胡壮麟语言学 61页

Definethefollowingterms:1.      designfeature:arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.2.      function:theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsinclucleimformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionandmetalingualfunction.3.      etic:atermincontrastwithemicwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Beingeticmansmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,justaswasofterthecasewithphoneticvx.phonemicanalysisinlinguisticsproper.4.      emic:atermincontrastwitheticwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunithratherthanviaqppealtotheinvestigator’singenuithorintuitionalone.5.      synchronic:akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.6.      diachronic:studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.7.      prescriptive:thestudyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.8.      prescriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.9.      descriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.10.      arbitrariness:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefacethattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.11.      duality:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofarecomposedofelementsofthesecondary.levelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.12.      displacement:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.13.      phaticcommunion:onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.14.      metalanguage:certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisand\ndescriptionofparticularstudies.15.      macrolinguistics:heinteractingstudybetweenlanguageandlanguage-relateddisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,scienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.Branchesofmacrolinguisticsincludepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,                                          anthropologicallinguistics,et16.      competence:languageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.17.      performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.18.      langue:thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.19.      parole:theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).20．      Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofproductionofspeechsounds.21．      Coarticulation:akindofphoneticprocessinwhichsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved..Coarticulationcanbefurtherdividedintoanticipatorycoarticulationandperseverativecoarticulation.22．      Voicing:pronouncingasound(usuallyavoweloravoicedconsonant)byvibratingthevocalcords.23．      Broadandnarrowtranscription:theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalledbroadtranscription;theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalledbroadtranscription;while,theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasnarrowtranscription.24．      Consonant:aresoundsegmentsproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.25．      Phoneme:theabstractelementofsound,identifiedasbeingdistinctiveinaparticularlanguage.26．      Allophone:anyofthedifferentformsofaphoneme(eg.isanallophoneof/t/inEnglish.When/t/occursinwordslikestep,itisunaspirated.Bothandareallophonesofthephoneme/t/.27．      Vowl:aresoundsegmentsproducedwithoutsuchobstruction,sonoturbulenceofatotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.28．      Mannerofarticulation;intheproductionofconsonants,mannerofarticulationreferstotheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocal\ntract.29．      Placeofarticulation:intheproductionofconsonants,placeofarticulationreferstowhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.30．      Distinctivefeatures:atermofphonology,i.e.apropertywhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.胡壮麟语言学术语解释2[2006-3-3115:50:00|By:literature123]31．      Complementarydistribution:therelationbetweentowspeechsoundsthatneveroccurinthesameenvironment.Allophonesofthesamephonemeareusuallyincomplementarydistribution.32．      IPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888thenithasundergonganumberofrevisions.IPAisacomprisedsystememployingsymbolsofallsources,suchasRomansmallletters,italicsuprighted,obsoleteletters,Greekletters,diacritics,etc.33．      Suprasegmental:suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsupra-segmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,,andintonation.34．      Suprasegmental:aspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.35.      morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.36.      compoundolymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,suchasclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.      inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.38.      affix:thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootor\nstem).39.      derivation:differentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.40.      root:thebasefromofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallassofidentity.41.      allomorph:;anyofthedifferentformofamorpheme.Forexample,inEnglishthepluralmorthemeisbutitispronounceddifferentlyindifferentenvironmentsas/s/incats,as/z/indogsandas/iz/inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/areallallomorphsofthepluralmorpheme.42.      Stem:anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.43.      boundmorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichisstructurallydependentontheworlditisaddedto,e.g.thepluralmorphemein“dog’s”.44.      freemorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichtakestheformofanindependentword.45.      lexeme:Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.”doginthemanger”)46.      lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.47.      grammaticalword:wordexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.48.      lexicalword:wordhavinglexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andverbs.49.      open-class:awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.50.      blending:arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.51.      loanvoord:aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecases,toehphonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.52.      loanblend:aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.53.      leanshift:aprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.54.      acronym:ismadeupformthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodified\nheadword.55.      loss:thedisappearanceoftheverysoundasamorphemeinthephonologicalsystem.56.      back-formation:anabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongformalreadyinthelanguage.57.      assimilation:thechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.      dissimilation:theinfluenceexercised.Byonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.59.      folketymology:achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnationoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous60.      category:partsofspeechandfunction,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoftermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermofsubject,predicate,etc.胡壮麟语言学术语总结4[2006-3-3115:56:00|By:literature123]91.      prepositionallogic:alsoknownasprepositionalcalculusorsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions:howthetruthofacompositepropositionsandtheconnectionbetweenthem.92.      proposition;whatistalkaboutinanutterance,thatpartofthespeechactwhichhastodowithreference.93.      predicatelogic:alsopredicatecalculus,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofsimple.94.      assimilationtheory:language(sound,word,syntax,etc)changeorprocessbywhichfeaturesofoneelementchangetomatchthoseofanotherthatprecedesorfollows.95.      cohorttheory:theoryoftheperceptionofspokenwordsproposedinthemid-1980s.Itsaaumesa“recognitionlexicon”inwhicheachwordisrepresentedbyafullandindependent”recognistionelement”.Whenthesystemreceivesthebeginningofarelevantacousticsignal,allelementsmatchingitarefullyacticated,and,asmoreofthesignalisreceived,thesystemtriestomatchitindependentlywitheachof\nthem,Whereveritfailstheelementisdeactivated;thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyoneremainsactive.96.      contexteffect:thiseffecthelppeoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentherecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.97.      frequencyeffect:describestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageinlanguage.98.      inferenceincontext:anyconclusiondrawnfromasetofproposition,fromsomethingsomeonehassaid,andsoon.Itincludesthingsthat,whilenotfollowinglogically,areimplied,inanordinarysense,e.g.inaspecificcontext.99.      immediateassumption:thereaderissupposedtocarryouttheprogressesrequiredtounderstandeachwordanditsrelationshiptopreviouswordsinthesentenceassoonasthatwordinencountered.100.      languageperception:languageawarenessofthingsthroughthephysicalsenses,esp,sight.101.      languagecomprehension:oneofthethreestrandofpsycholinguisticresearch,whichstudiestheunderstandingoflanguage.102.      languageproduction:agoal-directedactivety,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordetomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.103.      languageproduction:agoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conceyinformationandsoon.104.      lexicalambiguity:ambiguityexplainedbyreferencetolexicalmeanings:e.g.thatofIsawabat,whereabatmightrefertoananimalor,amongothers,stabletennisbat.105.      macroproposition:generalpropositionsusedtoformanoverallmacrostructureofthestory.106.      modular:whichaassumesthatthemindisstructuiedintoseparatemodulesorcomponents,eachgovernedbyitsownprinciplesandoperatingindependentlyofothers.107.      parsing:thetaskofassigningwordstopartsofspeechwiththeirappropriateaccidents,traditionallye.g.topupilslearninglatingrammar.108.      propositions:whateverisseenasexpressedbyasentencewhichmakesastatement.Itisapropertyofpropositionsthattheyhavetruthvalues.109.      psycholinguistics:isconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructure.Psycholinguisticscanbedividedintocognitivepsycholinguistics(beingconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferences\naboutthecontentofhumanmind,andexperimentalpsycholinguistics(beingconcernedsomehowwhthempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword).110.      psycholinguisticreality:therealityofgrammar,etc.asapurportedaccountofstructuresrepresentedinthemindofaspeaker.Oftenopposed,indiscussionofthemeritsofalternativegrammars,tocriteriaofsimplicity,elegance,andinternalconsistency.111.      schemataintext:packetsofstoredknowledgeinlanguageprocessing.112.      storystructure:thewayinwhichvariouspartsofstoryarearrangedororganized.113.      writingprocess:aseriesofactionsoreventsthatarepartofawritingorcontinuingdevelopmeng.114.      communicativecompetence:aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,etc.governingtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.DistinguishedbyD.Hymesinthelate1960sfromChomsley’sconceptofcompetence,intherestrictedsenseofknowledgeofagrammar.115.      genderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis”gendendifference”116.      linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.117.      linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSpir-Whorfhypotheis,i.e.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.118.      linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmeandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.119.      sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontolanguageuseinasocialcontext.120.      sociolinguisticsofsociety;oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.121.      variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.122.      performative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueor\nfalse.123.      constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalse.124.      locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely.,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.125.      illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.126.      perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.127.      conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,underatandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.128.      entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.”Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,”Maryisnotstandingstill”.129.      ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-infer-ential.130.      communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.Definethefollowingterms:1.  designfeature:arefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguages,suchasarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.2.  function:theuseoflanguagetocommunicate,tothink,etc.Languagefunctionsinclucleimformativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,interpersonalfunction,performativefunction,emotivefunction,phaticcommunion,recreationalfunctionand\nmetalingualfunction.3.  etic:atermincontrastwithemicwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Beingeticmansmakingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,justaswasofterthecasewithphoneticvx.phonemicanalysisinlinguisticsproper.4.  emic:atermincontrastwitheticwhichoriginatesfromAmericanlinguistPike’sdistinctionofphoneticsandphonemics.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunithratherthanviaqppealtotheinvestigator’singenuithorintuitionalone.5.  synchronic:akindofdescriptionwhichtakesafixedinstant(usually,butnotnecessarily,thepresent),asitspointofobservation.Mostgrammarsareofthiskind.6.  diachronic:studyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.7.  prescriptive:thestudyofalanguageiscarriedthroughthecourseofitshistory.8.  prescriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsareprescribedhowoughttobe,i.e.layingdownrulesforlanguageuse.9.  descriptive:akindoflinguisticstudyinwhichthingsarejustdescribed.10.  arbitrariness:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothefacethattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.11.  duality:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofarecomposedofelementsofthesecondary.levelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.12.  displacement:onedesignfeatureofhumanlanguage,whichmeanshumanlanguageenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresentcintimeandspace,atthemomentofcommunication.13.  phaticcommunion:onefunctionofhumanlanguage,whichreferstothesocialinteractionoflanguage.14.  metalanguage:certainkindsoflinguisticsignsortermsfortheanalysisanddescriptionofparticularstudies.15.  macrolinguistics:heinteractingstudybetweenlanguageandlanguage-relateddisciplinessuchaspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,scienceoflawandartificialintelligenceetc.Branchesofmacrolinguisticsincludepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,                      anthropologicallinguistics,et16.  competence:languageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrules.17.  performance:theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.18.  langue:thelinguisticcompetenceofthespeaker.19.  parole:theactualphenomenaordataoflinguistics(utterances).20．  Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofproductionofspeechsounds.21．  Coarticulation:akindofphoneticprocessinwhichsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved..Coarticulationcanbefurtherdividedintoanticipatorycoarticulationandperseverativecoarticulation.22．  Voicing:pronouncingasound(usuallyavoweloravoicedconsonant)byvibratingthevocalcords.23．  Broadandnarrowtranscription:theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalled\nbroadtranscription;theuseofasimplesetofsymbolsintranscriptioniscalledbroadtranscription;while,theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasnarrowtranscription.24．  Consonant:aresoundsegmentsproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.25．  Phoneme:theabstractelementofsound,identifiedasbeingdistinctiveinaparticularlanguage.26．  Allophone:anyofthedifferentformsofaphoneme(eg.isanallophoneof/t/inEnglish.When/t/occursinwordslikestep,itisunaspirated.Bothandareallophonesofthephoneme/t/.27．  Vowl:aresoundsegmentsproducedwithoutsuchobstruction,sonoturbulenceofatotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived.28．  Mannerofarticulation;intheproductionofconsonants,mannerofarticulationreferstotheactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract.29．  Placeofarticulation:intheproductionofconsonants,placeofarticulationreferstowhereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.30．  Distinctivefeatures:atermofphonology,i.e.apropertywhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.31．  Complementarydistribution:therelationbetweentowspeechsoundsthatneveroccurinthesameenvironment.Allophonesofthesamephonemeareusuallyincomplementarydistribution.32．  IPA:theabbreviationofInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisdevisedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationin1888thenithasundergonganumberofrevisions.IPAisacomprisedsystememployingsymbolsofallsources,suchasRomansmallletters,italicsuprighted,obsoleteletters,Greekletters,diacritics,etc.33．  Suprasegmental:suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsupra-segmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,,andintonation.34．  Suprasegmental:aspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprinciplesuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,tone,andintonation.35.  morpheme:thesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.36.  compoundolymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemes,suchasclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.  inflection:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.38.  affix:thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).39.  derivation:differentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandaffixes.40.  root:thebasefromofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallassofidentity.41.  allomorph:;anyofthedifferentformofamorpheme.Forexample,inEnglishtheplural\nmorthemeisbutitispronounceddifferentlyindifferentenvironmentsas/s/incats,as/z/indogsandas/iz/inclasses.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/areallallomorphsofthepluralmorpheme.42.  Stem:anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.43.  boundmorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichisstructurallydependentontheworlditisaddedto,e.g.thepluralmorphemein“dog’s”.44.  freemorpheme:anelementofmeaningwhichtakestheformofanindependentword.45.  lexeme:Aseparateunitofmeaning,usuallyintheformofaword(e.g.”doginthemanger”)46.  lexicon:alistofallthewordsinalanguageassignedtovariouslexicalcategoriesandprovidedwithsemanticinterpretation.47.  grammaticalword:wordexpressinggrammaticalmeanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.48.  lexicalword:wordhavinglexicalmeanings,thatis,thosewhichrefertosubstance,actionandquality,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andverbs.49.  open-class:awordwhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andmanyadverbs.50.  blending:arelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords.51.  loanvoord:aprocessinwhichbothformandmeaningareborrowedwithonlyaslightadaptation,insomecases,toehphonologicalsystemofthenewlanguagethattheyenter.52.  loanblend:aprocessinwhichpartoftheformisnativeandpartisborrowed,butthemeaningisfullyborrowed.53.  leanshift:aprocessinwhichthemeaningisborrowed,buttheformisnative.54.  acronym:ismadeupformthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword.55.  loss:thedisappearanceoftheverysoundasamorphemeinthephonologicalsystem.56.  back-formation:anabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongformalreadyinthelanguage.57.  assimilation:thechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.  dissimilation:theinfluenceexercised.Byonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.59.  folketymology:achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnationoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous60.  category:partsofspeechandfunction,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoftermsofpartsofspeech,theidentificationoffunctionsofwordsintermofsubject,predicate,etc.61.  concord:alsoknownasagreement,istherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.62.  syntagmaticrelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent.63.  paradigmaticrelation:arelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherata\nparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandheothersabsent.64.  immediateconstituentanalysis:theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents---wordgroups(orphrases),whichareintrunanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.65.  endocentricconstruction:oneconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecentre,orhead,ofthewhole.Henceanendocentricconstructionisalsoknownasaheadedconstruction.66.  exocentricconstruction:aconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanytoanyofitsconstituents.67.  deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchsatherelationbetween,theunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.68.  surfactestructure:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,whichcloselycorrespondstothestructuralorganizationofaconstructionpeopleactuallyproduceandreceive.69.  c-command:oneofthesimilarities,orofthemoregeneralfeatures,inthesetwogovernmentrelations,istechnicallycalledconstituentcommand,c-commandforshort.70.  governmentandbindingtheory:itisthefourthperiodofdevelopmentChomsky’sTGGrammar,whichconsistsofX-bartheme:thebasis,orthestartingpoint,oftheutterance.71.  communicativedynamism:theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication.72.  ideationalfunction:thespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.73.  interpersonalfunction:theuseoflanguagetoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations:fortheexpressionofsocialroles,whichincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself;andalsoforgettingthingsdone,bymeansoftheinteractionbetweenonepersonandanother..74.  textualfunction:theuseoflanguagetheprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.75.  conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartofmeaning,whichcontainslogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontent.76.  denotation:thecoresenseofawordoraphradethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworld.77.  connotation:aterminacontrastwithdenotation,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.78.  reference:theuseoflanguagetoexpressapropostion,meaningthepropertiesoftheentityaworddenotes.79.  reference:theuseofanguagetoexpressaproposition,i.e.totalkaboutthingsincontext.80.  sense:theliteralmeaningofawordoranexpression,independentofsituationalcontext.81.  synonymy:isthetechnicalnameforthesamenessrelation.82.  complentaryantonymy:membersofapairincomplementaryantonymyarecomplementarytoeachfieldcompletely,suchasmale,female,absent.83.  gradableantongymy:membersofthiskindaregradable,suchaslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.  converseantonymy:aspecialkindofantonymyinthatmemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negativeopposition,suchasbuy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.  relationalopposites:converseantonymyinreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,temporal\nandspatialrelations.Therearealwaystwoentitiesinvolved.Onepresupposestheother.Theshorter,better;worse.etcareinstancesofrelationalopposites.86.  hyponymy:arelationbetweentowwords,inwhichthemeaningofoneword(thesuperordinate)isincludedinthemeaningofanotherword(thehyponym)87.  superordinate:theupperterminhyponymy,i.e.theclassname.Asuperordinateusuallyhasseveralhyponyms.Underanimal,forexample,therearecats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.  semanticcomponent:adistinguishableelementofmeaninginawordwithtwovalues,e.g<+human>89.  compositionality:aprincipleforsentenceanalysis,inwhichthemeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningsoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.90.  selectionrestriction:semanticrestrictionsofthenounphrasesthataparticularlexicalitemcantake,e.g.regretrequiresahumansubject.91.  prepositionallogic:alsoknownasprepositionalcalculusorsententialcalculus,isthestudyofthetruthconditionsforpropositions:howthetruthofacompositepropositionsandtheconnectionbetweenthem.92.  proposition;whatistalkaboutinanutterance,thatpartofthespeechactwhichhastodowithreference.93.  predicatelogic:alsopredicatecalculus,whichstudiestheinternalstructureofsimple.94.  assimilationtheory:language(sound,word,syntax,etc)changeorprocessbywhichfeaturesofoneelementchangetomatchthoseofanotherthatprecedesorfollows.95.  cohorttheory:theoryoftheperceptionofspokenwordsproposedinthemid-1980s.Itsaaumesa“recognitionlexicon”inwhicheachwordisrepresentedbyafullandindependent”recognistionelement”.Whenthesystemreceivesthebeginningofarelevantacousticsignal,allelementsmatchingitarefullyacticated,and,asmoreofthesignalisreceived,thesystemtriestomatchitindependentlywitheachofthem,Whereveritfailstheelementisdeactivated;thisprocesscontinuesuntilonlyoneremainsactive.96.  contexteffect:thiseffecthelppeoplerecognizeawordmorereadilywhentherecedingwordsprovideanappropriatecontextforit.97.  frequencyeffect:describestheadditionaleasewithwhichawordisaccessedduetoitsmorefrequentusageinlanguage.98.  inferenceincontext:anyconclusiondrawnfromasetofproposition,fromsomethingsomeonehassaid,andsoon.Itincludesthingsthat,whilenotfollowinglogically,areimplied,inanordinarysense,e.g.inaspecificcontext.99.  immediateassumption:thereaderissupposedtocarryouttheprogressesrequiredtounderstandeachwordanditsrelationshiptopreviouswordsinthesentenceassoonasthatwordinencountered.100.  languageperception:languageawarenessofthingsthroughthephysicalsenses,esp,sight.101.  languagecomprehension:oneofthethreestrandofpsycholinguisticresearch,whichstudiestheunderstandingoflanguage.102.  languageproduction:agoal-directedactivety,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordetomakefriends,influencepeople,conveyinformationandsoon.103.  languageproduction:agoal-directedactivity,inthesensethatpeoplespeakandwriteinordertomakefriends,influencepeople,conceyinformationandsoon.104.  lexicalambiguity:ambiguityexplainedbyreferencetolexicalmeanings:e.g.thatofIsawa\nbat,whereabatmightrefertoananimalor,amongothers,stabletennisbat.105.  macroproposition:generalpropositionsusedtoformanoverallmacrostructureofthestory.106.  modular:whichaassumesthatthemindisstructuiedintoseparatemodulesorcomponents,eachgovernedbyitsownprinciplesandoperatingindependentlyofothers.107.  parsing:thetaskofassigningwordstopartsofspeechwiththeirappropriateaccidents,traditionallye.g.topupilslearninglatingrammar.108.  propositions:whateverisseenasexpressedbyasentencewhichmakesastatement.Itisapropertyofpropositionsthattheyhavetruthvalues.109.  psycholinguistics:isconcernedprimarilywithinvestigatingthepsychologicalrealityoflinguisticstructure.Psycholinguisticscanbedividedintocognitivepsycholinguistics(beingconcernedaboveallwithmakinginferencesaboutthecontentofhumanmind,andexperimentalpsycholinguistics(beingconcernedsomehowwhthempiricalmatters,suchasspeedofresponsetoaparticularword).110.  psycholinguisticreality:therealityofgrammar,etc.asapurportedaccountofstructuresrepresentedinthemindofaspeaker.Oftenopposed,indiscussionofthemeritsofalternativegrammars,tocriteriaofsimplicity,elegance,andinternalconsistency.111.  schemataintext:packetsofstoredknowledgeinlanguageprocessing.112.  storystructure:thewayinwhichvariouspartsofstoryarearrangedororganized.113.  writingprocess:aseriesofactionsoreventsthatarepartofawritingorcontinuingdevelopmeng.114.  communicativecompetence:aspeaker’sknowledgeofthetotalsetofrules,conventions,etc.governingtheskilleduseoflanguageinasociety.DistinguishedbyD.Hymesinthelate1960sfromChomsley’sconceptofcompetence,intherestrictedsenseofknowledgeofagrammar.115.  genderdifference:adifferenceinaspeechbetweenmenandwomenis”gendendifference”116.  linguisticdeterminism:oneofthetwopointsinSapir-Whorfhypothesis,i.e.languagedeterminesthought.117.  linguisticrelativity:oneofthetwopointsinSpir-Whorfhypotheis,i.e.there’snolimittothestructuraldiversityoflanguages.118.  linguisticsexism:manydifferencesbetweenmeandwomeninlanguageusearebroughtaboutbynothinglessthanwomen’splaceinsociety.119.  sociolinguisticsoflanguage:oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwewanttolookatstructuralthingsbypayingattentiontolanguageuseinasocialcontext.120.  sociolinguisticsofsociety;oneofthetwothingsinsociolinguistics,inwhichwetrytounderstandsociologicalthingsofsocietybyexamininglinguisticphenomenaofaspeakingcommunity.121.  variationistlinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,whichstudiestherelationshipbetweenspeakers’socialstartsandphonologicalvariations.122.  performative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerdoessomethingdoessomething,asapposedtoaconstative,bywhichmakesastatementwhichmaybetrueorfalse.123.  constative:anutterancebywhichaspeakerexpressesapropositionwhichmaybetrueorfalse.124.  locutionaryact:theactofsayingsomething;it’sanactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology.Namely.,theutteranceofasentencewithdeterminate\nsenseandreference.125.  illocutionaryact:theactperformedinsayingsomething;itsforceisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention.126.  perlocutionaryact:theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething,it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.127.  conversationalimplicature:theextrameaningnotcontainedintheliteralutterances,underatandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.128.  entailment:relationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother:e.g.”Maryisrunning”entails,amongotherthings,”Maryisnotstandingstill”.129.  ostensivecommunication:acompletecharacterizationofcommunicationisthatitisostensive-infer-ential.130.  communicativeprincipleofrelevance:everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.131.  relevance:apropertythatanyutterance,orapropositionthatitcommunicates,must,inthenatureofcommunication,necessarilyhave.132.  Q-principle:oneofthetwoprinciplesinHorn’sscale,i.e.Makeyourcontributionnecessary(G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Saynomorethanyoumust(givenQ).133.  divisionofpragmaticlabour:theuseofamarkedcrelativelycomplexand/orexpressionwhenacorrespondingunmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternateexpressionisavailabletendstobeinterpretedasconveyingamarkedmessage(onewhichtheunmarkedalternativewouldnotorcouldnothaveconveyed).134.  constraintsonHornscales:thehearer-basedo-Principleisasufficiencyconditioninthesensethatinformationprovidedisthemostthespeakerisableto..135.  third-personnarrator:ofthenarratorisnotacharacterinthefictionalworld,heorsheisusuallycalledathird–personnarrator.136.  I-narrator:thepersonwhotellsthestorymayalsobeacharacterinthefictionalworldofthestory,relatingthestoryaftertheevent.137.  directspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.138.  indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationinwhichthecharactersaidinitsfullestform.139.  indirectspeech:akindofspeechpresentationwhichisanamalgamofdirectspeech.140.  narrator’srepreaentationofspeechacts:aminimalistkindofpresentationinwhichapartofpassagecanbeseenasasummeryofalongerpieceofdiscourse,andthereforeevenmorebackgruondedthanindirectspeechrepresentationwouldbe.141.  narrator”srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofcategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheirofcharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentspeechacts.Forexample,,sheconsideredhisunpunctuality.142.  indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheir\ncharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewoulebelate.143.  feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.144.  narrator’srepresentationofthoughtacts:akindofthecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftherircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking.145.  indirectthought:akindofcategoriesusedbynovelisttorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlyasthatusedtopresentindirectspeech.Forexample,shethoughtthathewouldbelate.146.  feeindirectspeech:afurthercategorywhichcanoccur,whichisanamalgamofdirectspeechandindirectspeechfeatures.147.  narrator”srepresentationofthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststopresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeeche.g.Hespentthedaythinking.148.  freeindirectthought:thecategoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech,e.g.Hewasboundtobelate.149.  directthought:categoriesusedbynoveliststorepresentthethoughtsoftheircharactersareexactlythesameasthoseusedtorepresentaspeech..  150.  computersystem:themachineitselftogetherwithakeyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.151.  computerliteracy:thosepeoplewhohavesufficientknowledgeandskillintheuseofcomputersandcomputersoftware.152.  computerlinguistics:abranchofappliedliguistics,dealingwithcomputerprocessingofhumanlanguage.153.  Call:computer-assistedlanguagelearning(call),referstotheuseofacomputerintheteachingorlearningofasecondorforeignlanguage.154.  programndedinstruction:theuseofcomputerstomonitorstudentprogress,todirectstudentsintoappropriatelessons,material,etc.155.  localareanetwork:arecomputerslinkedtogetherbycablesinaclassroom,lab,orbuilding.Theyofferteachersanovelapproachforcreatingnewactivitiesforstudentsthatprovidemoretimeandexperiencewithtargetlanguage.156.  CD-ROM:computerdisk-readonlymemoryallowshugeamountofinformationtobestoredononediskwithquichaccesstotheinformation.Studentsandteacherscanaccessinformationquicklyandefficientlyforuseinandoutofthe\nclassroom.157.  machinetranslation:referstotheuseofmachine(usuallycomputer)totranslatetextsfromonelanguagetoanother.158.  concordance:theuseofcomputertosearchforaparticularword,sequenceofwords.orperhapsevenapartofspeechinatext.Thecomputercanalsoreceiveallexamplesofaparticularword,usuallyinacontext,whichisafurtheraidtothelinguist.Itcanalsocalculatethenumberofoccurrencesofthewordsothatinformationonthefrequencyofthewordmaybegathered.159.  annotation:ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated-itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbeenenhancedwithvarioustypeoflinguisticinformation,160.  annotation:ifcorporaissaidtobeunannotated—itappearsinitsexistingrawstateofplaintext,whereasannotatedcorporahasbeenenhancedwithvarioustypeoflinguisticinformation.161.  informationalretrieval:thetermconventionallythoughsomewhatinaccurately,appliedtothetypeofactrvitydiscussedinthisvolume.Aninformationretrievalsystemdoesnotinfor(i.e.changetheknowledgeof)theuseronthesubjectofhisinquiry.itmerelyinformsontheexistence(ornon-existence)andwhereaboutsofdocumentsrelatingtohisrequest.162.  documentrepresentative:informationstructureisconcernedwithexploitingrelationships,betweendocumentstoimprovetheefficiencyandeffectivenessofretrievalstrategies.Itcoversspecificallyalogicalorganizationofinformation,suchasdocumentrepresentatives,forthepurposeofinformationretrieval.163.  precision:theproportionofretrievaldocumentswhicharerelevant.164.  recall:theproportionofretrievaldocumentswhicharerelevant.165.  appliedlinguistics:applicationsoflinguisticstostudyofsecondandforeignlanguagelearningandteaching,andotherareassuchastranslation,thecompilingofdictionaries,etc166.  communicativecompetence:asdefinedbyHymes,theknowledgeandabilityinvolvedinputtinglanguagetocommunicativeuse.167.  syllabus:theplanningofcourseofinstruction.Itisadescriptionofthecousrcontent,teachingproceduresandlearningexperiences.168.  interlanguage:thetypeoflanguageconstructedbysecondorforeignlanguagelearnerswhoarestillintheprocessoflearningalanguage,i.e.thelanguagesystembetweenthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.169.  transfer:theinfluenceofmothertongueuponthesecondlanguage.Whenstructuresofthetwolanguagesaresimilar,wecangetpositivetransferoffacilitation;whenthetwolanguagesaredifferentinstructures,negativetransferofinferenceoccursandresultinerrors.170.  validity:thedegreetowhichatestmeansureswhatitismeanttomeasure.Therearefourkindsofvalidity,i.e.contentvalidity,constructvalidity,empiricalvaliodity,andfacevalidity.171.  rebiability:canbedefinedasconsistency.Therearetwokindsofreliability,i.e.stabilityreliability,andequiralencereliability.172.  hypercorrection:overuseofastandardlinguisticfeatures,intermsofbothfrequency,i.e.overpassingthespeakersofhighersocialstatus,andovershootingthetarget,i.e.extendingtheuseofaforminalinguisticenvironmentwhereitisnotexpectedtooccur,Forexample,pronouncingideasas[ai’dier],extendingpronouncingpost-vocalic/r/inanenvorienmentwhereit’snotsupposedtooccur.173.  discretepointtest:akindoftestinwhichlanguagestructuresorskillsarefurtherdividedintoindividualpointsofphonology,syntaxandlexis.174.  integrativetest:akindoftestinwhichlanguagestructuresorskillsarefurtherdividedinto\nindividualpointsofphonology,syntaxandlexis.《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章  语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。第二章    语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。第三章    语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。第四章    音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。第五章  词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。第六章  词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。\n第七章  句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。第八章  语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。第九章  语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章  语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。第十一章  语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。1.1.  Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,inJapanese,inChinese,“check”inKorean.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages,developedor“new”.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.1.2.  Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage?“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability1.3.  Whatisarbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds(seeI.1).Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”isless\nso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.1.4.Whatisduality?Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.(p.6),languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthishonour.1.5.Whatisproductivity?Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky).1.6.Whatisdisplacement?“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.\n1.8.Whatisinterchangeability?Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay,andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstand,forexample,“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeople(includingme)suggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilarhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,alltheneighbouringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are0“speaking”andwhichlistening.1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem(seeI.2-8).Let’sborrowC.F.Hocket’sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals’systems,fromWangGang(1998,p.8).Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”inI.7)1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual(see!.11-17;seeHUZhuanglinetal.,pp10-13,pp394-396).1.  11Whatisthephaticfunction?The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.1.12.    Whatisthedirectivefunction?The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Other\nsyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“indrectspeechacttheory”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp271-278)atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).AccordingtoP.Grice’s“CooperativePrinciple”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp282-283),oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.1.14.Whatistheinterrogativefunction?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.,“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.1.16.Whatistheevocativefunction?The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.,youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction?Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifathirdYangtzebridgeoughttobebuiltinWuhan,themayormaysay“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,andmorethananaveragesocialindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc.,areperformativesaswell(seeJ.Austin’sspeechActTheory,HuZhuanglin,ecal.,pp271-278).1.18.Whatislinguistics?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,\nbutthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp20-22)1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics(e.g.HuZhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988).Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography,etymology,etc.1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies?Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp25-27).1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary,becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.\nIncontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional(causingmisunderstandingormalentendu),whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches?Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor  “correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)believesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso.1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.\n1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential).1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent(see1.25).Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.1.28.Whatisphonetics?“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp39-40),speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.1.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed?Thevocalorgans(seeFigure1,HuZhuanglinetal.,p41),orspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.1.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation?Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved,e.g.lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabialp,b,m];(2)labiodentalf,v];(3)dental,];(4)alveolart,d,l,n.s,z];(5)retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar,];(7)palatalj];(8)velar[k,g,];(9)uvular;(10)glottalh].\nSomesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthattwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.1.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation?The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosivep,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasalm,n,];(3)trill;(4)taporflap;(5)laterall];(6)fricativef,v,s,z];(7)approximantw,j];(8)affricate].1.32.Howdophoneticiansclassifyvowels?Phoneticians,inspiteofthedifficulty,groupvowelsin5types:(1)longandshortvowels,e.g.,[i:,];(4)roundedandunroundvowels,e.g.[,i];(5)pureandglidingvowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing?TheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.1.34.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.1.35.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?(1)    “Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.(2)  Phonetics,asdiscussedinI.28,isthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone’slanguage.1.36.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone?A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronouncedpit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]’s,readily\nmakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]’sintheabovewordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.1.37.Whatareminimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp65-66).1.38.Whatisfreevariation?Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g.,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.1.39.Whatiscomplementarydistribution?Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter,andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule?(1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegative\nprefix“in-“servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[  ](alveolar)inconceivable-[  ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling(seeDaiWeidong,pp22-23).1.41.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.HuZhuanglinetal.,(p,73)includesstress,lengthandpitchaswhattheysupposetobe“principalsuprasegmental  features”,callingtheconcurrentpatterningofthree“intonation”.DaiWeidong(pp23-25)liststhreealso,buttheyarestress,toneandintonation.1.42.Whatismorphology?“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.1.43.Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.1.44.Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)or\nderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).1.46.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).1.47.Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.1.48.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.,[itiz‘w  ](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethe\ncategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords(e.g.,-mats,seldom-?);(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords(seeI.47).Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabtractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.1.49.Whatiscollocation?“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.1.50.Whatissyntax?“Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensententialelements.1.51.Whatisasentence?L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform.1.52.Whataresyntacticrelations?“Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences;hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:positionalrelations,relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence.“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”.Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.By“relationsofco-occurrence”,onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations.\n1.53.WhatisICanalysis?Whatareimmediateconstituents(andultimateconstituents)?“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample,“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented:“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|),andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit(||)thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.1.54.Whatareendocentricandexocentricconstructons?“Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”,oppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole;thatistosay,thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.1.55.Whatisasubject?Apredicate?Anobject?Insomelanguage,an“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase,suchas“pater”inthefollowingexample:“paterfiliumamat”(putliterallyinEnglish:thefatherthesonloves).InEnglish,a“grammaticalsubject”referstoanounwhichcanestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest,e.g.,“Heisagoodcook(,isn’the?).”A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentence“Themonkeyisjumping”,“isjumping”isthepredicate.Traditionally“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds:directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages,anobjectismarkedbycaselabels:the“accusativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”forindirecttowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).E.g.,inthesentence“Johnkissedme”,“me”istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation.1.56.Whatiscategory?Theterm“category”insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc.1.57.Whatisnumber?Whatisgender?Whatiscase?“Number”isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronouns\nandverbs.“Gender”displayssuchcontrastsas“masculine”,“feminine”,“neuter”,or“animate”and“inanimate”,etc.,fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities,wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.1.58.Whatisconcord?Whatisgovernment?“Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories,e.g.,“manruns”,“menrun”.“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish,governmentappliesonlytopronounsamongthevariablewords,thatis,prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem,e.g.,  “Ihelpedhim;hehelpedme.”1.59.Whatisaphrase?Whatisaclause?A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierachy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.,“thethreetallestgirls”(nominalphrase).Thereisnowatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenwordgroupsandphrases.A“wordgroup”isanextensionofawordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Thuswehavenominalgroup,verbalgroup,adverbialgroup,conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup.A“clause”isgroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicateincludedinalargersubject-verbconstruction,namely,inasentence.Clausescanalsobeclassifiedintotwokinds:finiteandnon-finiteclauses,thelatterreferringtowhataretraditionallycalledinfinitivephrase,participlephraseandgerundialphrase.(For“sentence”,seeI.51.)1.60.Whatisconjoining?Whatisembedding?Whatisrecursiveness?“Conjoining”referstoaconstructionwhereoneclauseisco-ordinatedorconjoinedwithanother,e.g.,“Johnboughtacatandhiswifekilledher.”“Embedding”referstotheprocessofconstructionwhereoneclauseisincludedinthesentence(ormainclause)insyntacticsubordination,e.g.,“Isawthemanwhohadkilledachimpanzee.”By“recursiveness”wemeanthatthereistheoreticallynolimittothenumberoftheembeddedclausesinacomplexsentence.Thisistruealsowithnominalandadverbialclauses,e.g.,“Isawthemanwhokilledacatwho…aratwhich…that…”1.61.Whatishypotacticrelation?Whatisparatacticrelation?“Hypotacticrelation”referstoaconstructionwhereconstituentsarelinkedbymeansofconjunction,e.g.“Heboughteggsandmilk.”“Paratacticrelation”referstoconstructionswhichareconnectedbyjuxtaposition,punctuationorintonation,e.g.,“Heboughttea,coffee,eggsand\nmilk”(payattentiontothefirstthreenounsconnectedwithout“and”).1.62.Whatissemantics?“Semantics”referstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply,itisthestudyofmeaning.1.63.Whatismeaning?Thoughitisdifficulttodefine,“meaning”hasthefollowingmeaning:(1)anintrinsicproperty;(2)theconnotationofaword;(3)thewordsputafteradictionaryentry;(4)thepositionanobjectoccupiesin  asystem;(5)whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto;(6)whatthesymbolusershouldreferto;(7)whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto;(8)whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto;(9)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto;(10)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto…linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”,“conceptualism/mentalism”,“mechanism”,“contextualism”,“behaviorism”,“functionalism”,etc.(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp140-142).Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause,accordingtothetheory,theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent.1.64.Whatisthedifference      betweenmeaning,concept,connotation,sense,implication,denotation,notation,reference,implicatureandsignification?“Meaning”referstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealword.(2)“Concept”or“notion”istheimpressionofobjectsinpeople’smind.(3)“connotation”istheimpliedmeaning,similarto“implication”and“implicature”.(4)“Sense”isthelexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.(5)“Denotation”,like“sense”,isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects,butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.(6)“Reference”istheword-objectrelationship.(7)“Implicature”,initsnarrowsense,referstoconversationalimplicatureachievedbyintentionallyviolatingoneofthefourCPmaxims(seeI.122-123).(8)“Signification”,incontrastwith“value”,meanthemeaningofsituationmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue,like“What’sthis?”1.65.WhatistheSemantic/SemioticTriangle?OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifestedinthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword.1.66.Whatiscontextualism?“Contextualism”isbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfrom,orreduceitto,observablecontext:the“situationalcontext”andthe“linguisticcontext”.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatio-temporalsituation,asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext:(1)thespeakerandthehearer;(2)theactionstheyareperformingatthetime;(3)variousexternalobjectsandevents;(4)deicticfeatures.\nThe“linguisticcontext”isanotheraspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofoneword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother,whichformspartofthemeaning,andanimportantfactorincommunication.1.67.Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy?C.C.Fries(1952)makesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning.Theformerisexpressedbythose“meaningful”partsofspeech,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,andisgiveninthedictionaryassociatedwithgrammar.Thelatterexpressesthedistinctionbetweenthesubjectandtheobjectofasentence,oppositionsofdefiniteness,tensethenumber,andthedifferencebetweenstatements,questionsandrequests.Inaword,“thetotallinguisticmeaningofanyutteranceconsistsofthelexicalmeaningoftheseparatewordsplussuchstructuralmeaning…”G.Leech(1981)categorizessevenkindsofmeaning,fiveofwhicharebroughtunderthe“associativemeaning”(seethefollowingchart).Differentfromthetraditionalandthefunctionalapproach,F.R.Palmer(1981)andJ.Lyons(1977)suggestwedrawadistinctionbetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning,theformerbeingdirectlypredictablefromthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofthesentence,whilethelatterincludesallthevarioustypesofmeaningnotnecessarilyassociatedthereto.1.68.Whatissynonymy?“Synonymy”isusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakers(lexicographers)relyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdefinitions.Somesemanticiansmaintain,however,thattherearenorealsynonyms,becausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects:(1)  Inshadesofmeaning(e.g.,finish,complete,close,conclude,terminate,finalize,end,etc.);(2)  Instylisticmeaning(see1.67);(3)  Inemotivemeaning(oraffectivemeaning,see1.67);(4)  Inrangeofuse(orcollocativemeaning,see1.67);(5)  InBritishandAmericanEnglishusages[e.g.,autumn(BrE),fall(AmE)].SimeonPottersaid,“Languageislikedress.Wevaryourdresstosuittheoccasion.Wedonotappearatafriend’ssilver-weddinganniversaryingardeningclothes,nordowegopuntingontheriverinadinner-jacket.”Thismeansthelearninglfsynonymsisimportanttoanyonethatwishestousehislanguagefreelyandwell.1.69.WhatisAntonymy?Howmanykindsofantonymsarethere?Theterm“antonymy”isusedforoppositionsofmeaning;wordsthatstandoppositeinmeaningarecalled“antonyms”,oropposites,whichfallintherecategories1)gradableantonyms(e.g,good-bad);(2)complementaryantonyms(e.g.,single-mar-ried);(3)relationalantonyms(e.g.,buy-sell).1.70.Whatishyponymy?Whatisahyponym?Whatissuperordinate?“Hyponymy”involvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenXidakindofY,thelowertermXisthe“hyponym”,andtheuppertermYisthe“superordinate”.Twoormorehyponymssharingthesameonesuperordinatearecalled\n“co-hyponyms”.Forexample,“flower”isthesuperordinateof“tulip”,“violet”and“rose”,whicharetheco-hyponymsof“flower”.1.71.Whatispolysemy?Whatishomonymy?“Polysemy”referstothesemanticphenomenonthatawordmayhavethanonemeaning.Forexample,“negative”,means(1)astatementsayingormeaning“no”,(2)arefusalordenial,(3)oneofthefollowingwordsandexpressions:no,not,nothing,never,notatall,etc.,(4)anegativephotographorfilm.Butwecansometimeshardlytellifaformhasseveralmeaningsoritisadifferentwordtakingthisform;hencethedifferencebetweenpolysemyandhomonymy.1.72.Whatisentailment?“Entailment”canbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentences,withSentenceAentailingSentenceB:A:Hemarriedablondeheiress.B:Hemarriedablonde.Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthesetwosentences1)WhenAistrue,Bisnecessarilytrue;(2)WhenBisfalse,too;(3)whenAisfalse,Bmaybetrueorfalse;(4)WhenBistrue,Amaybetrueorfalse.Entailmentisbasicallyasemanticrelationorlogicalimplication,butwehavetoassumeco-referenceof“He”insentenceAandsentenceB,beforewehaveAentailB.1.语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性culturaltransmission2。语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3.语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4.现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语languageandparole\n，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5.语法创始人：NoamChomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competenceandperformance1.Whichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:a.wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguageb.wecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.c.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentd.wecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore.2.Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?a.interpersonalb.phaticc.informatived.metallingual3.Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativeb.phaticc.directived.performative4.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussureb.hallidayc.chomskyd.thepragueschool5.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?a.saussureb.chomskyc.hallidaydanomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带thevocalcords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowelglides1.Articulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies\n__.a.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechb.theperceptionofsoundsc.thecombinationofsoundsd.theproductionofsounds2.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__a.theplaceofarticulationb.theobstructionfairstreamc.thepositionofthetongued.theshapeofthelips3.Whatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,kta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.nasal4.Whatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.WhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicingb.nasalc.approximationd.aspiration6.Thephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__a.voicedstopb.voicelessstopc.voicedfricatived.voicelessfricative7.pisdivverentfromkin__a.themannerofarticulationb.theshapeofthelipsc.thevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion8.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__a.aspirationb.nasalityc.obstructiond.voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。\n2.音位phoneme：最小语音单位3.音位变体allophones:读音差别4.对比性分布：如果两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中，而且产生了两个不同的单词，5.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首6.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda7.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个8.最小语音对minimalpairsI.Introduction1.WhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.WhatisLinguistics(语言学)Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.SomeBasicDistinctions(区分)inLinguistics3.1SpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple(原则)oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope(范畴)andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.3.2Descriptive(描述性)orPrescriptive(说明性)Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.3.3Synchronic(共时)andDiachronic(历时)StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.3.4Langue(语言)andParole(言语)ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure(索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized(实际的)language,orrealizationoflangue.3.5Competence(能力)andPerformance(行为)Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances(发声).4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics(语音学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology(音韵学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology(词法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax(句法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics(语义学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics(应用语言学)isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics(历史语言学)isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics(人文语言学)usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologyto\nstudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学)studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics(数学语言学)studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics(计算语言学)isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics(语音学）1.scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate(协调）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated(调节）bytheear,theauditorynerve(神经）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics(声学语音学）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（传送）betweenmouthandear.2.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,(气流发生器官）theproducerofvoice（声音发生器官）andtheresonatingcavities.（声音共振器官）3.Consonants(辅音）Placesofarticulation(发音部位）:bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4.Vowels(元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low),thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back),andthedegreeofliprounding(rounded,unrounded)III.Phonology（音韵学）1.phonemes(音素）：adistinctive(有区别的）soundinalanguage.2.Allophones(音位变体）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.3.Minimalpairs(最小对立体）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.4.Freevariation(自由变异）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment(环境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.5.Complementarydistribution(补充分类）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology(超音段音位）：thestudyofphonological\nproperties(性质）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable(音节），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音调）andintonation（语调）.IV.Morphology（词法）1.inflection(构形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.(屈折词缀）2.Word-formation(构词）：theprocesses(过程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明词法关系）Theyarecompound(合成）andderivation(派生）.3.Morpheme(词素）：thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.4.Allomorph(同质异象变体）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.5.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,(词根）affix（词缀）andstem（词干）.6.Lexicon(语言词汇）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.7.Closed-classwords(封闭性）andopen-classwords(开放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple(实际上）indefiniteorunlimited.8.Wordclass(词性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.9.Lexeme(词位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.10.Idiom(习语，成语）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords(词序）whichissemantically（语义上）andoftensyntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11.Collocation(搭配）：thehabitual(习惯的）co-occurrences（同时出现）ofindividuallexicalitems.V.Syntax(句法）1.Positionalrelationorwordorder（词序）：thesequential(顺序）arrangementofwordsinalanguage.2.Constructionorconstituent(句子结构）：theoverallprocessofinternal(内部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.3.Syntacticfunction(句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）,etc.4.Category(范畴）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.5.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.6.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.7.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.Semantics1.Conceptualismormentalism(概念主义）：FollowingF.DeSaussure(索学尔）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指）,i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbya\npsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相关联系）2.Mechanism(机械主义）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力现象）3.Contextualism（语境主义）：Itisbasedonthepresumption(假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.4.Behaviorism(行为主义）：Behavioristsattempttodefine(定义）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation(情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（说话）itandtheresponse（反应）itcallsforthinthehearer."5.functionalism(功能主义）：functionalistsasrepresented(代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格学派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（争辩）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解释）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.6.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy(同义词）,antonym(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）andHomonymy(同音异义词）7.Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1)componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.(意义成分）2)predication(表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3)relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation(语言变化）1.Lexicalchange(词汇的变化）：changesinlexis.2.Invention:(新造词）newentities.3.Compounding合成词）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwooldwords.4.Blending:(混合词）：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots.5.Abbreviationorclipping:(缩写）Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpartorcuttingtheinitialpart.6.acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）Itismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodified(修饰）headword.7.metanalysis:(再分化）Itreferstoaprocessthroughwhichadivisionismadewheretherewerenotebefore.8.Back-formation:(逆构词）Itreferstoanabnormal(非正常）typeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeleting(去掉）animaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.9.Analogicalcreation:(类比造词）Itcanaccountfor（说明）theco-existenceoftwo\nforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugation(结合）ofsomeEnglishverbs.10.Borrowing（借用）：Englishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.11.Phonologicalchange(音变）：Itisrelatedtolanguagevariationinthephonologicalsystemoflanguage.Itincludesloss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12.Grammaticalchange:Changesinbothmorphology（词法）andsyntax（句法）arelistedunderthisheading.13.Semanticchange:(语义变化）Itincludesbroadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaningshift,（意义转化）classshift（词性转换）andfolketymology.（词源变化）14.Orthographicchange：(正字法）Changescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.胡壮麟的语言学笔记1.Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitrary（随意的）vocal（发音的，口头的）symbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsic（固有的，内在的，本质的）connectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,“shu”inChinese.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage?“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,\nduality（二元性）,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmission（文化传播）andinterchangeability（可交换性）3.Whatisarbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaque（不透明的，难理解的，晦涩的）orunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.4.  Whatisduality?Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.,languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality.5.Whatisproductivity?Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky).6.Whatisdisplacement?“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyforabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolation\nhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.8.Whatisinterchangeability?Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Thoughsomepeoplesuggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot).Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are)“speaking”andwhichlistening.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem.Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttodoso.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual.11.Whatisthephaticfunction?The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction?The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“Indirectspeechacttheory”atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”13.Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbythe\nuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).AccordingtoP.Grice’s“CooperativePrinciple”,oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.14.Whatistheinterrogativefunction?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.,“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgmentonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.16.Whatistheevocativefunction?The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.,youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.17.Whatistheperformativefunction?Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc.,areperformatives.18.Whatislinguistics?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,\nconsistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,pragmatics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,psycholinguisticsetc.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies?Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary,becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional,whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches?Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)believesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenby\nanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour?Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential).27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Parole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.28.Whatisphonetics?“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointof\nview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed?Thevocalorgansorspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation?Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved,e.g.lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabial:[p,b,m];(2)  ];(4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n,s,z];(5)T,Plabiodental:[f,v];(3)dental:[retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar:[  ];(7)palatal:[j];(8)velar[k,g];(9)uvular;(10)glottal:[h].Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthattwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation?The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasal:[m,n,];(3)trill;(4)taporflap;(5)lateral:[l];(6)fricative:[f,v,s,z];(7)approximant:[w,j];(8)affricate:[  ].32.WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing?TheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.33.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics语音学,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.34.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.Phoneticsisthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone’s\nlanguage.35.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone?A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]sintheabovewordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.36.Whatareminimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage.37.Whatisfreevariation?Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g.,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.38.Whatiscomplementarydistribution?Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.39.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule?The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-“servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],or[im]whenoccurringin\ndifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[  ](alveolar)inconceivable-[  ](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling.40.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,lengthandpitch,stress,intonation.41.  Whatismorphology?“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.42.Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.43.Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.44.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).45.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,only\nwhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).46.Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open-classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.47.  Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.[itiz‘w  ](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords;(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,etc.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords.Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabstractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.48.Whatiscollocation?“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.49.Whatissyntax?“Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensentential\nelements.50.Whatisasentence?L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform.51.Whataresyntacticrelations?“Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences;hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:positionalrelations,relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence.“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”.“Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”.By“relationsofco-occurrence”,onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations.52.WhatisICanalysis?Whatareimmediateconstituents(andultimateconstituents)?“ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample,“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented:“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|),andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit(||)thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”.53.Whatareendocentricandexocentricconstructions?“Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”,oppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole;thatistosay,thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.54.Whatisasubject?Apredicate?Anobject?Insomelanguage,an“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase,suchas“pater”inthefollowingexample:“paterfiliumamat”(putliterallyinEnglish:thefatherthesonloves).InEnglish,a“grammaticalsubject”referstoanounwhichcanestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest,e.g.,“Heisagoodcook,(isn’the?).”A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentence“Themonkeyisjumping”,“isjumping”isthepredicate.Traditionally“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds:directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages,anobjectismarkedbycaselabels:the“accusativecase”fordirect\nobject,andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”forindirecttowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).e.g.,inthesentence“Johnkissedme”,“me”istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation.55.Whatiscategory?Theterm“category”insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc.56.  Whatisnumber?Whatisgender?Whatiscase?“Number”isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs.“Gender”displayssuchcontrastsas“masculine”,“feminine”,“neuter”,or“animate”and“inanimate”,etc.,fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities,wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender).“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms“accusative”,“nominative”,“dative”,etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder.57.Whatisconcord?Whatisgovernment?“Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories,e.g.,“manruns”,“menrun”.“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish,governmentappliesonlytopronounsamongthevariablewords,thatis,prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem,e.g.,“Ihelpedhim;hehelpedme.”58.Whatisaphrase?Whatisaclause?A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”.Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierarchy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.,“thethreetallestgirls”(nominalphrase).Thereisnowatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenwordgroupsandphrases.A“wordgroup”isanextensionofawordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Thuswehavenominalgroup,verbalgroup,adverbialgroup,conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup.A“clause”isgroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicateincludedinalargersubject-verbconstruction,namely,inasentence.Clausescanalsobeclassifiedintotwokinds:finiteandnon-finiteclauses,thelatterreferringtowhataretraditionallycalledinfinitivephrase,participlephraseandgerundialphrase.59.Whatisconjoining?Whatisembedding?Whatisrecursiveness?“Conjoining”referstoaconstructionwhereoneclauseisco-ordinatedorconjoinedwithanother,e.g.,“Johnboughtacatandhiswifekilledher.”“Embedding”referstotheprocessof\nconstructionwhereoneclauseisincludedinthesentence(ormainclause)insyntacticsubordination,e.g.,“Isawthemanwhohadkilledachimpanzee.”By“recursiveness”wemeanthatthereistheoreticallynolimittothenumberoftheembeddedclausesinacomplexsentence.Thisistruealsowithnominalandadverbialclauses,e.g.,“Isawthemanwhokilledacatwho…aratwhich…that…”60.Whatishypotacticrelation?Whatisparatacticrelation?“Hypotacticrelation”referstoaconstructionwhereconstituentsarelinkedbymeansofconjunction,e.g.“Heboughteggsandmilk.”“Paratacticrelation”referstoconstructionswhichareconnectedbyjuxtaposition,punctuationorintonation,e.g.,“Heboughttea,coffee,eggsandmilk”(payattentiontothefirstthreenounsconnectedwithout“and”).61.Whatissemantics（语义学）?“Semantics”referstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply,itisthestudyofmeaning.62.Whatismeaning?Thoughitisdifficulttodefine,“meaning”hasthefollowingmeaning:(1)anintrinsicproperty固有特性;(2)theconnotationofaword;(3)thewordsputafteradictionaryentry;(4)thepositionanobjectoccupiesinasystem;(5)whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto;(6)whatthesymbolusershouldreferto;(7)whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto;(8)whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto;(9)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto;(10)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto…linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”,“conceptualism概念论/mentalism心灵主义”,“mechanism”,“contextualism（文脉上的，前后有关系的）”,“behaviorism（行为学派，行动主义）”,“functionalism”,etc.Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause,accordingtothetheory,theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent.1.\n语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性culturaltransmission2。语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3.语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4.现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinanddesaussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语languageandparole，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5.语法创始人：NoamChomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competenceandperformance1.Whichofthefollowingstatementscanbeusedtodescribedisplacement.oneoftheuniquepropertiesoflanguage:a.wecaneasilyteachourchildrentolearnacertainlanguageb.wecanuseboth'shu'and'tree'todescribethesamething.c.wecanuselanguagetorefertosomethingnotpresentd.wecanproducesentencesthathaveneverbeenheardbefore.2.Whatisthemostimportantfunctionoflanguage?a.interpersonalb.phaticc.informatived.metallingual3.Thefunctionofthesentence"Aniceday,isn'tit?"is__ainformativeb.phaticc.directived.performative4.Thedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformanceisproposedby__asaussureb.\nhallidayc.chomskyd.thepragueschool5.Whoputforwardthedistinctionbetweenlanguageandparole?a.saussureb.chomskyc.hallidaydanomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带thevocalcords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：thereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音completeobstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partialobstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowelglides1.Articulatoryphoneticsmainlystudies__.a.thephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeechb.theperceptionofsoundsc.thecombinationofsoundsd.theproductionofsounds2.Thedistinctionbetweenvowelsandconsonantsliesin__a.theplaceofarticulationb.theobstructionfairstreamc.thepositionofthetongued.theshapeofthelips3.Whatisthecommonfactorofthethreesounds:p,kta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.nasal4.Whatphoneticfeaturedistinguishthepinpleaseandthepinspeak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.WhichofthefollowingisnotadistinctivefeatureinEnglish?a.voicing\nb.nasalc.approximationd.aspiration6.Thephonologicalfeaturesoftheconsonantkare__a.voicedstopb.voicelessstopc.voicedfricatived.voicelessfricative7.pisdivverentfromkin__a.themannerofarticulationb.theshapeofthelipsc.thevibrationofthevocalcordsd.thepalceofarticualtion8.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsin__a.aspirationb.nasalityc.obstructiond.voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。2.音位phoneme：最小语音单位3.音位变体allophones:读音差别4.对比性分布：如果两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中，而且产生了两个不同的单词，5.互补性分布；如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首6.音节syllable，分为节首onset，节峰peak，节尾coda7.辅音群:一般作为音节节首的辅音群不能超过三个福音，节尾不能超过4个8.最小语音对minimalpairsI.Introduction1.WhatisLanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.WhatisLinguistics(语言学)Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.SomeBasicDistinctions(区分)inLinguistics3.1SpeechandWritingOnegeneralprinciple(原则)oflinguisticanalysisistheprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Writinggiveslanguagenewscope(范畴)andusesthatspeechdoesnothave.3.2Descriptive(描述性)orPrescriptive(说明性)Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalysesfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifittriestolaydownrulesfor"correct"behavior.3.3Synchronic(共时)andDiachronic(历时)StudiesThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudyandThedescriptionofa\nlanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.3.4Langue(语言)andParole(言语)ThisisadistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistF.DeSaussure(索绪尔）earlylastcentury.languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualized(实际的)language,orrealizationoflangue.3.5Competence(能力)andPerformance(行为)Competenceistheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances(发声).4.TheScopeofLinguisticsGenerallinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageasawhole.Phonetics(语音学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Phonology(音韵学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsoflanguages.Morphology(词法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestheformofwords.Syntax(句法)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.Semantics(语义学)isthebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthemeaningoflanguage.Appliedlinguistics(应用语言学)isthestudyoftheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind.HistoricalLinguistics(历史语言学)isthestudyoflanguagechanges.Anthropologicallinguistics(人文语言学)usesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学)studiestheneurologicalbasisoflanguagedevelopmentanduseinhumanbeings.Mathematicallinguistics(数学语言学)studiesthemathematicalfeaturesoflanguage,oftenemployingmodelsandconceptsofmathematics.Computationallinguistics(计算语言学)isanapproachtolinguisticsinwhichmathematicaltechniquesandconceptsareapplied,oftenwiththeaidofacomputer.II.Phonetics(语音学）1.scopeofphoneticsSpeechsoundsmaybestudiedfromdifferentangles,thuswehaveatleastthreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学）wemayexaminethewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinate(协调）intheprocess.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）wemaylookintotheimpressionaspeakermakesonthehearerasmediated(调节）bytheear,theauditorynerve(神经）andthebrain.Acousticphonetics(声学语音学）westudythephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmitted（传送）betweenmouthandear.2.ThevocalorgansThevocalorgansmaybeviewedasconsistingofthreeparts,theinitiatoroftheair-stream,(气流发生器官）theproducerofvoice（声音发生器官）andtheresonating\ncavities.（声音共振器官）3.Consonants(辅音）Placesofarticulation(发音部位）:bilabial,(双唇）Labiodentals,（唇齿）dental,（齿）alveolar,（齿龈）retroflex,（卷舌）palate-alveolar,（上齿龈）palatal,（上颚）velar,（软腭）uvular,（小舌）glottal(声门）Mannersofarticulation:plosive,（暴破）nasal,（鼻音）trill,（颤音）lateral,（边音）fricative,（摩擦）approximant,（近似音）affricate（破擦）4.Vowels(元音）Theclassificationofvowels:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low),thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back),andthedegreeofliprounding(rounded,unrounded)III.Phonology（音韵学）1.phonemes(音素）：adistinctive(有区别的）soundinalanguage.2.Allophones(音位变体）：Thenondistinctivesoundsaremembersofthesamephoneme.3.Minimalpairs(最小对立体）：wordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.4.Freevariation(自由变异）：Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironment(环境）,theydoesnotproduceadifferentwordform,butmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword.5.Complementarydistribution(补充分类）：Notallthespeechsoundsoccurinthesameenvironment.Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment.6.Suprasegmentalphonology(超音段音位）：thestudyofphonologicalproperties(性质）ofunitslagerthanthesegment-phoneme.Theyaresyllable(音节），stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress.pitch（音调）andintonation（语调）.IV.Morphology（词法）1.inflection(构形法）：thegrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.(屈折词缀）2.Word-formation(构词）：theprocesses(过程）ofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.（表明词法关系）Theyarecompound(合成）andderivation(派生）.3.Morpheme(词素）：thesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent.4.Allomorph(同质异象变体）：somemorphemeshaveconsiderablevariation,forinstance,alternateshapesorphoneticforms.5.Typesofmorphemes:Theyareroots,(词根）affix（词缀）andstem（词干）.6.Lexicon(语言词汇）：initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.7.Closed-classwords(封闭性）andopen-classwords(开放性）：theformerwhosemembershipisfixedorlimitedandthelatterwhosemembershipisinprinciple(实际上）indefiniteorunlimited.8.Wordclass(词性）：Itdisplaysawiderrangeofmorepreciselydefinedclasses.9.Lexeme(词位）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.10.Idiom(习语，成语）：Mostphrasallexemesareidioms.Itisespeciallytrueforasequenceofwords(词序）whichissemantically（语义上）andoftensyntactically(句法上）restricted.（限制）11.Collocation(搭配）：thehabitual(习惯的）co-occurrences（同时出现）ofindividuallexicalitems.V.Syntax(句法）1.Positionalrelationorwordorder（词序）：thesequential(顺序）arrangementofwordsina\nlanguage.2.Constructionorconstituent(句子结构）：theoverallprocessofinternal(内部）organizationofagrammaticalunit.3.Syntacticfunction(句法功能）：therelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.Thenamesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicates,modifiers,(修饰语）complements（补语）,etc.4.Category(范畴）：Itreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Thecategoriesofthenounincludenumber,gender,caseandcountability.5.Phrase:asingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalofclause.6.Clause:agroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicate,ifitisincludedinalargersentence.7.Sentence:Itistheminimumpartoflanguagethatexpressesacompletethought.VI.Semantics1.Conceptualismormentalism(概念主义）：FollowingF.DeSaussure(索学尔）'s"sign"theory,thelinguisticsignissaidtoconsistofasignifier（所指）andsignified（被指）,i.e.,asoundimageandaconcept,likedbyapsychological（心理的）"associative"bond.（相关联系）2.Mechanism(机械主义）：Somelinguists,Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德）forexample,turnedtosciencetocounter（反）-acttheprecioustheoriesandthisleadstowhatcallthemechanisticapproach（方法）.Thenatureofthistheoryhasnothingtodowiththescientificstudyofmentalphenomena.（智力现象）3.Contextualism（语境主义）：Itisbasedonthepresumption(假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreduceittoobservablecontext.4.Behaviorism(行为主义）：Behavioristsattempttodefine(定义）themeaningofalanguageformas"thesituation(情景）inwhichthespeakerutters（说话）itandtheresponse（反应）itcallsforthinthehearer."5.functionalism(功能主义）：functionalistsasrepresented(代表）bythePragueschool（布拉格学派）linguistsandneo-Firthian（新弗斯）linguists,approachtheproblemfromanentirelyneworientation（方法）.Theyargue（争辩）thatmeaningcouldonlybeinterpreted（解释）fromitsuseorfunctioninsociallife.6.Senserelationships:Whilereferencedealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements,words,sentences,etc.,andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,senserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves.Theyincludesynonymy(同义词）,antonym(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）andHomonymy(同音异义词）7.Semanticanalysis:Itincludes1)componential（成分）analysiswhichdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.(意义成分）2)predication(表述）analysisinwhichthemeaningofasentenceisnotmerelythesumofthemeaningsofthewordswhichcomposeit.3)relationalcomponentsinwhichthesemanticanalysisofsomewordspresentsacomplicatedpicture,becausetheyshowrelationsbetweentwoandperhapsmoreterms.VII.Languagevariation(语言变化）1.Lexicalchange(词汇的变化）：changesinlexis.2.Invention:(新造词）newentities.3.Compounding合成词）Newwordsaresometimesconstructedbycombiningtwoold\nwords.4.Blending:(混合词）：Itisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots.5.Abbreviationorclipping:(缩写）Anewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpartorcuttingtheinitialpart.6.acronym:(取首字母的缩写词）Itismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodified(修饰）headword.7.metanalysis:(再分化）Itreferstoaprocessthroughwhichadivisionismadewheretherewerenotebefore.8.Back-formation:(逆构词）Itreferstoanabnormal(非正常）typeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeleting(去掉）animaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.9.Analogicalcreation:(类比造词）Itcanaccountfor（说明）theco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugation(结合）ofsomeEnglishverbs.10.Borrowing（借用）：Englishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.11.Phonologicalchange(音变）：Itisrelatedtolanguagevariationinthephonologicalsystemoflanguage.Itincludesloss,(省音）addition,（加音）assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12.Grammaticalchange:Changesinbothmorphology（词法）andsyntax（句法）arelistedunderthisheading.13.Semanticchange:(语义变化）Itincludesbroadening,（语义扩大）narrowing,（语义缩小）meaningshift,（意义转化）classshift（词性转换）andfolketymology.（词源变化）14.Orthographicchange：(正字法）Changescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.