人文知识语言学部分 20页

语言学知识一、基本框架语言学的研究主要包括两个方面：1．对语言本身的研究2．对语言和其他学科的交叉研究1)phoneticsphonology1.generallinguistics2)morphology3)syntax(thecoreoflinguistics)4)semanticslinguistics5)pragmatics2.sociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguageinsocialcontextspsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemindappliedlinguistics:thestudyoflinguistictheoriesinrelationtolanguageteaching(inanarrowsense)…二、基本概念language1.language:asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(语言是人类用来交际的具有任意性的语音符号体系。)2.designfeatures(语言的结构/普遍特征)（proposedbyAmericanlinguist,CharlesHockett）:refertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.(指人类语言所具有的那些能将其与任何一种动物信息交流方法区别开来的本质性的特征。)larbitrariness(任意性):Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.lproductivity（多产性）:Languageiscreative.Mancanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.lduality:twolevels:thesoundlevel---meaningless;thegrammaticallevel---meaningful.（二重性：无意义的语音和有意义的单位的组合；语言系统有两个结构：语音结构和语义结构）\nldisplacement（移位）:Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.(语言可被用来指已脱离说话人直指环境的语境)lculturaltransmission（文化传递）:thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedlinguistics1.linguistics:isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.thecoreoflinguistics:3.thebeginningofmodernlinguistics:markedbythepublication(1916)ofF.deSaussure’sbookCourseinGeneralLinguisticsintheearly20thcentury.4.twomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication:speechandwriting5.someimportantdistinctionstwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudyprescriptive(规定性研究):Thelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviourinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatheyshouldnotsay.descriptive（描述性研究）:Thelinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse。lModernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.synchronic(共时研究):Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy.(以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象)diachronic（历时研究）:Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.（研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究其历史发展规律）lInmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.speechwritinglLinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageinsteadofthewrittenlanguage.twoaspectsoflanguagelangue（语言）:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity(言语社团的成员所共知的语言体系).Itisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby.Itisabstractandrelativelystable.parole（言语）:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Itistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Itisconcreteandvaried.\nlThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.competence(语言能力):theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageperformance（语言运用）:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationlSimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’scompetence.Thetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifytherulesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguage.lButtheydifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.traditionalgrammar（传统语法）:modernlinguistics（现代语言学）:lModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways:1)Modernlinguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.2)Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Whileincaseoftraditionalgrammar,viceversa.3)ModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.三、重要分类四、重要理论及代表人物\nTheoriesandSchoolsofModernLinguistics(现代语言学理论和学派)SchoolsRepresentativesTheoriesandConcepts1./SaussurelConceptofarbitrarinesslDistinctionsbetween:langue&parolesynchronic&diachronicsyntagmatic¶digmatic(组合关系&聚合关系)2.ThePragueSchool(布拉格学派)/lPhonologyandPhonologicalOppositions(音系学和音位对位)lFunctionalSentencePerspective（FSP）(句子功能前景)3.TheLondonSchool（伦敦学派）Firthlmeaningisuseandconceptofcontextofsituation(语境)lmethodofprosodicanalysis(韵律分析),calledprosodicphonology(韵律音系学)HallidaylSystematic-FunctionalGrammar(系统功能语法)4.AmericanStructuralism(美国结构主义学派)---abranchofsynchroniclinguistics(共时语言学一个分支)BloomfieldlBehaviourismChomskylTransformational-GenerativeGrammar(转换生成语法)lDistinctionbetween:competence&performancePhonetics\n1.definitionPhoneticsisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.Itstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-makingandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.(研究发音特征，提供对其进行描述、分类和标音的方法)2.thescopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,andthuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics.larticulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)Itstudieshowaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Itexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(研究语音的产生方式)lauditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.Itlooksintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.（从听者的感受的角度来研究通过耳、听觉神经和大脑传递的对言语声音的知觉反应）lacousticphonetics（声学语音学）Itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.Itstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Itanalyzesthesoundpitch,intensity,durationandtimber.(音高、音强、音长和音色)3.threeimportantareaofthearticulatoryapparatuslthepharyngealcavity---thethroatltheoralcavity---themouthlthenasalcavity---thenose4.astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.5.twowaystotranscribespeechsounds\nlbroadtranscriptionlnarrowtranscription6.classificationofEnglishspeechsoundslvowelslconsonantsobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract(发音器官是否碰在一起，气流有无阻碍)7.classificationofEnglishconsonants(twoways)1)intermsofmannerofarticulationstops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasals,glides(semivowels)2)intermsofplaceofarticulationbilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal8.classificationofEnglishvowelsVowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors1)thepositionofthetongueinthemouthfrontvowels,centralvowels,backvowels2)theopennessofthemouthclosevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,openvowels3)theshapeofthelipsroundedvowels,unroundedvowels4)thelengthofthevowelslongvowels,shortvowelsPhonologyPhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.1.phone:isaphoneticunitorsegment.(音素)2.phoneme:isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.（音位）3.allophone:thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme（音位变体）4.Oneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindouttheruleswhichgovernthechoiceofanallophone.5.phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways\nlphonemiccontrastIftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyformaphonemiccontrast.lcomplementarydistributionIftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,(theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments),theycomplementeachotherindistribution.2.minimalpairs(最小对立体)Tofindoutthedistinctivesounds,thecustomarypracticeistotrytofindminimalpairs---wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesoundwhichoccursinthesameplace.3.somerulesinphonologylsequentialruleslassimilationruleldeletionrule4.suprasegmentalfeatureslstressltonelintonationMorphology1.Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.(研究单词的内部构造和单词构成的规则)2.openclasswords:contentwords;newwordscanbeadded(nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbsclosedclasswords:theirmembershipisfixedorlimited(conj.,prep.,articles,pron.)3.morpheme:theminimalunitsofmeaning;thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent(最低一级的语法单位)4.typesofmorphemelfreemorpheme:onethatmayconstituteawordbyitselflboundmorpheme（粘着词素）:onethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorphemeaffix\na.derivationalmorpheme(派生词素):prefix,suffix,infix(feet,geese)b.inflectionalmorpheme（屈折词素）:grammaticalmarkers(-ed,-ing,-s,-er,-est)root:commit,permit,submit;workshop,workman,worktimestem:friends,friendships2.word-formation:theprocessesofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationshipslderivationlcompoundlblendinglclippinglinitialSyntax1.syntax:isabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.category:referstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguage(范畴：指在形式、功能、或意义上有不同特点的语法项目的类别)3.syntacticcategory（thisclassificationreflectsavarietyoffactors）lthetypeofmeaningthatwordsexpresslthetypeofaffixesthattheytakelthetypeofstructuresinwhichtheycanoccur4.word-levelcategory(themostcentralcategorytothesyntacticstudy)1)traditionalgrammarleightcategories(partsofspeech)2)modernlinguisticslmajorlexicalcategorieslminorlexicalcategories5.threecriteriausedtodetermineaword’scategorylmeaninglinflectionldistribution(morereliablecriterion)6.phrasecategories\n1)phrases:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryNP,VP,AP,PP2)Phrasecategories’structures(threeelements)specifier(标志语)---head---complement*7.phrasestructurerule(短语结构规则)phrasestructurerule:thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseltheXPrule:XP(specifier)X(complement)lXˉtheory:a.XP(specifier)Xˉb.XˉX(complement)lCoordinationrule:XX*ConX8.Sentences(theSrule)TheSrule:SNPVP(SV)9.transformationtransformational-generativegrammar(转换生成语法)：1957提出的语法研究模式，认为语言形式是人脑中的一些深层结构通过一系列转换规则衍生而来。其主要内容是短语结构规则和转换规则。10.deepstructure:ItisformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties.(体现句子各部分之间结构关系)11.surfacestructure:Itcorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations.（是深层结构通过转换规则后得到的最后的结果：实际说出的句子）Semantics1.semantics:thestudyofmeaninginlanguage*2.someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaninglthenamingtheoryltheconceptualistviewlcontextualismlbehaviorism3.lexicalmeaning\ntworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaninglsense(意义):isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform;itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized(关于语言形式的内部意义，是语言形式所有特点的集合)lreference（所指）:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld(语言形式在现实世界中所指代的事物)Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.4.majorsenserelations1)synonymy:thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningsynonym:wordsthatarecloseinmeaningldialectalsynonyms---synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectslstylisticsynonyms---synonymsdifferinginstylelsynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaninglcollocationalsynonymslsemanticallydifferentsynonyms2)polysemy:thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaningpolysemicword3)homonymy:referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,insoundorspelling,orinbothhomophone:homograph:completehomonym:4).hyponymy:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralandamorespecificwordsuperordinate:hyponym:co-hyponym:5).antonymy:oppositenessofmeaninglgradableantonymlcomplementaryantonymlrelationalopposite*6.senserelationsbetweensentences\nlXissynonymouswithYlXisinconsistentwithYlXentailsYlXpresupposesYlXisacontradictionlXissemanticallyanomalous7.analysisofmeaninglcomponentialanalysis---awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningItdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofmeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatureslpredicationanalysis---awaytoanalyzesentencemeaningThemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.pragmatics1.definition2.Thebranchofpragmaticswasmainlyestablishedanddevelopedinthe1960sand1970s.3.topicstudied:deixis,speechacts,indirectlanguage,conversation,politeness,cross-culturalcommunication,presupposition4.Pragmaticsvs.semantics:whetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered5.context:thesharedknowledgebetweenthespeakerandthehearer6.sentencemeaning:themeaningisabstract,anddecontextualizedutterancemeaning:themeaningisconcrete,andcontext-dependent*Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.7.speechacttheory:thespeaker,whenutteringasentence,maybealsoperformingactionsItisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustinthelate50’softhe20thcentury.8.Aspeakermightbeperformingthree(speech)actssimultaneouslywhenspeaking.\nllocutionaryact(言内行为):theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.lillocutionaryact（言外行为）:theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.Itistheactperformedinsayingsomethinglperlocutionaryact（言后行为）:theeffectoftheutterance*Ofthethreespeechacts,itistheillocutionaryactthathasbeenstudiedmost,becausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeakersintention.9.Searle’sclassificationofspeechactsInthe1960’sand1970’s,theAmericanphilosopherlinguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivecategories.lRepresentative（阐述类）lDirectives（指令类）lCommissives（承诺类）lExpressives（表达类）lDeclarations（宣告类）10.principleofconversationTheAmericanphilosopherandlogicianPaulGriceholdstheviewthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldbeimpossibletocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple.(合作原则)FourmaximsundertheCPlThemaximofquantitylThemaximofqualitylThemaximofrelationlThemaximofmanner11.conversationalimplicature当说话人公然不执行某一条准则，且让听话者也知道他在违反某一准则，这时便有可能产生会话含义，这时说话人有意通过违反准则让对方体会到言外之意。\nLanguagechange1.thehistoryoftheEnglishlanguage(threeperiods)lOldEnglish(450---1100/1150)BeowulflMiddleEnglish(1100/1150---1500)GeoffreyChaucer(1340~1400)lModernEnglish(1500---1700---1800,1900---now)WilliamShakespeare(1564~1616)2.soundchange3.morphologicalandsyntacticchangeItisaprocessofsimplification.4.vocabularychange1)additionofnewwordslcoinagelclippedwordslblendinglacronymslback-formationlfunctionalshiftlborrowing/loanword2)lossofwords3)changesinthemeaningofwordslwideningofmeaninglnarrowingofmeaninglmeaningshift*4.somerecenttrendslmovingtowardsgreaterinformalityltheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishltheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology5.causesoflanguagechangelthedevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyltheadvancementofwoman’sstatuslthewaychildrenacquirethelanguageleconomymemory/linguisticlazinessltheoryofleasteffortl…\nLanguageandsociety1.sociolinguisticsItisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.*2.speechcommunity(言语社团)Thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Forgenerallinguistics,aspeechcommunityisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyofalanguage.Forsociolinguistics,aspeechcommunityisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhodoinfacthavetheopportunitytointeractwitheachotherandwhosharenotjustasinglelanguagewithitsrelatedvarietiesbutalsoattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.1.speechvariety/languagevariety(言语变体)Itreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.2.linguisticfeaturesofaspeechvarietycanbefoundata)thelexicallevelofthelanguageb)thephonologicallevelofthelanguagec)themorphologicallevelofthelanguaged)thesyntacticallevelofthelanguage3.threetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterestlregionaldialectslsociolectslregisters*6.twoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies1)macro-sociolinguistics/thesociologyoflanguage2)micro-sociolinguistics/sociolinguisticsproper7.varietiesoflanguageVarietiesrelatedtotheuserarenormallyknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatedtouseasregisters.\n1)dialectalvarietieslregionaldialectlsociolect（socialstatus/class）a.languageandgenderb.languageandagec.ethnicdialectlidiolect2)registersManysociolinguistshavetriedtoworkoutmodelstodescribetherelationshipbetweensocialvariablesandlinguisticfeatures.Awell-knownoneofthesemodelsistheBritishlinguistHalliday’sregistertheory.“Languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.（由于交际场合情景不同而产生的不同程度的语言变体）threesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister(thefeaturesofthecontextofsituation)lfieldofdiscourse（话语范围）ltenorofdiscourse（话语体式/意旨）lmodeofdiscourse（话语方式）3)degreeofformalityfivestagesofformality(distinguishedbyAmericanlinguistMartinJoos)lintimatelcasuallconsultativelformallfrozenDifferentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological8.standarddialectItisaparticularvarietyofalanguageinthatitisnotrelatedtoanyparticulargroupoflanguageusers,butitisthevarietywhichanymemberofaspeechcommunitycanpossiblyuseregardlessofhissocialandgeographicalbackgrounds,hisgenderandage.\nItisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions.Itistheofficialornationallanguageofacountry.*featuresofthestandardvarietylItisbasedonaselectedvarietyofthelanguage,usuallyitisthelocalspeechofanareawhichisconsideredthenation’spoliticalandcommercialcenter.lItisnotadialectachildacquiresnaturallylikehisregionaldialect.Itisasuperimposedvariety.1.pidgin(洋泾滨语)Itisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.讲不同语言的社团在交际过程中产生的一种共同使用的但交际者又未将其作为本族语的语言。2.creole（克里奥耳语）Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeacreole.3.bilingualism（双语现象）Itreferstothefactthattwolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.4.diglossia（双言制）Inadiglossicsituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.两种截然不同的变体存在于社会中，每种有其不同的地位和作用。其中一种仅用于正式和公共场合，而另一种则是每个人在正常的日常生活中使用。二者在使用场合上各有分工，极少交叉。Languageandculture1.cultureInabroadsense,itmeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople.Inanarrowsense,itmayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.2.twotypesofculturelmaterialculture:concrete,substantial,observablelspiritualculture:abstract,ambiguous,hidden3.therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture1)adialecticalrelationship2)Languageispartofaculture\n1.Sapir-whorfHypothesis(alsoknownaslinguisticrelativity)(proposedbyAmericanlinguistsSapirandWhorf)Languagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.语言决定或影响人的思维方式和行为。6.Anylinguisticsignmaybesimultaneouslyofthreekindsofmeanings.所有的语言符号都存在三种意义。lDenotative(指示的)lConnotative（引申的，内涵的）lIconic（图象的）7.linguisticimperialismItisakindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworld-wideexpansionofonelanguage.linguisticnationalismSomecountriesadoptspeciallanguagepolicytoprotectthepurityoftheirlanguages.8.interculturalcommunicationItisalsoknownascross-culturalcommunication.Itiscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.LanguageAcquisition1.languageacquisitionItreferstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.2.threetheoriesofchildlanguageacquisitionlbehaviorismlinnatismlinteractionismLanguageAcquisitionDevice（LAD，proposedbyChomsky）UniversalGrammar(UG):Chomsky认为人脑的初始状态应包括人类一切语言共同具有的特点（所有语言具有共同的语言结构）。语言那研究的目的就是寻找普遍语法。*3.cognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment(intwoways)lLanguagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.\nlThecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses4.CriticalPeriodHypothesis（proposedbyAmericanneurolinguististEricLenneberg）LADworkssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime.Thereisaspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.5.stagesofchildren’slanguagedevelopment1)phonologicaldevelopment2)vocabularydevelopmentlUnder-extension（扩展不足）lOver-extension（过度扩展）3）grammaticaldevelopment4)pragmaticdevelopment*6.atypicaldevelopment(abnormallanguagedevelopment)Itmayoccurduetotraumaorinjury.lhearingimpairment（听力损伤）lmentalretardation（智力缺陷）lautism（孤独症）lstuttering（口吃）laphasia（失语症）ldyslexia（朗读困难）ldysgraphia（书写困难）secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)1.secondlanguageacquisition(1970s)Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.是指在母语之后对于第二语言进行的系统学习。2.interlanguageItreferstothesystematicknowledgeoftheL2whichisindependentofboththeselearners’L1andthetargetlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.自行创造的独特的语言系统，介于母语和目的语之间，并随学习的进展逐渐向目的语靠拢。既有第一语言的特征，又有第二语言特征的语言系统。Nowithasbeenwidelyusedtorefertothelinguisticexpressionslearnersproduceespeciallythewrongornotidiomaticones.3.threeimportantcharacteristicsofinterlanguage\nlsystematicitylpermeabilitylfossilizationFossilizationisaprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.Thatis,L2learnersstoplearningwhiletheirinternalizedrulesystemcontainsrulesdifferentfromthoseofthetargetsystem1.contrastiveanalysis(CA)(in1960s)Itisasetofproceduresforcomparingandcontrastingthelinguisticsystemsoftwolanguages(thenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage)(esp.themothertongueandthesecondlanguage)inordertoidentifytheirstructuralsimilaritiesanddifferences.2.erroranalysisItinvolvesasetofproceduresfor,firstindependentlyorobjectively,identifyinganddescribingthelearner’sinterlanguage,comparingthetwo(targetlanguageandinterlanguage)tolocatemismatches,andthenexplainingerrorsinlearners’language.3.twomainsortsoferrors1)interlingualerrors(语际错误，受母语影响的错误)Theymainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursal,etc.2)intralingualerrors（语内错误）Theymainlyresultfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage,amongwhichovergeneralizationorcross-associationhavebeenwellexploited.4.errors:Theyaredefinedasunintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner.Theysuggestfailureincompetence.mistakes:Theyaredefinedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible.Theysuggestfailureinperformance.5.languagetransfer:Learners’useofpriorlinguisticinformation(chieflyhismothertongue)orsomephysicallycarryoverofnativelanguagesurfacetoasecondlanguagecontext.6.positivetransfer:LearnerswillhavenodifficultyinlearningL2patternswhenthesearethesameorsimilarasL1patterns.negativetransfer(interference):Thepatternsofthelearner’smothertonguethataredifferentfromthoseoftheL2aregettinginthewayoflearningtheL2.\n*10.nurture:Thebehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement.Thisisa“nurture”position.nature:Thementalistsortheinnativistsshiftedtoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeings,equippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice(LAD),arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequateinput.11.InputHypothesisAmericanlinguististKrashenputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceiving“comprehensibleinput”.Byprovidingcomprehensibleinputwhichisbithigherthanthelearners’currentlevel.Thelearners’LADwillbeactivatedandcontributetoacquisition.12.acquisition:Itisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage,anditisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnerscanhardlybeawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusingthelanguagetocommunicate.learning:Itisaconsciouslearningofthesecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.*13.individualdifferencesi.languageaptitudeii.motivation1.instrumentalmotivation2.integrativemotivation　3.resultativemotivation　4.intrinsicmotivationiii.learningstrategieslcognitivestrategieslmetacognitivestrategies　laffect/socialstrategies　lageofacquisitioniv.personalityLanguageandbrain1.neurolinguistics(神经语言学)Itisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage.lhowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearninglhowandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstoredlhowdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage1.psycholinguisticsItisthestudyoflanguageprocessing(处理方式).Itisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguagecomprehensionandproduction.lbottom-upprocessingltop-downprocessing