthetargetlanguagefunctionsasaforeignlanguage,thelearnerislikelytobenefitfromanintegrativemotivation;-.可修编.\n---⑷butwhenthetargetlanguagefunctionsasasecondlanguage,aninstrumentalmotivationismoreeffective.8.词素的类别和使用HowmanymorphemesarethereintheEnglishlanguage?statewhattheyareandillustratehowtheywork?⑴therearetwo:freeandboundmorphemes.⑵freemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.⑶boundmorphemesarethosethatcantbeusedindependentlybuthavetobinedwithothermorphemes.⑷eitherfreeorbound,toformaword,itincludes2types:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword,itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning,itmustbebinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.⑸Affixesaremorphemesthatareaddedtoanalreadyexistingmorphemetoformanewwordwhilechangingitsmeaningandgrammaticalrelations.itconsistsofbothinflectionalandderivationalaffixes,音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explainwithexamples3notionsofphone,phonemeandallophone,howtheyarerelated.⑴Aphoneisaspeechsound,itisaphoneticunit.anysoundwehearinthecourseofmunicationisaphone,suchas[u:],[l];⑵Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,it’snotaconcretesoundbutanabstractnotion,it’sacollectionoffeatures.itcanberealizedasdifferentphonesindifferentphoneticcontexts.Suchas,thephoneme[l]canberealizedasaclear[l]oradark[l],dependingonwhereitoccursinasoundbination.⑶Theactuallyphoneticrealizationofaphonemearecalleditsallophones,allophonesaretheactualphoneswehearinlinguisticmunication.1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study? 语言学X畴内容知识 Phonetics----it‘s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it‘s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.  Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.  Morphology---It‘s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.  -.可修编.\n---Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.  Semantics---It‘s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.  Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.  Others 非考试要求内容  2.why do we say language is arbitrary?  Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.  The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it‘s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance.  A typical example to illustrate the ‗arbitrariness‘ of language is ‗a rose by any other name would smell as sweet‘.  3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?  Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。  traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on‘ high‘ written language.  传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。  4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why  Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.  现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。  5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?  Speech enjoys for the following reasons:  ⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.  -.可修编.\n---⑵A large amount of munication is carried out in speech than in writing.  ⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.  6.how is Saussure‘s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky‘s ?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study  Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, petence is a property of the mind of each individual.  6.the distinction between langue and parole?  ⑴langue is abstract, relatively stable ⑵parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.    1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.   2/ The scope of linguistics（同问答题第一题） 语言学的研究X畴 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学) The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic munication, is called phonetics.（语音学） The study of how sounds are put together and used in munication is called phonology. （音位学） The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学） The study of how morphemes and words are bined to form sentences is called syntax（句法学） The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学） -.可修编.\n---The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound?  Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.  Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.  Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.  发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。  听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。  声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。  2.how are the English consonants classified?    By place of articulation and By manner of articulation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? why?  语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?  Phonetics —description of all speech sounds and their find differences.  Phonology —description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish  meaning.  A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos      4.书上2.3.2   what‘s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?  -.可修编.\n---Phone—a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.  Phoneme---a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit.  Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.  5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal set in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?  Minimal pair—two sound binations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.  除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.  Minimal set—a group of sound binations with the above feature.  一组具有上述特征的语音组合.  By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes.  通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences.  ⑴the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind  ⑵Mary promised John to see the doctor. 1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English?  Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings.  The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of nouns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order.   -.可修编.\n---2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, prehensive definition of language?  Language is a rule-governed system.  Language is basically vocal.  Language is arbitrary.  Language is used for human munication.  3.what‘s Broca‘s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it?  ⑴In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as Broca’s area.  ⑵Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient’s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact.  ⑶Therefore if any damage is inflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax.  4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study?  ⑴The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the American SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes.  ⑵Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily municative situations.  ⑶-.可修编.\n---Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.  ⑷It’s recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more monly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2learner. ⑸A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later.  5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning?  ⑴ the phonological features that occur above the sound segmental level are called suprasegmental features.  ⑵the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation.  ⑶ The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning.  超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。  主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。  超切分特征区分意义。  6.what is the nature of language change in historical linguistics?  语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？  ⑴language change is inevitable.  ⑵as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.  ⑶language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar—in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantics.  ⑷-.可修编.\n---when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift.  7.What’s the difference between the instrumental motivation and the integrative motivation of the learner’s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？  ⑴usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a municative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose.     ⑵in certain situations an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more.  ⑶when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation;  ⑷but when the target language functions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective.  8.词素的类别和使用How many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work?  ⑴there are two: free and bound morphemes.  ⑵free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.  ⑶bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to bined with other morphemes.  ⑷either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types:  -.可修编.\n---A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must be bined with another root  or an affix to form a word.  ⑸Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes,  9.语言的两种功能two functions of language?  Two major functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal munication.  人际交流和自我交流  ⑴ language functions as a means of interpersonal munication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each other’s behavior.  ⑵ it functions as a means of intrapersonal munication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual.  10.为什么说结构树形图比线形图可更好的说明句子的层次性？why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic elements?  ⑴in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.  线形结构无法解释或说明有歧义的句子。  ⑵-.可修编.\n---for example, the phrase ”the old men and women” may have two interpretation. The adject ”old” may modify the noun ”men ”,or the “women”. or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it’s ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.  11.音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.  ⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of munication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];  ⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it’s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound bination.  ⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic munication.-.可修编.