语言学教程课后答案 14页

Definethefollowingterms:1.designfeature:arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.2.function:theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsinclucleimformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.3.etic:atermincontrastwithemicwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Beingeticmansmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,justaswasofterthecasewithphoneticvx.phonemicanalysisinlinguisticsproper.4.emic:atermincontrastwitheticwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunithratherthanviaqppealtotheinvestigator’singenuithorintuitionalone.5.synchronic:akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.6.diachronic:studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.7.prescriptive:thestudyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.8.prescriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.9.descriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.10.arbitrariness:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefacethattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.11.duality:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofarecomposedofelementsofthesecondary.levelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.12.displacement:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.13.phaticcommunion:onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.\n14.metalanguage:certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.15.macrolinguistics:heinteractingstudybetweenlanguageandlanguage-relateddisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,scienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.Branchesofmacrolinguisticsincludepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropologicallinguistics,etc.16.competence:languageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.17.performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.18.langue:thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.19.parole:theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).20.Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofproductionofspeechsounds.21.Coarticulation:akindofphoneticprocessinwhichsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved.Coarticulationcanbefurtherdividedintoanticipatorycoarticulationandperseverativecoarticulation.22.Voicing:pronouncingasound(usuallyavoweloravoicedconsonant)byvibratingthevocalcords.23.Broadandnarrowtranscription:theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalledbroadtranscription;while,theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasnarrowtranscription.24.Consonant:aresoundsegmentsproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.25.Phoneme:theabstractelementofsound,identifiedasbeingdistinctiveinaparticularlanguage.26.Allophone:anyofthedifferentformsofaphoneme(e.g.isanallophoneof/t/inEnglish.When/t/occursinwordslikestep,itisunaspirated.Bothandareallophonesofthephoneme/t/.27.Vowel:aresoundsegmentsproducedwithoutsuchobstruction,sonoturbulenceofatotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.\n28.Mannerofarticulation;intheproductionofconsonants,mannerofarticulationreferstotheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract.29.Placeofarticulation:intheproductionofconsonants,placeofarticulationreferstowhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.30.Distinctivefeatures:atermofphonology,i.e.apropertywhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.31.Complementarydistribution:therelationbetweentwospeechsoundsthatneveroccurinthesameenvironment.Allophonesofthesamephonemeareusuallyincomplementarydistribution.32.IPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888thenithasundergoneanumberofrevisions.IPAisacomprisedsystememployingsymbolsofallsources,suchasRomansmallletters,italicsuprighted,obsoleteletters,Greekletters,diacritics,etc.33.Suprasegmental:suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsupra-segmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.34.Suprasegmental:aspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.第三章1.morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.2.compound:olymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,suchasclassroom,blackboard,snow-white,etc.3.inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.4.affix:thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).5.derivation:differentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.6.root:thebasefromofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallassofidentity.7.allomorph:anyofthedifferentformofamorpheme.Forexample,inEnglishthepluralmorthemeisbutitispronounceddifferentlyindifferentenvironmentsas/s/incats,as/z/indogsandas/iz/inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/areallallomorphsofthe\npluralmorpheme.8Stem:anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.9.boundmorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichisstructurallydependentontheworlditisaddedto,e.g.thepluralmorphemein“dog’s”.10.freemorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichtakestheformofanindependentword.11.lexeme:Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.“doginthemanger”)12.lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.13.grammaticalword:wordexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.14.lexicalword:wordhavinglexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andverbs.16.open-class:awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.17.blending:arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.18.loanword:aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecases,toehphonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.19.loanblend:aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.20.leanshift:aprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.21.acronym:ismadeupformthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.22.loss:thedisappearanceoftheverysoundasamorphemeinthephonologicalsystem.23.back-formation:anabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongformalreadyinthelanguage.24.assimilation:thechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled.“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.25.dissimilation:theinfluenceexercised.Byonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.26.folketymology:achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnationoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous.60.category:partsofspeechandfunction,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoftermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermofsubject,predicate,etc.\n61.concord:alsoknownasagreement,istherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.62.syntagmaticrelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.63.paradigmaticrelation:arelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandheothersabsent.64.immediateconstituentanalysis:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(orphrases),whichareintrunanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.65.endocentricconstruction:oneconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecentre,orhead,ofthewhole.Henceanendocentricconstructionisalsoknownasaheadedconstruction.66.exocentricconstruction:aconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanytoanyofitsconstituents.67.deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetween,theunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.68.surfactestructure:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.69.c-command:oneofthesimilarities,orofthemoregeneralfeatures,inthesetwogovernmentrelations,istechnicallycalledconstituentcommand,c-commandforshort.70.governmentandbindingtheory:itisthefourthperiodofdevelopmentChomsky’sTGGrammar,whichconsistsofX-bartheme:thebasis,orthestartingpoint,oftheutterance.71.communicativedynamism:theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication.72.ideationalfunction:thespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.\n73.interpersonalfunction:theuseoflanguagetoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations:fortheexpressionofsocialroles,whichincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself;andalsoforgettingthingsdone,bymeansoftheinteractionbetweenonepersonandanother.74.textualfunction:theuseoflanguagetheprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.75.conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartofmeaning,whichcontainslogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.76.denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphrasethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.77.connotation:aterminacontrastwithdenotation,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.78.reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressapropostion,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.79.reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressaproposition,i.e.totalkaboutthingsincontext.80.sense:theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.81.synonymy:isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.82.complentaryantonymy:membersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachfieldcompletely,suchasmale,female,absent.83.gradableantongymy:membersofthiskindaregradable,suchaslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converseantonymy:aspecialkindofantonymyinthatmemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition,suchasbuy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relationalopposites:converseantonymyinreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,temporalandspatialrelations.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.Theshorter,better;worse.etcareinstancesofrelationalopposites.\n86.hyponymy:arelationbetweentowwords,inwhichthemeaningofoneword(thesuperordinate)isincludedinthemeaningofanotherword(thehyponym).87.superordinate:theupperterminhyponymy,i.e.theclassname.Asuperordinateusuallyhasseveralhyponyms.Underanimal,forexample,therearecats,dogs,pigs,etc.88.semanticcomponent:adistinguishableelementofmeaninginawordwithtwovalues,e.g.<+human>89.compositionality:aprincipleforsentenceanalysis,inwhichthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.90.selectionrestriction:semanticrestrictionsofthenounphrasesthataparticularlexicalitemcantake,e.g.regretrequiresahumansubject.91.prepositionallogic:alsoknownasprepositionalcalculusorsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions:howthetruthofacompositepropositionsandtheconnectionbetweenthem.92.proposition;whatistalkaboutinanutterance,thatpartofthespeechactwhichhastodowithreference.93.predicatelogic:alsopredicatecalculus,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofsimple.94.assimilationtheory:language(sound,word,syntax,etc.)changeorprocessbywhichfeaturesofoneelementchangetomatchthoseofanotherthatprecedesorfollows.95.cohorttheory:theoryoftheperceptionofspokenwordsproposedinthemid-1980s.Itassumesa“recognitionlexicon”inwhicheachwordisrepresentedbyafullandindependent“recognitionelement”.Whenthesystemreceivesthebeginningofarelevantacousticsignal,allelementsmatchingitarefullyacticated,and,asmoreofthesignalisreceived,thesystemtriestomatchitindependentlywitheachofthem,Whereveritfailstheelementisdeactivated;thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyoneremainsactive.96.contexteffect:thiseffecthelppeoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentherecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.97.frequencyeffect:describestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageinlanguage.\n98.inferenceincontext:anyconclusiondrawnfromasetofproposition,fromsomethingsomeonehassaid,andsoon.Itincludesthingsthat,whilenotfollowinglogically,areimplied,inanordinarysense,e.g.inaspecificcontext.99.immediateassumption:thereaderissupposedtocarryouttheprogressesrequiredtounderstandeachwordanditsrelationshiptopreviouswordsinthesentenceassoonasthatwordinencountered.100.languageperception:languageawarenessofthingsthroughthephysicalsenses,esp.sight.101.languagecomprehension:oneofthethreestrandofpsycholinguisticresearch,whichstudiestheunderstandingoflanguage.102.languageproduction:agoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.103.languageproduction:agoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.104.lexicalambiguity:ambiguityexplainedbyreferencetolexicalmeanings:e.g.thatofIsawabat,whereabatmightrefertoananimalor,amongothers,stabletennisbat.105.macroproposition:generalpropositionsusedtoformanoverallmacrostructureofthestory.106.modular:whichaassumesthatthemindisstructuiedintoseparatemodulesorcomponents,eachgovernedbyitsownprinciplesandoperatingindependentlyofothers.107.parsing:thetaskofassigningwordstopartsofspeechwiththeirappropriateaccidents,traditionallye.g.topupilslearninglatingrammar.108.propositions:whateverisseenasexpressedbyasentencewhichmakesastatement.Itisapropertyofpropositionsthattheyhavetruthvalues.109.psycholinguistics:isconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructure.Psycholinguisticscanbedividedintocognitivepsycholinguistics(beingconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofhumanmind,andexperimentalpsycholinguistics(beingconcernedsomehowwhthempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword).\n110.psycholinguisticreality:therealityofgrammar,etc.asapurportedaccountofstructuresrepresentedinthemindofaspeaker.Oftenopposed,indiscussionofthemeritsofalternativegrammars,tocriteriaofsimplicity,elegance,andinternalconsistency.111.schemataintext:packetsofstoredknowledgeinlanguageprocessing.112.storystructure:thewayinwhichvariouspartsofstoryarearrangedororganized.113.writingprocess:aseriesofactionsoreventsthatarepartofawritingorcontinuingdevelopment.114.communicativecompetence:aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,etc.governingtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.DistinguishedbyD.Hymesinthelate1960sfromChomsley’sconceptofcompetence,intherestrictedsenseofknowledgeofagrammar.115.genderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis“gendendifference”116.linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.117.linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSpir-Whorfhypotheis,i.e.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.118.linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmeandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.119.sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontolanguageuseinasocialcontext.120.sociolinguisticsofsociety;oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.121.variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.122.performative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.123.constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmay\nbetrueorfalse.124.locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.125.illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.126.perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.127.conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,underatandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.128.entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.“Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,“Maryisnotstandingstill”.129.ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-infer-ential.130.communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.131.relevance:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.132.Q-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(Gradation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ).133.divisionofpragmaticlabour:theuseofamarkedcrelativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarkeda(simpler,less“effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed).134.constraintsonHornscales:thehearer-basedo-Principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto.135.third-personnarrator:ofthenarratorisnotacharacterinthefictionalworld,heorsheisusuallycalledathird-personnarrator.\n136.I-narrator:thepersonwhotellsthestorymayalsobeacharacterinthefictionalworldofthestory,relatingthestoryaftertheevent.137.directspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.138.indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.139.indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationwhichisanamalgamofdirectspeech.140.narrator’srepreaentationofspeechacts:aminimalistkindofpresentationinwhichapartofpassagecanbeseenasasummeryofalongerpieceofdiscourse,andthereforeevenmorebackgruondedthanindirectspeechrepresentationwouldbe.141.narrator’srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofcategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheirofcharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentspeechacts.Forexample,sheconsideredhisunpunctuality.142.indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewouldbelate.143.feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.144.narrator’srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofthecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking.145.indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewouldbelate.146.feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.147.narrator’srepresentationofthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking.148.freeindirectthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsof\ntheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech,e.g.Hewasboundtobelate.149.directthought:categoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech..150.computersystem:themachineitselftogetherwithakeyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.151.computerliteracy:thosepeoplewhohavesufficientknowledgeandskillintheuseofcomputersandcomputersoftware.152.computerlinguistics:abranchofappliedliguistics,dealingwithcomputerprocessingofhumanlanguage.153.Call:computer-assistedlanguagelearning(call),referstotheuseofacomputerintheteachingorlearningofasecondorforeignlanguage.154.programndedinstruction:theuseofcomputerstomonitorstudentprogress,todirectstudentsintoappropriatelessons,material,etc.155.localareanetwork:arecomputerslinkedtogetherbycablesinaclassroom,lab,orbuilding.Theyofferteachersanovelapproachforcreatingnewactivitiesforstudentsthatprovidemoretimeandexperiencewithtargetlanguage.156.CD-ROM:computerdisk-readonlymemoryallowshugeamountofinformationtobestoredononediskwithquichaccesstotheinformation.Studentsandteacherscanaccessinformationquicklyandefficientlyforuseinandoutoftheclassroom.157.machinetranslation:referstotheuseofmachine(usuallycomputer)totranslatetextsfromonelanguagetoanother.158.concordance:theuseofcomputertosearchforaparticularword,sequenceofwords.orperhapsevenapartofspeechinatext.Thecomputercanalsoreceiveallexamplesofaparticularword,usuallyinacontext,whichisafurtheraidtothelinguist.Itcanalsocalculatethenumberofoccurrencesofthewordsothatinformationonthefrequencyofthewordmaybegathered.159.annotation:ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated-itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbeenenhancedwithvarioustypeoflinguisticinformation,160.annotation:ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated—itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbeenenhancedwithvarioustypeof\nlinguisticinformation.161.informationalretrieval:thetermconventionallythoughsomewhatinaccurately,appliedtothetypeofactivitydiscussedinthisvolume.Aninformationretrievalsystemdoesnotinform(i.e.changetheknowledgeof)theuseronthesubjectofhisinquiry.Itmerelyinformsontheexistence(ornon-existence)andwhereaboutsofdocumentsrelatingtohisrequest.162.documentrepresentative:informationstructureisconcernedwithexploitingrelationships,betweendocumentstoimprovetheefficiencyandeffectivenessofretrievalstrategies.Itcoversspecificallyalogicalorganizationofinformation,suchasdocumentrepresentatives,forthepurposeofinformationretrieval.163.precision:theproportionofretrievaldocumentswhicharerelevant.164.recall:theproportionofretrievaldocumentswhicharerelevant.165.appliedlinguistics:applicationsoflinguisticstostudyofsecondandforeignlanguagelearningandteaching,andotherareassuchastranslation,thecompilingofdictionaries,etc.166.communicativecompetence:asdefinedbyHymes,theknowledgeandabilityinvolvedinputtinglanguagetocommunicativeuse.167.syllabus:theplanningofcourseofinstruction.Itisadescriptionofthecousrcontent,teachingproceduresandlearningexperiences.168.interlanguage:thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguage,i.e.thelanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.169.transfer:theinfluenceofmothertongueuponthesecondlanguage.Whenstructuresofthetwolanguagesaresimilar,wecangetpositivetransferoffacilitation;whenthetwolanguagesaredifferentinstructures,negativetransferofinferenceoccursandresultinerrors.170.validity:thedegreetowhichatestmeansureswhatitismeanttomeasure.Therearefourkindsofvalidity,i.e.contentvalidity,constructvalidity,empiricalvaliodity,andfacevalidity.171.rebiability:canbedefinedasconsistency.Therearetwokindsofreliability,i.e.stabilityreliability,andequiralencereliability.172.hypercorrection:overuseofastandardlinguisticfeatures,intermsofboth\nfrequency,i.e.overpassingthespeakersofhighersocialstatus,andovershootingthetarget,i.e.extendingtheuseofaforminalinguisticenvironmentwhereitisnotexpectedtooccur,Forexample,pronouncingideasas[ai'dier],extendingpronouncingpost-vocalic[r]inanenvironmentwhereit’snotsupposedtooccur.173.discretepointtest:akindoftestinwhichlanguagestructuresorskillsarefurtherdividedintoindividualpointsofphonology,syntaxandlexis.174.integrativetest:akindoftestinwhichlanguagestructuresorskillsarefurtherdividedintoindividualpointsofphonology,syntaxandlexis.