语言学教程-学习笔记 55页

第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingbranches:Generallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdeals withthebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicable inanylinguisticstudyPhonetics,whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunicationPhonology,whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationMorphology,whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoform wordsSyntax,whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesSemantics,whichisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Pragmatics,whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butincontextof useSociolinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetothe workingsofmind.Appliedlinguistics,whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguistic findingsinlinguisticstudies;Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsrefers totheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching andlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematicallinguistics,andcomputationallinguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedon"high"(religious, literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.But Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthentic, andmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjective andthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactually use,whetheritis"correct"ornot.\n3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy;the descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.A synchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticular pointinrime,whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;it studiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1)Arbitrariness。Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetween meaningsandsounds.Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetween theworddogandtheanimalitrefersto.Thefactthatdifferentsoundsare usedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguagesandthatthesame soundmaybeusedtorefertodifferentobjectsisanothergoodexample. Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Some words,suchasthewordscreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysoundsare motivatedinacertaindegree.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesit possibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2)Productivity。Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossible theconstructionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberof sentences,includingthosethattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.3)Duality。Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsof structure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherof meaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthe structureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedinto meaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordouble articulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheir \nknowledge.4)Displacement。Itmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutwhat happenedinthepast,whatishappeningnow,orwhatwillhappeninthe future.Languagecanalsobeusedtotalkaboutourrealwordexperiencesor theexperiencesinourimaginaryworld.Inotherwords,languagecanbeused torefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5)Culturaltransmission。Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquire language,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,but insteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.5、Chomsky的语言能力和语言使用各指什么？AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinction betweencompetenceandperformance.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheideal user’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrules enablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumber ofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous. AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledge inlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismother tongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialand psychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc..Chomskybelieves thatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,not theperformance,whichistoohaphazard.6、Saussure是如何区分语言和言语的？Thedistinctionbetweenlangue,andparolewasmadebythefamousSwiss linguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.Langueandparoleare Frenchwords.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyall \nthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationof langueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhich languageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseofthe conventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;Itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itrefers tothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,it doesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,and fromsituationtosituation.7、什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.It studiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.8、口头语与书面语Speechenjoyspriorityoverwritinginmodernlinguisticsstudyforthe followingreasons:1)speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution2)alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechtaninwriting3)speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage9、语言与言语Languagereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersof aspeechcommunityParolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse10、能力与运用Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealusers’knowledgeoftherulesofhis languagePerformance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguistic communication11、几个术语Prescriptive:aimstolaydownrulesfor"correct"behaviour.Descriptive:describeandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Synchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime.Diachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.\nlangue:theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeech community.Parole:therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Competence:theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguistic communication.12、DesignfeaturesAmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspedified12designfeatures,fiveofwhich willbediscussedhere.1)Arbitratiness。Differencesoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectin differentlanguages.Thelanguagethatimitatenaturalsoundsandcompound wordsarenon-arbitrarywords.Itmakeuponlyasmallercentageofthetotal numberofwordsusedinalanguage.2)Productivity.Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnew signalsbyitsusers.3)Duality.languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,or twolevels.Thelowerorthebasiclevelisastructureofmeaninglesssounds. Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberof unitsofmeaningsuchasmorphimesandwords.4)Displacement.Languagescanbeusedtorefertocontextremovedfromthe immediatesituationsofthespeaker.5)Culturaltransmission.Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenext throughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.13、名词解释1Linguisitics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescienticstudyof language2Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticscommunication iscalledphonetics.Forexample,vowelsandconsonants3Phonology”:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedin \ncommunicationiscalledphonology.Forexample,phone,phoneme,andallophone.4Morphology:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoform wordsiscalledmorphology.Forexample,boyand“ish”---boyish,teach--- teacher.5Syntax:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences iscalledsyntax.Foresample,”Johnlikelinguistics.”6Semantics:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.For example,:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.”Theseal couldnotbefound,Thekingbecameworried.”Herethewordsealmeans differentthings.7Pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.For example,“Ido”Theworddomeansdifferentcontext.8Sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalled sociolinguistics.Forexample,regionaldialects,socialvariationinlanguage.9、Psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetoworkingsofmind iscalledpsycholinguistics.14.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive;itisbasedon"high"(religious, literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsgrammaticalrulesandimposestherules onlanguageusers.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive;Itcollects authentic,andmainlyspokenlanguagedataandthenitstudiesanddescribes thedatainanobjectiveandscientificway.15.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyanda diachronicstudy?ThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisaSynchronicstudy;the descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.A synchronicstudyoflanguagedescribesalanguageasitisatsomeparticular \npointintime,whileadiachronicstudyoflanguageisthestudyofthe historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.16.Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary, notthewritten?First,thespokenformispriortothewrittenformandmostwritingsystems arederivedfromthespokenformoflanguage.Second,thespokenformplaysa greaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedand itservesawiderrangeofpurposesFinally,thespokenformisthemedium throughwhichweacquireourmothertongue.17.Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?Thedistinctionbetweenlangue,andparolewasmadebythefamousSwiss linguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.Languereferstothe abstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity, andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthe setofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhile paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationofthe rules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,but paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents. Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparole variesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.18.Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinction betweencompetenceandperformance.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheideal user’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrules enablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumber \nofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareugrammaticalandambiguous. AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledge inlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismother tongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialand psychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc..Chomskybelieves thatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,not theperformance,whichistoohaphazard.19.Saussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky ’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkare theirmajordifferences?AlthoughSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydiffer atleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotion oflangueisamaterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefrom apsychologicalpointofviesandtohim,competenceisapropertyofthemind ofeachindividual.69.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?Languageis arbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimited numberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogically explainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhichare coinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc.. Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundis notarbitrary.第二章、语音学Phonetics1、语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthe \nwrittenform,becausethespokenformispriortothewrittenformandmost writingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformoflanguage.2、语音学的三个分支是什么。它们研究的对象各是什么？Articulatoryphonetics:Itstudiesthehumanspeechorgansandthewayin whichtheespeechsoundsareproduced.Acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds; itdealswiththesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasa spectrograph.Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyoftheperceptionofsoundsbythehumanear.3、什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Whenthevocal cordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration, thesoundsproducedinsuchawayarevoiceless.Whenvocalcordsareheld togethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthem,thesoundsproducedin thiswayarevoiced.4、宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingoneletterto representonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwith diacriticstoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.5、英语的辅音是如何分类的？1)byplaceofarticulation:a.bilabialsuchas[p],[b],[m],[w]b.labiodentalsuchas[f],[v]c.dentalsuchas[θ],[T]d.alveolarsuchas[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]e.palatalsuchas[∫],[V],[t∫],[dV],[j]f.velarsuchas[k],[g],[N]g.glottalsuchas[h]2)bymannerofarticulation.a.Stopssuchas[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g]b.Fricativessuchas[f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[T],[∫],[V],[h]c.Afficatessuchas[t∫],[dV]d.Liquidssuchas[l],[r]\ne.Nasalssuchas[n],[m],[N]f.Glidessuchas[w],[j]6、英语的元音是如何分类的？1)Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontvowelssuchas[i:][i][e][A][a], centralvowelssuchas[\:],[[],[Q]andbackvowelssuchas[u:][J][C:]and [B:]intermsofthepositionofthetongueinthemouth.2)Accordingtohowwideourmouthisopened,weclassifythevowelsintofour groups:closevowelssuchas[i:],[i],[u:],[J],semi-closevowelssuchas[e], [з:],semi-openvowelssuchas[[],[C:],andopenvowelssuchas[?], [a],[Λ]and[ɑ:].3)Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowels andunroundedvowels.4)TheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels accordingtothelengthofthesound.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][\:][C:] [u:][ɑ:]，whiletherestareshortvowels.7、语音学和音系学有什么区别？Theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofageneralnature;it isinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howthey areproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturesthey possess,howtheycanbeclassified.Phonology,ontheotherhand,is interestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimsto discoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesounds areusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.8、音素、音位和音位变体有什么区别？Phonesarethespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisa phoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.;some do,somedon’t.Aphonemeisabasicunitinphonology;itisaunitthatis \nofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotasound,buta collectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Inactualspeech,aphonemeis realizedphoneticallyasacertainphone.Thedifferentphoneswhichcan representaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledthe allophonesofthatphoneme.9、什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？1)ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`import andim`port.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompund nounaaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.Aphonologicalfeatureofthe Englishcompounds,isthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirst elementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample: `blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,buta black`birdisabirdthatisblack.2)Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,verbsadjectives,adverbs,etcare pronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Buttogivespecial emphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressed canbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.Takethesentence“Heisdriving mycar.”forexample.Toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnot his,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy, whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.3)Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:When spokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferent meanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidis astraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesa \nquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereis animpliedmessageinwhatissaid.10、什么叫音位对立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandthey distinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.Iftwophonetically similarsoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephonemeandtheyoccurin differentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.11、复合词有什么特点？Orthographicallyacompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewords withorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofa compoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.Semantically,themeaningofa compoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponents. Phonetically,thewordstressofacompoundusuallyfallsonthefirst element.12、WhatisPhoniticsthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.Itisconcerntwithallthesounds thatoccurintheworld'slanguage.Thethreebranchsofphonetics: articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,andacousticphonetics. Articulatoryphoneticsisthelongestestablished,anduntilrecentlythemost highlydeveloped.Acousticphoneticiansdiscoveredthattherepetitionsof whatmightbeheardasthesameutterancearephysicallyidenticallyonlyby coincidence,andtheyalsoconfirmedthatthespeechismadeupofcontinuous burstsofsounds.Threeimportantcavities:pharyngealcavity-throat,theoralcavity-the mouth,thenasalcavity-thenose.13、PhonologyandphoneticsThedifferencebetweenphonologyandphonetics:phoneticsisinterestedinall \nthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguage.phonologyisinterestedinthe systemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage.14、Phone,phoneme,andallophoneDefinitionofphone[音素]:canbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweuse whenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Phoneme[音位]:itisthebasicunitinphonologyandisofdistinctivevalue. Butitisanabstractunit.Tobeexact,aphonemeisnotasount,itisa collectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.Allophone[音位变体]:inactualspeech,aphonemeisrealizedphoneticallyasa certainphone.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferent phoneticenviormentsarecalledtheallophoneofthatphoneme.15、Phonemiccontrast,complementlydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立， 互补分布和最小对立对Phonemiccontrast:twophonemescanoccurinthesameenviormentsandthey distinguishmeaning.Complementlydistribution:twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobein complementarydistribution.Minimalpairs:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptfor onesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowords aresaidtoformaminimalpair.16、Somerulesinphonology1、Sequentialrules[序列规则]。Definition:therulesthatgovernthe combinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.2、Assimilationrules[同化规则].Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesound toanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwo phonessimilar.3、Deletionrule[省略规则]。17、uprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonation超切分特征-重音，声调， \n语调Definitionofsuprasegmentfeatrues:distinctivefeaturescanbefoundrunning overasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.thephonemicfeaturesthat occurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.1、Stress.Wordstress:thesyllableispronouncedwithgreatedforcethatthe otherorothers.sentencestress:referstotherelativefocewhichisgiventothewordsina sentence.2、Tone.Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesof vibrationofthevocalcords.pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjust likephonemes.3、Intonation.Itplaysaimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaningin amlosteverylanguage.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefalling tone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Differentwaystodividethesamesentenceintointonationunitsgiveriseto differentmeanings.18、Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunication iscalledphonetics.19、Phonology:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedin communicationiscalledphonology.20、Phone:Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhen speakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegement.Itdoesnot necessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon’t.21、Phoneme:Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguish meaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme;itisaunitthatisof distinctivevalue.22、allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferent phoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.\n23、Complementarydistribution:Thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemeare saidtobeincompkenebtarydistribution.24、Minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexcept foronesoundsegementwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestings,thetwo wordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.25、Stress:Whenacertainsyllableofawordisstressed,itmeansthatthe syllableisprouncedwithgreatforcethantheotherorothers.26、tones:Tonesarepitchvariation,whicharecausedbythedifferentrates ofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjust likephoneme;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegementalfeature.27、intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentence ratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation. Intonationplaysanimportantroleinconveyingmeaninginalmostevery language,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish第三章、形态学Morphology1、词素可以划分成哪些类别？Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeused freelyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthaveto becombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas “-ish”in“bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsand affixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitself althoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“ generate”.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational. Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammatical categoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityof \nnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword suchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobe dividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword suchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendof awordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.2、Definition.Morphology[词态学]:studytheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesby whichwordsareformed.Ithastwosub-branches:Inflectionalmorphology[曲折词态学]：studythe inflection；Lexical[词汇]orderivational[派生]morphology:studyofword-formationMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageRoots:isseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbears clear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinewithanotherrootoranaffixto formaword.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectional[曲折词缀]andderivational[派生词 缀].Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvarious grammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree, andcase.Derivationalaffixes:areaddedtoanexistingformtocreataword.sucha wayofword-formationiscalledderivation[派生法]andthenewwordformdby derivationiscalledaderivative[派生词].Theexistingformtowhicha derivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem[词干].Affixesarediviedintotwokinds:prefixes[前缀]andsuffixes[后缀].Prefixes modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeech oftheoriginalword,excepttheprefixes"be-",and"en-".Suffixesmodifythe meaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.\n3、Featuresofcompounds1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithouta hypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydetermined bythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.3)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalways beingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.4)phonetically,thestessofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement, whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.4、morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammerwhichstudiestheinternal structureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.5、inflectionalmorphology:Inflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections ofword-formation.6、derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword- formation.7、morpheme:Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.8、freemorpheme:Freemorphemearethemorphemeswhichareindependentunits ofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselcesorincombinationwith othermorphemes.9、boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeused independentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeor bound,toformaword.10、root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitself althoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanother rootoranaffixtoformaword.11、affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.12、prefix:Prefixoccuratthebeginningofaword.13、suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythe meaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.14、derivation:Derivationaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreata \nword.Derivationcanbeviewedastheaddingofaffixestostemtoformnes words.15、compounding:Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportant wayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Compoundingcanbeviewedasthe combinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatnewwords.16、Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallby themselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.Boundmorphemes: Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwith othermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in “bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Aroot isseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasa clearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”. Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectional morphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories suchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns. Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“ mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobedivided intoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas “dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofaword suchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.第四章、句法学Syntax1、linguisticcompetence:Comskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’s knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealization \nofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.2、sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusually comprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.3、transformationrules:Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformational rules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntactic representationofasentence.4、D-structure:Asentencemayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation. Oneexistsbeforemovementtakeplace,theotheroccursaftermovementtake place.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentation arecommonlytermedasD-structure.5、Moveа:Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructure rules,i,e.theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingfor thesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.Thismovementruleis calledMoveа6、什么是X-标杆理论?X-bartheoryisageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesall phrasalstructurerulesintoasingleformat:X″→(Spec)X(Compl).Inthis format,SpecstandsforspecifierwhileComplstandsforcomplement.This theoryiscapableofreducingtheredundanciesofindividualphrasalstructure rulesandmaywellcapturecertainbasicpropertiessharedbyallphrasal categories,i.e.NP,VP,AP,PP,acrossthelanguagesoftheworld.7、英语的句子中的三种基本类型是什么？Traditionally,threemajortypesofsentencesaredistinguished.Theyare simplesentence,coordinateorcompoundsentenceandcomplexsentence.(1)A simplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectanda predicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Forexample,①Johnreads \nextensively.②Marydecidedtotakealinguisticclassthenextsemester. Eachofthetwosentencescontainsasingleclauseandcanstandstructurally independent.(2)Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbya linkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”,“but”,“or” .Thetwoclausesinacoordinatesentencearestructurallyequalpartsofthe sentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother.Forexample,③Johnisreading alinguisticbook,andMaryispreparingforherhistoryexam.④Johnlikes linguistics,butMaryisinterestedinhistory.(3)Acomplexsentence containstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.The twoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingthe other.Theincorporated,orsubordinate,clauseisnormallycalledanembedded clause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixsentence. Forexample,⑤MarytoldJane[thatJohnlikedlinguistics].⑥[ThatJohn likeslinguistics]puzzleseveryone.⑦Maryshowedinterestinlinguistics [afterJohngaveheralecture].Intheabovethreeexamples,theclausesin thesquarebracketsareembeddedclauses.Theyaresubordinatetotheclauses outsidethebracketswhicharecalledmatrixclauses.8、SentencestructureThebasiccomponentsofasentence.Nomarlyasentenceconsistsofatleasta subjectanditspredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverborverbphrase.Thereferringexpressionisgrammaticallycalledsubject.Thepartofa sentencewhichcompriseafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsays somethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Typesofsentences：simplesentence,coordinate(compound)sentence[复合句]， \ncomplexsentence1、Thesimplesentence。Aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,and atthesametimestandsstructurallyaloneisknownasafiniteclause[定式从 句].2、Thecoordinatesentence.Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoined byalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction[并列连词].Thetwoclauses inacoordinatesentencearestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence.3、Thecomplexsentence.Theincorporated,orsubordinate,clauseisnormally calledanembeddedclause[从句],andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddedis calledamatrixclause[主句].1）Anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause.2）Mostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledasubordinator[从 属连词].3）Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentence ifitstandsimdependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.9、Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence.Sentencesareorganizedwithwords ofthesamesyntacitccatigory,suchasnounphrase(NP)orverbphrase(VP), groupedtogether.10、SyntacticcategoriesWordsandphrasesareorganizedaccordingtothesyntacticcategoriesthey belongto.Lexicalcategory[词类]andphrasalcategory[词组类].Constituentsthatcanbe substitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongtothesame syntaticcategory.[可以相互替换而又不改变语法属性的成分属于同一句法类型。]Lexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesinthesense thatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosed categoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesis fixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexical \ncategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.Major:noun,verb,adjective, adverbMinor:determiner[限定词],auxiliary[助动词]，preposition,pronoun, conjunction,andinterjection[感叹词]Phrasalcategories.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesare commonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VB), prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjecivephrase(AP).Grammaticalrelations.Grammaticalrelations:Awarenessofadistinction betweenthestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituents.We usuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof. structuralsubject[结构主语]andstructuralobject[结构宾语]Onlyintermsof structuralconcepts,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirect objectusuallyfollowstheverb.logicalsubject[逻辑主语]meansthedoerof theaction.logicalobject[逻辑宾语]meansthercipientoftheaction.11、CombinationalrulesPhrasestructurerulesThecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrase structuralrule,orrewriterule[重写规则].1)S->NPVP.Thearrowisreadas"consistof",or"isrewritteras".The rulein1)isreadas"Asentenceconsistof,orisrewrittenas,anoun phraseandaverbphrase."2)NP->(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)"Anounphraseconsistof,orisrewrittenasan optionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatory[必用的]noun,an optionalprepositionalphrase,and/oroptionalsentence.3)VP->V(NP)(PP)(S)4)AP->A(PP)(S)5)PP->PNPTherecursivenessofphrasestructurerules[短语结构规则的循环性].Recursive \nproperties:AnScontainsaVPthatmaycontainanotherS;aVPmayincluedan SthatcontainsanotherVP;aPPconsistsofanNPthatmaybefollowedby anotherPP;andanNPmaytakeaPPthatincludesanNPand/oraS!12、X-bartheoryXP->(Spec[指示词])X(Compl[补语])Aformatusingthesymbol"(readas doublebar)and'(readassinglebar)canthenbeabstracted,givenbothina treediagram(见课本81页)andinaformula(7)7)X"->SpecX'X'->XCompl13、Synatacticmovementandmovementrules[句法位移和移位规则]Synatacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentinasentencemovesoutofits originalplacetoanewpositon.Synatacticmovementisdictatedbyrules traditonallcalledtransformationalrules[转换规则].NP-movementandWH-movementNP-movementoccurwhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassive voice.WH-movementisobligatory[强制性的]inEnglishwhichchangesasentencdfrom affirmativetointerrogative.14、D-structureandS-structureAsentencdmayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.Oneexistsbefore movementtakesplace,namedD-structure(orthedeepstructure[深层结构])，the otheroccursaftermovementtakesplacenamedS-structure(roughlymeaningthe surfacesturcture[表层结构])Transformational-generativelineofanalysis:itisbelievedthatphrase structureruleswiththeinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthe levelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsynatcticmovementrules transformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-sturcture.phrasestructurerules+thelexicon---->D-structure---->movementrules- --->S-structure\n15、Moveα--ageneralmovementrule。Moveα(ormoveAlpha)ismove certainconstituenttocertainplace.16、Towardatheoryofuniversalgrammar[普遍语法理论]Sinceearly1980s,NoamChomskyandothergenerativelinguistsproposedand developedatheoryofuniversalgrammar(UG)[普遍语法]knownasthePrinciples -and-parameterstheory.[原则及参数理论]GeneralprinciplesofUniversalGrammar。Onesuchprinciple,orconditon,is thecasecondition[格条件].Asisrequiredbythecaseconditonprinciple,a nounphrasemusthavecaseandcaseisassignedbyV(verb)orP(preposition) totheobjectposition,orbyAUX(auxiliary)tothesubjectposition.AnotherconditioniswhatisknownastheAdjacencycondition[毗邻条件]on caseassignment,whichstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipientshould stayadjacenttoeachother.TheparametersofUniversalGrammar。Adjacencyparameter[毗邻参数]:UGis believedtocontainaparameterwiththevalues[+strictadjacency]and[- strictadjacency]setontheAdjacencyCondition.Anotherparameter,theonethatinvolveswordorder,concernsthe directionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalityparameter.[方位 参数]Twodirectionalityvalues[rightwarddirectionality]左向位and[leftward directionality]右向位。17、linguisticcompetence:Comskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’s knowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealization ofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.18、sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusually comprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.19、transformationrules:Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformational rules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntactic \nrepresentationofasentence.20、D-structure:Asentencemayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation. Oneexistsbeforemovementtakeplace,theotheroccursaftermovementtake place.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentation arecommonlytermedasD-structure.21、Moveа:Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructure rules,i,e.theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingfor thesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.Thismovementruleis calledMoveа22、syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.23、Typesofsentencessimplesentence,coordinate(compound)sentence[复合句]，complexsentence第五章、语义学Semantics1semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaningin language.2sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform. Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itis abstractanddecontextualized.3reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal, physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelement andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.4synonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning. Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonymy.5polysemy:Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemore thanonemeaning.Awordhavingmorethanonemeaningiscalledapolysemic word.6antonymy:Antonymyreferstotheoppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatare oppositeinmeaningarecalledantonyms.\n7homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferent meaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundor spelling,orinboth.8hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral, moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.9componentialanalysis:Componentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzewprd meaning.Itwasproposedbystructuralsemanticists.10grammaticalmeaning:Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoits grammaticality,i.e.itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityof asentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.11semanticmeaning:Thesemanticmeaningofasentenceisgovernedbyrules calledselectionalrestrictions.12predication:Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalled predication.Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.13、语义研究的主要流派有哪些？1)Thenamingtheory:ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato. Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbolsusedinalanguage aretakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnames orlabelsforthings.2)Theconceptualistview:Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweena linguisticformandwhatitrefersto.Intheinterpretationofmeaning,they arelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualism:Itisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaning fromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextare recognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.Forexample, themeaningoftheword"seal"inthesentence"Thesealcouldnotbefound" canonlybedeterminedaccordingtothecontextinwhichthesentenceoccurs: \nThesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.(sealmeaninganaquaticmammal)Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thekingbecame worried.(sealmeaningtheking'sstamp)4)BehaviorismThecontextualistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield. Hedrewonbehavioristpsychologywhenhetriedtodefinethemeaningof linguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguage formas"thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseit callsforthinthehearer".(Bloomfield,Thisbehavioristtheoryissomewhat closetocontextualism.Itislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.14、所指与意义有什么关系？Senseandreferencearetwotermsinthestudyofmeaning.(1)Senseis concernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthe collectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde- contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningthatdictionarycompilersare interestedin.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal, physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelement andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.(2)Obviously,linguisticforms havingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations. Ontheotherhand,therearelessfrequentoccasionswhenlinguisticforms withthesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.“morningstar”and “eveningstar”.15、同义词可以分为哪些类别？Dialectalsynonyms:Dialectalsynonymsarewordswhichhavemoreorlessthe samemeaningandareusedindifferentregionaldialectssuchaspetroleumin \nBritishEnglishandgasolineinAmericanEnglish.Dialectalsynonymscanalso befoundwithinBritish,orAmericanEnglishitself.Forexample,"girl"is called"lass"or"lassie"inScottishdialect.Stylisticsynonyms:Stylisticsynonymsarewordswhichhavethesamemeaning butdifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Someofthestylisticsynonyms tendtobemoreformal,otherstendtobecasual,andstillothersare neutralinstyle.Forexample:oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent.Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning:Theyarewords thathavethesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser.The emotionsoftheuserindicatetheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhathe istalkingabout,suchasthriftyandmiser.Collocationalsynonyms:Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.Thatis, theygotogetherwithdifferentwords,forexample:accuse...of,charge.. .with,rebuke..-for.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms:Theyrefertothesynonymsthatdiffer slightlyinwhattheymean.Forexample,"amaze"and"astound"areveryclose inmeaningtotheword"surprise,"buttheyhaveverysubtledifferencesin meaning.Whileamazesuggestsconfusionandbewilderment,"astound"imples difficultyinbelieving."16、在语义上，反义关系可以分为哪几个类别？各有什么特征？1)gradableantonys:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoften intermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapairsuchasold/young, hot/cold.2)Complementaryantonyms:apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterized bythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertion oftheother.\n3)Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofa relationshipbetweenthetwoitems.17、什么是述谓结构？它有那些类型？Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisapplies toallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogative forms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisa logicalparticipantinapredication.Itisgenerallyidenticalwiththe nominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingthatissaidabout anargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsina sentence.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,the predicationsmaybeclassifiedintotwo-placepredication(containingtwo arguments),one-placeargument(containingoneargument),andno-place predication(containingnoargument).Forexample:Hiscarisnexttomycar.(Two-placepredication)Heissinging.(One-placepredication)Itisraining.(No-placepredication)18、句子的意义是构成句子的每个单词意义的总和吗？Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallits components.Itcannotbeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofits constituentwords.Eg;Thedogbittheman.Themanbitthedog.Thetwosentencesconsistofexactlythesamewords,buttheyarcwidely differentintheirmeanings.19、语义变化的主要类型有哪些？Semanticchangereferstothechangeofmeaningofaword.Themajortypesof semanticchangeareasfollows:(1)Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocess inwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanits historicallyearlierdenotation.Forexample,theword“holiday”was \noriginallyusedtomeanadayofreligioussignificancebecauseitwasa “holyday”.Todayeveryoneenjoysaholiday,whetherheorsheisreligious ornot.(2)Semanticnarrowingisthereverseprocessinwhichthemeaningof awordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlier meaning.Forexample,theword“liquor”incontemporaryEnglishisan alcoholicdrink,butitwasoncesynonymouswith“liquid”,beitalcoholic ornot.(3)Semanticshiftreferstotheprocessinwhichawordlosesits formermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning,e.g.theword“ silly”.Quitesurprisingly,a“silly”personwasahappypersoninOld English,andanaivepersoninMiddleEnglish,butafoolishpersoninModern English.第六章语用学Pragmatics1pragmatics:Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofa languageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.2context:Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyof language.Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedby thespeakerandthehearer.3utterancemeaning:Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealization oftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,or simplyinacontext.4locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactistheactofutterance words,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansof syntax,lexionandphonology.5illocutionaryact:Anillocutionaryactistheactexpressingthespeaker’s intention;Itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.\n6perlocutionaryact:Aillocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresulting fromsayingsomething:itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabout bytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.7、语用学和传统语义学有什么区别？Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontextofuse,whiletraditional semanticstreatsmeaningassomethingintrinsic,abstractandde- contextualized.8、句子和话语有什么区别？Asentenceisagrammaticalunit.Itsmeaningisoftenstudiedasthe abstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication. Utteranceiswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.It shouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyutteredorused. Mostutterancestaketheformofsentences,i.e.mostutterancesarecomplete sentencesintermsofsyntax;however,someutterancesarenot,andsome cannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.9、句子的语义与话语语义有什么区别？Themeaningofasentenceisabstractandde-contextualized,whilethemeaning ofanutteranceisconcreteandcontext-dependent.Utterancemeaningisbased onsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofa sentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.10、言内行为、言外行为和言后行为有什么区别，举例说明。Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itisthe actofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.An illocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itisthe actperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformed byorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechange \nbroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething. Forexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthe words"you,'"have,""door,""left,""open,"etc.andexpressedwhatthe wordliterallymean.Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatby makingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofaskingthehearer toclosethedoor.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectofthe utterance.Ifthehearerunderstandsthatthespeakerintendshimtoclosethe doorandclosesthedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthe changeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutioharyactis successfullyperformed.11、Searle是如何对言外行为进行分类的？它们各自的言外之的是什么？1)Representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievesto betrue.2)Directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3)Commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseof action.4)Expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5)Declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.12、合作原则的四个准则是什么？违反合作原则的四个准则是如何产生会话含义的？1)Themaximofquantity(1)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurpose oftheexchange).(2)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.2)Themaximofquality(1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.(2)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.3)ThemaximofrelationBerelevant.4)Themaximofmanner(1)Avoidobscurityofexpression.(2)Avoidambiguity.\n(3)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).(4)Beorderly.13、Whatiscontext?Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythe speakerandthehearer.Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledgehavebeen identified,e.g.knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathas beensaidbefore;knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthe specificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace,and knowledgeabouteachother.Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseoflanguage andalsothehearer'sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.14、Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunit inisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwitha certainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualizd,thatofan utteranceisconcrete,andcontextdependent.15、Searle'sclassificationofspeechactsSearle's的言语行为分类1.representatives（阐述类）:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeaker believestobetrue2.directives（指令类）:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething3.commissives（承诺类）:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourse ofaction4.expressives（表述类）:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexisting state5.declarations（声明类）:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysaying something第七章、历史语言学Historicallinguistics1、historicallinguistics:Historicallinguisticsisthesubfieldof linguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.\n2、apocope:Anotherwell-documentedsoundlossisthedeletionofaword- finalvowelsegement,aphenomenoncalledapocope.3、epenthesis:Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowel soundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.4、metathesis:Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovementisknownas metathesis.5、compounding:Compoundingisaprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsinto onelexicalunit.6、derivation:Derivationreferstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformed bytheadditionofaffixestotheroots.7、blending:Blendingisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsof otherwords.8、back-formation:Back-formationisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformed bytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingword.9、semanticbroadening:Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthe meaningofawordbecomesgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlier denotation..10、semanticnarrowing:Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaning ofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlier meaning.11、semanticshift:Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhicha wordlosesitsformermeaningandacquireanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.12、protolanguage:Itreferstoafamilyofalanguage.13、soundshift:Itreferstothesystematicmodificationofaseriesof phonemes14、英语语言的发展可分为哪几个主要阶段？各个阶段的转变是以什么历史事件为标志的 ？Englishhasundergonedramaticchangesthroughoutthethreemajorperiods, i.e.OldEnglish(roughlyfrom449to1100),MiddleEnglish(roughlyfrom1100 \nto1500),andModernEnglish(roughlyfrom1500tothepresent).(2) HistoricalEvents:TheOldEnglishperiodbeganwiththeinvasionofthe BritishIslesbyEnglish-speakingAnglo-SaxonsfromEurope,andendedwiththe arrivalofNormanFrenchinvadershistoricallyknownastheNormanConquest. TheMiddleEnglishperiodisdistinguishedfromtheOldEnglishperiodbythe NormanConquest,andfromtheModernEnglishperiodastheresultofthe culturalinfluenceoftheEuropeanrenaissancemovement.15、语言变化的本质有什么特征？Alllivinglanguageschangewithtimeandlanguagechangeisinevitable.Asa generalrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderable degree,regularandsystematic.Languagechangeisextensive,takingplacein virtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar.Althoughlanguagechangeisuniversal,inevitable,andinsomecases, vigorous,itisneveranovernightoccurrence,butagradualandconstant process,oftenindiscernibletospeakersofthesamegeneration.16、语言变化的主要原因是什么？(1)Soundassimilationisthephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.It maycauselossofvowelsorconsonants,vowelnasalizationandmorphological andlexicalchanges.(2)Rulesimplificationandregularizationareatypeof spontaneousmorphologicalrulechangeinvolvingexceptionalpluralformsof nouns.Forexample,manyEnglishspeakerstendtoignoretheexceptional pluralrules,justproducingpluralnounssuchas“hoofs”insteadof “hooves”.()Internalborrowingcausedbytheneedtolessentheburdenon memory.Forexample,byanalogytothepairs“reap/reaped”and“seem/seemed \n”,Englishspeakersareheardsaying“Hesweepedthefloor.”(4) Elaborationismotivatedbytheneedtoreduceambiguityandincrease communicativeclarityorexpressiveness.Forexample,ModernEnglishhasa stricterwordorderthanOldEnglishdid.(5)Sociologicaltriggersreferto thoseradicalsocio-politicalchangesthatleadtovigorouslanguagechanges. AtypicalexampleinthehistoryofEnglishistheNormanConquest,amilitary eventthatmarkedthedawningoftheMiddleEnglishperiod.(6)Thecontinual processofculturaltransmissionacrossgenerationsisanothercauseof languagechange.Forexample,whileoldpeopletendtocallarefrigerator “icebox”,theyoungergenerationismoreoftenheardspeakingofa“fridge ”astheyhavethedesiretosounddifferentfromtheoldergeneration.(7) Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammarconstitutesanotherbasic causeforlanguagechange.Childrentendtoacquirethesimplifiedand regularizedexpressions,thusgivingrisetolanguagechangeinthelongrun.17、为什么古英语的词序比现代英语灵活？OldEnglishhasanelaboratecasemarkingsystemtoshowifaconstituentis thesubject,object,andsoon,ofasentence,whileModernEnglishhasamuch weakersystemforcasemarkingandthereforehastorelyheavilyonmorerigid wordordertoindicategrammaticalrelations.18、历史语言学重新构建语言历史的目和方法各是什么？Historicallinguistsaimatestablishing,throughthemethodofcomparative reconstruction,thegeneticrelationshipbetweenandamongvariouslanguages basedontheevidenceofsystematicform-meaningresemblanceincognateitems, andtherebytoreconstructtheprotolanguageofalanguagefamily.19、什么是Grimm法则？\nJacobGrimm,AGermanscholar,foundaseriesofconsonantshiftsthat occurredinthehistoryoftheGermaniclanguagesincludingEnglish,Dutch, German,SwedishandDanish.Thefollowingarethethreesetsofconsonant shiftsthatGrimmdiscovered:a.Voicedstopsbecomevoiceless.b→pd→t g→kb.Voicelessstopsbecomefricatives.p→ft→θk→xc.Voiced aspiratesbecomedeaspirated.bh→bdh→dgh→gBecausethesesound changesweresostrikinglyregularandlaw-like,theybecameknownasGrimm’s Law.Accordingtothislaw,theGermaniclanguagesweresubjecttoarulethat changedallvoicelessstopsintofricativesaftertheysplitofffromother Indo-Europeanlanguages.第八章、社会语言学、Sociolinguistics1、Sociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelation betweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocial structuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.2、thespeechcommunity：Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersareregardedas membersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecial studyiscalledthespeechcommunity.3、Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesand itisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposes suchastrading.Thetermisbelievedtohaveoriginatedfromthe pronunciationoftheEnglishword"business"inChinesePidginEnglish.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andis acquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,it issaidtohavebecomeaCreole（克里奥尔语，混合语）.4、Bilingualism：Ithasbeenobservedthatinsomespeechcommunities,two \nlanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;and languageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.Thisconstitutesthe situationofbilingualism.5、Diglossia：Thetermdiglossia,firstusedbyFergusonin1959,referstoa sociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwo differentlanguages,inadiglossicsituationtwovarietiesofalanguage existsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniterole toplay.6、speechvariety:Speechvariety,alsoknownaslanguagevariety,refersto anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.7、languageplanning:Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguage standardizationknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertain authorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,choose aparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingits pronunciationandspellingsystem,acrossregionalboundaries.8、idiolect:Suchapersonaldialectisreferedtoasidiolect.9、standardlanguage:Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,socially prestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernment andthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia.10、nonstandardlanguage:Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardare callednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.11、linguafranca:Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasa mediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguistic backgrounds.12、pidgin:Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynative speakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.13、Creole:ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecome \nestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunication.14、diglossia:Diglossiausuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwovery differentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunication,eachwith adistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertain situations.15、bilingualism:Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwo standardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers, suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.16、ethicdialect:Anethniclanguagevarietyisasocialdialectofa language,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.17、sociolect:Socialdialect,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageused bypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.18、register:Registersarelanguagevarietieswhichareappropriateforuse inparticularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarietiesthatare associatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.For thatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.19、slang:Slangisacausaluseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebut nonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeral coinageandfigureofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesby raciness.20、taboo:Alinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatis prohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.21、euphemism:EuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordeuphemismos,meaning“to speakwithgoodwords”.Aeuphemism,then,ismild,indirectorless offensivewordorexpressionsubstitutewhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmore directwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.\n22、双语和双言现象有什么区别？Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguages areusedinaspeechcommunity;whereasinadiglossiccommunity,two varietiesoflanguageareusedfordifferentsituations,onebeingmore standardandhigher,andusedformoreformalmatters,andtheotherless prestigious,andusedforcolloquialsituations.23、标准英语优于非标准英语吗？Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectof language.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciary system,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions, includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecond language.Nonstandard,orvernacular,languagesarelanguagevarietiesother thanthestandardlanguage.(2)Standardlanguageisnotsuperiorto nonstandardlanguageatall.Thedesignationofthestandardlanguagevariety ismotivatedbyhistoricalandsocio-politicalreasonsandhasnothingtodo withanysupposedlinguisticsuperiorityintrinsictothegrammatical componentsofthatparticularlanguagevariety.Inviewoflanguageasan effectivemeansofcommunication,nosingledialectofalanguage,beit standardornonstandard,isanymorecorrect,anymorelogical,oranypurer thananyotherdialectofthelanguage.Alldialectsofalanguageareequally effectiveinexpressingideas.24、洋泾浜语与克里奥耳语有什么区别？Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersof otherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.Apidginisusedforsome practicalpurposes,suchastrading,bygroupsofpeoplewhodonotknoweach \nother'slanguages.Itisnotanativelanguageofaparticularregion,but onlyamarginallanguageusedbypeoplewhoseculturesaresharplyseparated andwhosebusinesscontactisveryspecialized.Asasimplifiedlanguage,a pidgininvolvesreductionsinsounds,vocabularyandsyntax.Althoughpidgins aresimplifiedlanguages,theyarerule-governed.ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasa nativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.Whenapidgincomestobeadoptedby apopulationasitsprimarylanguage,andchildrenlearnitastheirfirst language,thenthepidginlanguageiscalledacreole.Acreoleinvolves expansioninsounds,vocabularyandsyntax.Creolesarefullydeveloped languages.25、什么是地域变体、社会变体、文体变体和个人言语？Regionalvariationisspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhere aspeakercomesfrom.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernible anddefinable.Whenallsocialgroupsinasinglegeographicalareaspeakone particulardialectalvarietyofalanguagethatsharesthesamelinguistic featuresandisdistinguishablefromanyotherlinguisticsystemofa differentgeographicallocation,thatspeechvarietyisaninstanceof regionalvariation.Socialvariationisthespeechvariationaccordingthesocialfactors. Consciouslyorunconsciously,oursocialbackgroundsexertashapinginfluence onourchoiceoflinguisticfeaturesthatareappropriatetooursocial identities.Socialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisible intosmallerspeechcategories.Thesecategoriesreflectoursocioeconomic, \neducational,occupationalandethnicbackground,aswellasoursexandage.Stylisticvariationsareintra-speakerdifferencesassociatedwiththespeech situation:whoisspeakingtowhomaboutwhatunderwhatcircumstancesfor whatpurpose.Stylisticvariationinapersonsspeech,orwriting,usually rangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccording tothetypeofcommunicativesituation.Stylecanalsorefertoaparticular person'suseofspeechorwritingatalltimes,ortoawayofspeakingor writingataparticularperiodoftime.Aparticularregistermaybeusedbya particulargroupofpeople,usuallysharingthesameoccupationlikedoctors, teachers,andlawyers,orthesameinterests,suchasstampcollectors, footballfans.Aparticularregisteroftendistinguishesitselffromother registersbyhavinganumberofdistinctivewords,byusingwordsorphrases inaparticularway,andsometimesbyspecialgrammaticalconstructions,such asscientificlanguage,orlegallanguage.Idiolectalvariation:Whenanindividualspeaks,whatisactuallyproducedis auniquelanguagesystemofthespeaker,expressedwithintheoverallsystem ofaparticularlanguage.Thisvariationisidiolectalvariation.Sucha personaldialectisreferredtoasidiolect.26、过度使用委婉语有什么消极影响？Anexcessiveuseofeuphemismmayhavenegativeeffects.Asamatteroffact, manyeuphemismshavebecomeclichesthataretobeavoidedinformalspeech andwriting.Theyalsotendtobewordyandtogivewritingatimidquality. Inaddition,euphemismcanbeevasiveorevendeceitful.Becausetheyare oftenimproperlyusedtoobscuretheintendedmeaning,manypeoplefindthem \noffensiveandpreferplainlanguage第九章、心理语言学psycholinguistics1、psycholinguistics:Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationto themind.Asthesuggests,psycholinguisticsisviewedastheintersectionof psychologyandlinguistics,drawingequallyuponthelanguageweacquire, produceandcomprehend.2、cerebralcortex:Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutside surfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralcortex.3、brainlateralization:Thelocalizationofcognitiveofcognitiveand percpetualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalled lateralization.4、linguisticlateralization:Intheirresearchofbrainlateralization, psycholinguisticsareparticularyinterestedinlinguisticlateralization, whichisthebrain’sneurologicalspecializationforlanguage.5、dichoticlistening:Evidenceinsupportoflateralizationforlanguagein thelefthemispherecomesfromresearchesindichoticlisteningtasks6、rightearadvantage:Stimuliheardinthelefteararereportedless accuratelythanthoseheardintherightcar.Thisphenomenonisknowasthe rightearadvantage.7、criticalperiodhypothesis:Thecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoa periodinone’slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopubertyduringwhichthe humanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguage learningcanproceedeasily,swiftlyandwithoutexplicitinstruction.8、linguisticdeterminism:Whorfproposedfirstthatallhigherlevelsof thinkingaredependentonlanguage.Thatis,languagedeterminesthought, hencethestrongnotionoflinguisticdeterminism.9linguisticrelativism:Whorfalsobelievedthatspeakersofdifferent \nlanguageperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,thatis,relativeto theirlinguisticbackground,hencethenotion10、subvocalspeech:Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorclosely paralleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtas“subvocalspeech”.of linguisticrelativism.11、什么是Sapir-Whorf假设？TheSapir-WhorfhypothesisisatheoryputforwardbytheAmerican anthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorf(andalsoabeliefheldbysome scholars).Itstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwholly orpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.(2)TheSapir-Whorf hypothesisconsistsoftwoparts,i.e.linguisticdeterminismandrelativism. Whorfproposedfirstthatallhigherlevelsofthinkingaredependenton language.Orputitmorebluntly,languagedeterminesthought,i.e.thenotion oflinguisticdeterminism.Becauselanguagesdifferinmanyways,Whorfalso believedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencethe worlddifferently,i.e.relativetotheirlinguisticbackground,hencethe notionoflinguisticrelativism.12、为什么说语言不能决定思维？1)Wordsandmeaning.Therelationshipbetweenthenameandthemeaningofa wordisquitearbitrary.Labelinganaturalphenomenonoranobjectisnot fundamentaltoaconceptualsystem.ThefactthatEnglishhasonlyonename forsnowdoesnotmeanthatEnglishspeakerscannotperceivedifferencesin varietiesofsnow.Similarly,itdoesnotfollowthat,becausealanguage lacksaword,itsspeakersthereforecannotgraspitsconcept.2)Grammaticalstructure.Thesyntacticsystemofalanguageandthe \nperceptualsystemofthespeakersofthatlanguagedonothavethekindof interdependentrelationship.Manygrammaticalfeaturesofalanguageare purelysuperficialaspectsoflinguisticstructure.3)Translation.Successfultranslationbetweenlanguagescanbemade.Iftwo languageshaveradicallydifferentconceptualsystems,thentranslationfrom onelanguagetoanotherisimpossible13、SecondlanguageacquisitionIflanguageshavedifferentconceptualsystems,thenaspeakerofonelanguage willbeunabletolearntheotherlanguagebecausehelackstheright conceptualsystem.However,sincepeoplecanlearnradicallydifferent languages,thoselanguagescouldn'thavedifferentconceptualsystems.Bilingualismisanothergoodcaseinpoint.Therearenumerouscasesof successfulbilingualspeakersacrosstheglobe.Althoughthesepeopleare proficientintwolanguagesthatarenotgeneticallyrelated,theydonothave "doubleminds"equippedwithtwodifferentsystemsofthought.Like monolinguals,bilingualormultilingualspeakershaveaconsistentconceptual -perceptualsystemofthephysicalworld.14、LanguageandworldviewsThelanguagesystemdoesnotnecessarilyprovidespecificsofone'sworld views.Ontheonehand,peoplespeakingthesamelanguagemayhavedifferent worldviews,includingpolitical,social,religious,scientificand philosophicalviews.Ontheotherhand,peoplespeakingdifferentlanguages maysharesimilarpolitical,social,religious,scientificorphilosophical views.Moreover,onelanguagecandescribemanydifferentworldviews,asis evidentinthecaseofsuccessfultranslation.\n15、什么是大脑的单侧化？Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticular hemisphereofthebrainiscalledlateralization.Theprocessof lateralizationisbelievedtobematurational.Thatis,brainlateralization isgeneticallyprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop.Duringdevelopment,the twosidesofthebrainbecomespecializedfordifferentfunctionsand lateralizationtakesplace.Itisacommonlyheldviewthatlateralizationis anevolutionarypreconditionofthedevelopmentofsuperiorintelligenceas wellasapreconditionoflanguageacquisition.16、大脑的语言中枢有哪几个区？各自的功能可能是什么？Researchfindingshaveshownthatlanguageprocessingcentersarenotsituated inasingleareaofthelefthemisphere,butseveralsuchasBroca'sarea, Wernicke'sareaandtheangulargyros.Broca'sareaisthefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemisphere.Thispartis crucialforwordfindingandsyntaxprocessing.Thedamagetothispart resultsinaspeechproductiondeficitsuchasword-findingdifficultiesand problemswithsyntax.Wernicke'sareaisanotherresponsibleforprocessinglanguage.Thisareais crucialforlanguageunderstanding.Thedamagetothispartmayresultinthe speechdeficitssuchasaseverelossofunderstandingeventhoughtheir hearingisnormal.Thepatientsproducefastandfluentspeechwithgood intonationandpronunciation,buttheircontentrangesfrommildly inappropriatetocompletenonsense,oftenunintelligible.Theyusevery generalterms,eveninresponsetospecificrequestsforinformation.Theangulargyrus:TheangulargyrusliesbehindWernicke'sarea.Theangular \ngyrusisthelanguagecenterresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusinto anauditoryformandviceversa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofa spokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthe comprehensionofwrittenlanguage,allofwhichrequireconnectionsbetween visualandspeechregions.17、两耳分听研究证明了什么？Dichoticlisteningtestsinvolvesimultaneouslypresenting,throughear- phones,twodifferentauditorysignals,onetotherightearandtheotherto theleftear.Thetestshowsthatstimuliheardinthelefteararereported lessaccuratelythanthoseheardintherightear.Thisprovesthehypothesis thatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereanda signalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Thetestalsoprovesthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessing allsounds,butonlyforthosethatarelinguisticinnature,thusproviding evidenceinsupportoftheviewthattheleftsideofthebrainisspecialized forlanguageandthatitiswherelanguagecentersreside.18、语言对思维的影响可能是什么？Languagedoesnotsomuchdeterminethewaywethinkasitinfluencestheway weperceivetheworldandrecallthings,andaffectstheeasewithwhichwe performmentaltasks.Thatis,languagemaybeusedtoprovidenewideas, bringaboutachangeinbeliefsandvalues,solveproblems,andkeeptrackof thingsinmemory.Itisevidentthattothedegreeofsuccessthatlanguagefunctionsasan indispensablemediumofinformationstorageandretrieval,itcanlead languageuserstobepredisposedtoactandperceiveincertainwaysrather \nthaninothers.Inconclusion,languagebynomeansdeterminesthewayswe perceivetheobjectiveworld,butbyitsconvenience,availability,and habitualuse,doesinfluencetheperceptions,memorytasks,andotherverbal andnonverbalbehaviorofhumanbeings.第十章、语言习得languageacquisition1、languageacquisition:Languageacquisitionisconcernedwithlanguage developmentinhumans.Ingeneral,languageacquisitionreferstochildren’s developmentoftheirfirstlanguage,thatis,thenativelanguageofthe communityinwhichachildhasbeenbroughtup.2、telegraphicspeech:Theearlymultiwordutteranceofchildrenhavea specialcharacteristic.Theytypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmost minorlexicalcategories.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestylyof languagefoundintelegrams,utteranceatthisacquisitionstageareoften calledtelegraphicspeech.3、holophrasticsentence:Children’sone-wordutterancearealsocalled holophrasticsentences.4、acquisition:AccordingtoKrashen,acquisitionreferstothegradualand subconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingit naturallyindailycommunicativesituations.5、learning:Learning,however,isdefinedasaconsciousprocessof accumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschool settings.6、languagetransfer:LearnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirL1knowledgein learningasecondlanguage.Thisisknownaslanguagetransfer.7、positivetransfer:Presumably,positivetransferoccurswhenanL1pattern isidenticalwith,orsimilarto,atarget-languagepattern.8、negativetransfer:Conversely,negativetransferoccurswhenanL1pattern \nisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.9、contrastiveanalysis:TheContrastiveAnalysisapproachwasfoundedonthe beliefthat,byestablishingthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthenativeand targetlanguagesystem,itwaspossibletopredictwhatproblemslearnersofa particularsecondlanguagewouldfaceandthetypesoferrorstheywouldmake.10、interlanguage:SLAisviewedasaprocessofcreativeconstruction,in whichalearnerconstructsaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprises thelearner’sinterimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,knownas interlanguage.11、formalinstruction:Formalinstructionoccursinclassroomswhenattempts aremadetoraiselearner’sconsciousnessaboutthenatureoftargetlanguage rulesinordertoaidlearning.12、instrumentalmotivation:Thus,instrumentalmotivationoccurswhenthe learner’sgoalisfunctional.13、integrativemotivation:Integrativemotivationoccurswhenthelearner’s goalissocial.14、acculturation:Arelatedissuewithintegrativemotivationhasbeenthe extenttowhichlearnersdifferintheprocessofadaptingtothenewculture ofthe12community.Thisadaptationprocessiscalledacculturation15、Krashen是如何区分习得和学习的？AccordingtoStephenKrashen,languageacquisitioniscontrastedwithlanguage learningontheassumptionthatthesearedifferentprocesses.AccordingtoKrashen,acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconscious developmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindaily communicativesituations.Learning,however,isaconsciousprocessof accumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschool \nsettings.Itisrecognizedthatchildrenacquiretheirnativelanguagewithout explicitlearning.Asecondlanguage,Krashenargues,ismorecommonlylearned buttosomedegreemayalsobeacquired,dependingontheenvironmental settingandtheinputreceivedbytheL2learner.Arulecanbelearnedbefore itisinternalized(i.e.,acquired),buthavinglearnedaruledoesnot necessarilypreventhavingtoacquireitlater.16、为什么说母语习得是语法规则的习得？Inprinciple,nohumanbraincanstoreallthewordsandexpressionsofa language.Whathappensisthatwhenprocessingthelanguagetheyhear, childrenconstructthegrammarandmakesenseoftheexpressionsaccordingto thegrammar.Whenproducingutterances,theyfollowtheinternalized grammaticalrules.Withouttheknowledgeoftheproductiverules,itwouldbe impossibleforlanguageuserstoproduceandunderstandanunlimitednumberof sentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.17、在母语习得中，语言输入起什么样的作用？Forlanguagetobeeventuallyacquired,childrenmustbeprovidedwithan appropriatelinguisticenvironmentinwhichtheyhaveaccesstolanguagedata andopportunitiestointeractwiththeinput.18、刻意的教学对母语习得有什么作用？Forthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursspontaneously andrequireslittleconsciousinstructiononthepartofadults.Innatural settings,parentsrarelycorrectyoungchildrensutterancesthatviolatethe rulesofthegrammar,stilllessdotheygoaboutteachingexplicitlythe correctformsofthelanguage,althoughsomeparentsbelievethatthey constantlyinstructtheirchildrentospeakgrammaticalsentences.Evenif \ntheydo,thereisnoconvincingevidencethatchildrenneedsuchinstruction. Infact,parentsoftenfailintheirattempttoteachchildrengrammatical rules.Ofcourse,thisisnottosaythatinstructionisaltogetheruselessinchild languagedevelopmentfromthestageofababblertothatofafluentspeaker. Acertainamountofconsciousinstructiononthepartofparentsandpeersmay havesomeeffectonthelanguageofachild.Buttheavailableevidenceto dateindicatesthatanexplicitteachingofcorrectformstoyoungchildren playsaminorroleatbest.19、模仿在母语习得中的作用是什么？Atonetime,itwaswidelybelievedthatchildrenlearnedlanguagebysimply imitatingthespeechofthosearoundthem.Wenowknowthatthiscannotbe true,sincemanyutterancetypesproducedbychildrendonotcloselyresemble structuresfoundinadultspeech..Ifchildrenlearntheirnativetongueby imitatingtheirparents,howcanweaccountfortheutterancesthatare typicalofchildren'slanguage,suchasthepluralform"myfoots,"thepast tenseformsof"Ieated,"andthenegativeconstructionof“Nothesun shining”?Itisimpossiblethatchildrenimitatethesestructuresfromadults becausetheyareneverheardinadultconversations.Inaddition,Children withspeechimpairmentforneurologicalorphysiologicalreasonslearnthe languagespokentothemandunderstandwhatissaid.Amorereasonable explanationisthatchildrenareattemptingtoconstructandgeneralizetheir owngrammaticalrules.Someyounglanguagelearnersdoseemtomakeselectiveuseofimitation,but \ntheydonotblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploit itinveryrestrictedwaystoimprovetheirlinguisticskills.Thepointis thatimitationplaysatbestaveryminorroleinthechild'smasteryof language.20、在儿童母语习得过程中，纠错起什么样的作用？Itwasonceassumedthatchildrenreceivedconstantcorrectionforusinga "bad"grammarandrewardswhenusinga"good"grammar.Itwasalsoassumed thatchildrenlearnedtoproducecorrectsentencesbecausetheywere positivelyreinforcedwhentheysaidsomethingrightandnegativelyreinforced whentheysaidsomethingwrong.AccordingtoBehavioristlearningtheory, childrenarebelievedtograduallyassumecorrectformsofthelanguageof theircommunitywhentheir"bad"speechgetscorrectedandwhentheirgood speechgetspositivelyreinforced.Researchershavefoundthatcorrectionisnotakeyfactorinchildlanguage developmentastheywereclaimedtobe.Whenadultsdoattempttocorrect childrensgrammaticalerrorsandthecorrectformisrepeated,theirefforts seemtohavelittleeffect,orsimplydoomtofailurebecausechildrenoften donotknowwhattheproblemisandcontinuetouseapersonallyconstructed form.ChildrenReinforcementhasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren's pronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthanin thegrammaticalityofsentences.21、第一语言习得经过哪些主要阶段？(1)Theprelinguisticstage:atthisbabblingstage,thesoundsandsyllables thatchildrenutterareasyetmeaningless.(2)Theone-wordstage:atthis stage,childrenlearnthatsoundsrelatedtomeanings.Theyuseone-word \nutterances,orholophrasticsentencestoexpressaconceptorpredicationthat wouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.()Thetwo-word stage:atthisstage,childrenareheardutteringtwo-wordexpressionsina varietyofcombinations.(4)Themultiwordstage:atthisstage,thesalient featureoftheutterancesisthevariationinstringsoflexicalmorphemes.It isnormallyassumedthat,bytheageoffive,withanoperatingvocabularyof morethan2,000words,childrenhavecompletedthegreaterpartofthe languageacquisitionprocess.22、什么是比较分析法？ContrastiveAnalysiswasdevelopedinordertoidentifytheareasoflearning difficulty.TheContrastiveAnalysisapproachwasfoundedonthebeliefthat, byestablishingthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthenativeandtarget languagesystems,itwaspossibletopredictwhatproblemslearnersofa particularsecondlanguagewouldfaceandthetypesoferrorstheywouldmake. Giventhisapproach,itwashypothesizedthatL2errorswerepredominantlythe resultofnegativetransfer,ormothertongueinterferenceandsecondlanguage learningwasbelievedtobeamatterofovercomingthedifferencesbetweenLI andL2systems.23、什么叫中继语？SLAisviewedasaprocessofcreativeconstruction,inwhichalearner constructsaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprisesthelearner's interimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,knownasinterlanguage.Thisisthe languagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.Specifically, interlanguageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguistic \nsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctfromthelearner'snativeandtarget languages.Itrepresentsthelearner'stransitionalcompetencemovingalonga learningcontinuumstretchingfromone'sLIcompetencetothetargetlanguage competence.Asatypeoflinguisticsysteminitsownright,interlanguageis aproductofL2training,mothertongueinterference,overgeneralizationof thetargetlanguagerules,andcommunicativestrategiesofthelearner.If learnerswereprovidedsufficientandtherightkindoflanguageexposureand opportunitiestointeractwithlanguageinput,theirinterlanguagewould developgraduallyinthedirectionofthetargetlanguagecompetence.24、刻意教学对第二语言学习有什么作用？AlthoughformalinstructionhardlyaffectsthenaturalrouteofSLA,itdoes provideopportunitiestoreceivecomprehensibleinput,andenablesthe classroomlearnertoperformawiderrangeoflinguistictasksthanthe naturalisticlearnerandtherebyacceleratestherateofacquisition.Thereis considerableevidencetoindicatethatL2learners,particularlyadult beginners,benefitfromtheclassroomsetting,fortheyaremuchmorelikely toobtaintheadjustedqualitativeinputneededforacquisition.Inaddition, grammarinstruction,coursematerialsandthe"teachertalk"areallprepared tomeetvariousstagesofdevelopment,providingthekindoflanguagefeatures thatlearnersarereadytoacquire.Studentswithmoreformalinstructionarefoundtohavescoredhigheron proficiencyteststhanthosewithless.Ontheotherhand,oneshouldnote thatformalinstructionhasapowerfuldelayedeffect.25、有哪些个人因素影响第二语言的习得？\nThereareanumberoffactorsrelatingtothelearnerthatpotentially influencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired.(1)Theoptimumage forsecondlanguageacquisitionoccursduringtheearlyyearsofone’slife beforepuberty.(2)Motivationisthelearner’soverallgoalororientation. Instrumentalmotivationoccurswhenthelearner’sgoalisfunctional,i.e.to useitasaninstrumentforthepurposeof,forinstance,securingadesirable job.Integrativemotivationoccurswhenthelearner’sgoalissocial,i.e.to integrateoneselfwiththesecondlanguagecommunity.(3)Acculturationisa processofadaptingtothecultureandvaluesystemofthesecondlanguage community.Accordingtothisview,theacquisitionofasecondlanguage involvesandisdependentontheacquisitionofthecultureofthetarget languagecommunity.Ithasbeenhypothesizedthatsuccessfullanguagelearning ismorelikelywhenlearnerssucceedinacculturatingtothesecondlanguage society.(4)Learner’spersonalityalsoinfluencestheSLA.Theyare extrovertedandintrovertedlearners.Itisrecognizedthatextroverted learnersarelikelytoachievebetteroralfluency.Tosumup,learnerfactors contributetothesuccessofSLA.