语言学教程英汉对照 17页

LinguisticsChapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.WhatislanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.A.LanguageisasystemAbasicobservationisthateachlanguagecontainstwosystems,asystemofsoundandasystemofmeaning.B.LanguageisarbitraryTherelationbetweenexpressionandcontentisnotnaturalbutconventional.Andthisconventionalrelationvariesfromlanguagetolanguage.e.g.Itiscalleda“老鼠”inChinese,whilea“rat”or“mouse”inEnglishC.LanguageisvocalTheprimarymediumoflanguageissoundratherthanword.writtenformscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms;wespeakmoreeveryday;welearntospeakfirst.D.Languageissymbolic象征性的Languageissymbolicinthesensethatallthesoundspeopleproduceandtheideas,concepts,objects,etc.thatthesesoundscanrefertoareboundedupbyconvention.惯例Linguisticunitsareconventionalsigns.E.Languageishuman-specificLanguageispossessedonlybyhumanbeings,othercommunicationsystemsaspossessedbyanimalsormanyotherlifeformsarenotlanguages,i.e.theydonotmanifestsuchfeatures\nastheso-calleddesignfeaturesaspossessedbyhumanlanguage.F.LanguageisforcommunicationThemainandprimaryfunctionoflanguageistocommunicate.Peoplesaythingstoeachothertoexpresstheircommunicationalneeds,andlanguagefunctionstocommunicategeneralattitudestowardlifeandothers.2.Designfeaturesoflanguage(1)Arbitrariness:任意性thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsound.(2)Duality：双重性languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwolevelsofstructures,atthelowerlevelthereisthestructureofsounds;atthehigherlevelthereisthestructureofwords.(3)Creativity：创造性Languageiscreativeinthesensethatuserscanunderstandandcreatesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.(4)Displacement：移位性languagecanbeusedtocommunicateaboutthingsthatarenotpresentinourimmediatecommunicationalcontext.（5）Culturaltransmission:文化传播thedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Languageisnottransmittedbiologicallyfromgenerationtogeneration.（6）Interchangeability交换性anyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.3.Functionsoflanguage\n（1）Informative信息功能Theuseoflanguagetorecordfacts,tostatewhatthingsarelike,andtoexchangeinformation.（2）Interpersonal人际功能Themostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage,whichservestoestablishandmaintainpeople’sstatusinasociety.（3）Performative施为功能Languagecanbeusedtodothings,(AustinandSearl)tochangethesocialstatusortheimmediatestateofaffairsofpeople.（4）Emotive情感功能Languagecanbeusedtoexpresstheemotionalstateofthespeaker.（5）Phaticcommunion寒暄功能Ritualexchanges,exchangesthathavelittlemeaningbuthelptomaintainourrelationshipswithotherpeople.（6）Recreational娱乐功能theuseoflanguagetohavefun.（7）Metalingual元功能Languagecanbeusedtoexplainordescribeitselforotherlanguages.4.fourprinciplesforstudyinglinguistics:（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性（2）Consistency一致性（3）Economy经济性（4）Objectiveness客观性5.Mainbranchesoflinguistics\nsound:phonetics语音学phonology音系学form:morphology形态学syntax句法学meaning：semantics语义学pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Appliedlinguistics应用语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学Computationallinguistics计算机语言学6.Importantdistinctions（1）Descriptive描述性Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse（2）prescriptive规定性Ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguageModernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive（3）Synchronic共时性Itreferstothedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory（4）Diachronic共时性Itreferstothedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.（5）Langue言语Itreferstothespeaker’sunderstandingandknowledgeofthelanguagethathespeaks.（6）Parole语言Itreferstotheactualspeakingoflanguagebyanindividualspeaker.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,parole\nistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract,paroleisconcreteLangueisrelativelystable,whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.（7）competence能力Itreferstoanidealspeaker’sknowledgeoftheunderlying潜在的systemofrulesinalanguage.（8）performance实行Itreferstotheactualuseofthelanguagebyaspeakerinarealcommunicationalcontext.Chapter2SpeechSounds1.Speechcommunicationinvolvesthreesteps:speechproduction产出speechtransmission传播speechperception感知(1)Segment语段alinguisticunitinanysequence顺序whichmaybeisolatedfromtherestofthesequencenodirectcorrespondencecanbeestablishedbetweenspellingandpronunciation.(2)Divergence分化theprocessoftwoormorelanguagesorlanguagevarietiesbecominglesslikeeachother.2.IPA:theInternationalPhoneticAssociation3.Consonants辅音28Thesoundsintheproduction生成ofwhichthereisanobstruction阻碍oftheair-stream气流atsomepointofthevocaltract声道Mannersofarticulation:发音方式\n(1)Stop爆破音：[p,b,k,g,t,d](2)Nasal鼻音:[m,n,ŋ](3)Fricative摩擦音：[f,v][θ,ð][s,z][ʃ,Ʒ][h](4)Approximant浊音：[r,j,w](5)Lateral无擦通音：[l](6)Affricate塞擦音：4.Placeofarticulation:发音部位(1)Bilabial双唇音：[p,b,m,w](2)Labiodental唇齿音：[f,v](3)Dental齿音：[θ,ð](4)Alveolar齿龈音：[t,d,n,s,z,l,r](5)Postalveolar齿槽音：[ʃ,Ʒ](6)Retroflex卷舌音：[r](7)Palatal上颚音:[j](8)Velar:软腭音：[k,g,ŋ](9)Uvular小舌音(10)pharyngeal喉音(11)glottal声门音Consonantscanbedescribedbythefollowingthreecriteria:voicing(whetheraconsonantisvoicelessorvoiced),placeofarticulation,mannerofarticulation.e.g.[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[f]voicelesslabiodentalfricative5.vowels元音thesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheair-streampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionThevowelsareusuallydescribedwithreferencetothefollowingfourcriteria:height;positionraised;tenseness(length);lip-rounding\ne.g.[i:]highfronttenseunroundedvowel[u]highbacklaxroundedvowel[ə]midcentrallaxunroundedvowel6.Coarticulation协同发音overlappingofadjacentarticulations(1)anticipatorycoarticulation:预期协同发音e.g.teamlamb(2)persevarativecoarticulation:持续协同发音e.g.mapmeatthesounddisplayingtheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound7.Nasalization鼻音化thevowelacquiringsomequalityoftheofthefollowingnasalsound8.Phoneme:音素thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwowords.9.Allophones音位变体Coarticulationisthephonetictermforthephonologicaltermassimilation.10.Themainsuprasegmentalfeatures超音特征Syllable音节,tone音调,intonation语调,stress重读.Intonation:Itreferstothechangeofpitchatsentencelevel.Tone:ItreferstotheChangeofpitchofindividualsyllables.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.11.Thesyllablestructure(((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C)Asyllableusuallyconsistsofthreepart:onset,thepeakorrhymeandthecoda.Thevowels\nwithintherimeisthenucleus.12.Morpheme:词素thesmallestmeaningfulunitinalanguage.Chapter4Fromwordtotext1.Syntacticrelations句法关系languageas“asystemofsigns”,eachofwhichconsistsoftwoindispensable不可缺少的parts:signifier(soundimage)andsignified(concept).Syntagmaticrelation:组合关系relationbetweenelementsthatformpartofthesameform,sequence,construction,etc.(alsocalledhorizontalorchainrelation)3.Paradigmaticrelation聚合关系specificallybetweenanindividualunitandothersthatcanreplaceitinagivensequence.(alsocalledverticalorchoicerelation)Grammaticalconstructionsrefertoanysyntacticconstructsthathavecertainsyntacticfunctions.4.Immediateconstituentsatermusedinstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,whichisapartofalargerlinguisticunit.Immediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directlybelowthelevelofaconstruction.5.ICAnalysis:thewayofanalyzingaconstructionintoitsimmediateconstituents.6.Othershortenedformofdifferentphrasesorwordsareasfollows:N=nounA=adjectiveP=prepositionAP=adjectivephrase\nV=verbPP=prepositionphraseDet=determiner限定词art.S=clauseadv=adverbconj=conjuction7.ThreewaysofICAnalysis:(a)bracketing(b)labeledtreediagram(c)Treediagram8.thesubstitutability:替代性whetherasequenceofwordscanbesubstitutedforasinglewordandthestructurestillremainsthesame.9.Endocentricandexocentricconstructions（1）Endocentricconstruction向心结构Itisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence相等,tooneofitsconstituents,whichserversasthecentre,orhead,ofthewhole.e.g.poorboythelittlematchgirlwillhavefinishedthebookontheshelfreallyverylateTypicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrases.Theendocentricconstructionscanbefurtherdividedintotwosubtypes:subordinateconstruction主从结构andcoordinateconstruction并列结构.Subordinateconstruction:Itisoneinwhichonlyoneheadisdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent.Coordinateconstruction:\nItreferstobeallequalinsyntacticstatus,theyareindependentofeachother（2）Exocentricconstruction:离心结构agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthemisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinablecenterorheadinsidethegroupTheexocentricconstructionsareusuallybasicsentences,prepositionalphrases,predicate(predicate+object)动宾关系andconnective(be+complement)constructions.10.Thephrasestructurecomponenthasphrasestructurerulesasfollows：S:NP+VPVP:V+NPNP:Det+NDet:the,a,etc.N:man,ball,etc.V:hit,take,etcLanguagecanbeseenasconsistingofthreeparts:syntax句法学,semantics语义学andphonology音系学.11.Recursiveness:递归性Itisaphenomenoninwhichthereisnolimittothenumberofembeddingorconjoiningonelinguisticunittoanotherunit.ex:XiaoLin’steacherXiaoLin’steacher’shusbandXiaoLin’steacher’shusband’sparentsXiaoLin’steacher’shusband’sparents’friend...12.Conjoining:连接\nItreferstoaconstructionwhereoneclauseisconjoinedwithanother.并列句Ex:a.Johnboughtahat.b.John’swifeboughtabag.c.Johnboughtahatandhiswifeboughtabag.13.Embedding:嵌入Itreferstotheprocessinwhichaclauseisincludedinthesentenceinsyntacticsubordination.从句Ex:a.Isawtheman.b.Themanvisitedyoulastyear.c.Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.Thesentencescanbelinkedeitherhypotacticallyorparatactically.Chapter5Meaning1.Whatissemantics?语义学Specifically,semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.2.MeaningsofMEANINGonedifficultyinthestudyofMEANINGisthattheterm“meaning”itselfhasdifferentmeanings.---intention---inference---atranslation3.Kindsofmeaning\n（1）Thetraditionalapproach通用方法（2）Thepragmaticapproach务实方法（3）Thefunctionalapproach:功能法4.SeventypesofmeaningbyLeech(1)Conceptualmeaning概念Awordorphrasecanbeusedtoexpressorevokeastateofmindwhichiscognitive,inthiscasethewordorphraseexpressesconceptualmeaning.Conceptualmeaningiscentral.5.Distinctionsbetweendenotationandconnotation:(1)denotation:外延Itconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes(2)connotation:内涵ItreferstothepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotesEx:humanstatesmanpoliticiandenotationanypersonpersonwhotakesuppoliticsconnotationbiped,commendatoryderogatoryfeatherless,rationalAssociativemeaning联想(2)Connotativemeaning内涵Whatisimpliedapartfromwhatisexplicitlynamedordescribed.Itisthesubsidiarymeaningofaword,usuallyassociatedwiththenatureorpropertiestheworddenotes.\ne.g.politicianandstatesmanhavedifferentconnotativemeanings.(3)Socialmeaning社会Whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.E.g.Goodmorning,sir,andYourhonor.(4)Affectivemeaning情感referstotheemotionalconnotationattachedtoutterancesE.g.vagrantvs.homeless.(5)Reflectedmeaning反映Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.e.g.Thewoodsarelovely,dark,anddeep,ButIhavepromisestokeep,AndmilestogobeforeIsleep,AndmilestogobeforeIsleep.(6)Collocativemeaning搭配Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.e.g.blackteavs.blackcoffee;astronghorsevs.astrongnation.\n(7)Thematicmeaning主题Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.e.g.AuthorityIrespect,butauthoritarianismIdeplore.Sensereferstothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenlinguisticelementsthemselves,itisconcernedonlywithintra-linguisticrelations.6.Wordsenserelations(1)Synonymy同义词Itreferstothesamenesssenserelationsbetweenwords.Somesemanticiansmaintainthattherearenorealsynonyms,thatis,notwowordshaveexactlythesamemeaning.7.Fivetypesofsynonyms:i.Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsBritishEnglishAmericanEnglishliftelevatorluggagebaggagelorrytruckpetrolgasolineflatapartmentwindscreenwindshieldtorchflashlightii.Stylisticsynonyms文体同义词---synonymsdifferinginstyle\nEx:Oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentStart,begin,commenceKid,child,offspringKickthebucket,popoff,die,passaway,decreaseiii.Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning不同的同义词在感情或评价的意义Ex:collaborator:apersonwhohelpsanother（劳经）合作者accomplice:apersonwhohelpsanother（法律）共犯iv.Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词Ex:Accuseofsb.,chargesb.,rebukerottentomatoesaddledeggsrancidbaconorbuttersourmilk.v.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上不同的同义词程度amaze:tosurprise(suggestingconfusionandbewilderment)astound:tosurprise(suggestingdifficultyinbelieving)8.Antonymy反义词Itreferstotheoppositenesssenserelationsbetweenwords,andthreetypesofantonymycan\nbeclassified:(1)  gradableantonymy分级Cold,cool,lukewarm,warm,hot(2)complementaryantonymy补充Alive-dead(3)converseantonymy相反e.g.husband/wife,borrow/lend.9.Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymyindicatessenseinclusiveness.Theupperterminthissenserelationiscalledsuperordinate,andthelowerterms,hyponyms,membersofthesameclassarecalledco-hyponyms.Eg:IncontrasttoChinese,thereisonlyonewordinEnglishforthedifferentkindsofuncles:伯父、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨父。10.Polysemy多义词Differentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.11.Homonymy同音异义thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameformhomophones:同音异形异义词twowordsareidenticalinsoundrain/reign,night/knight,piece/peace,leak/leek\nHomographs:同形异义词twowordsareidenticalinspellingbowv./bown.tearn./tearv.leadv./leadn.completehomonyms:同形同音异义词(名词动词或形容词性)twowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspellingfastadj./fastv.scalen./scalev.