现代语言学自考本科 101页

ModernLinguistics作者：睿智婉心\nTableofContentChapter1IntroductionChapter6PragmaticsChapter2PhonologyChapter7HistoricalLinguisticsChapter3MorphologyChapter8SociolinguisticsChapter4syntaxChapter9PsycholinguisticsChapter5SemanticsChapter10LanguageAcquisition\nChapter1\nChapter1——1Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.\nChapter1——1ThescopeoflinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.普通语言学Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.语音学Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.音系学Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.形态学Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.句法学Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.语义学Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.语用学Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.社会语言学Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.语言心理学Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）\nChapter1——1SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsPrescriptiveanddescriptiveIfalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.\nChapter1——1SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsSynchronicanddiachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.SpeechandwritingSpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.\nChapter1——1SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsLangueandparoleTheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.\nChapter1——1SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsCompetenceandperformanceProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.\nChapter1——2Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Sapiruses“ideas”“emotions”and“desires”inhisdefinition.Hall,likeSapir,treatslanguageasapurelyhumaninstitution.Chomsky’sdefinitionisquitedifferent,itfocusonthepurelystructuralpropertiesoflanguagesandtosuggestthatthesepropertiescanbeinvestigatedfromamathematicallyprecisepointofview.\nChapter1——2DesignfeaturesDesignfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.AmericanlinguistCharlesHockettspecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Eg:differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.ProductivityLanguageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.DualityThedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.DisplacementDisplacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.CulturaltransmissionWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewerebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnedanew.Thisindicatesthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.\nChapter2\nChapter2——1ThephonicmediumoflanguageSpeechandwritingarethetwomediausedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting.Thelimitedrangesofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage(语言的声音媒介).Theindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds（语音）.\nChapter2——2OrgansofspeechThepharyngealcavity咽腔thethroatTheoralcavity口腔themouthThenasalcavity鼻腔thenoseTheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinmanyways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynx(喉)beforeitreachesanyofthecavities.Lyingacrosstheglottis(声门)arethevocalcords(声带).Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”.Thespeedofthevibrationdeterminesthepitchofthesound.Thetongueisthemostflexibleintheoralcavity.\nChapter2——2Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds–broadandnarrowtranscriptionsIPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标TherearetwowaystotranscribespeechsoundsOneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbols(字母符号)only,calledbroadtranscription(宽式音标).Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(变音符号),callednarrowtranscription实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[phit]spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]\nChapter2——2ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds——ClassificationofEnglishconsonants按发音方式分Stoporplosive塞音或爆破音:[p][b][t][d][k][g]Fricative擦音：[f][v][s][z][][][s][][h]Affricate塞擦音：[t][d]Liquid流音：[l][r]Nasal鼻音：[m][n][]Glide滑音：[w][j]按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：[p][b][m][w]Labiodental唇齿音：[f][v]Dental齿音：[][]Alveolar齿龈音：[t][d][s][z][n][l][r]Palatal硬腭音：[][t][d][i]Velar软腭音：[k][g][]Glottal声门音：[h]\nChapter2——2ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds——ClassificationofEnglishvowels按舌头在口中的位置分Frontvowel前元音：[i:][i][e][][a]Centralvowel中元音：[:][][]Backvowel后元音：[u:][u][:][][a:]按口形的大小分Closevowel闭元音：[i:][i][u:][u]Semi-closevowel半闭元音：[e][:]Openvowel开元音：[][a]Semi-openvowel半开元音：[][:][][][a:]按唇形是否为圆分Unroundedvowel不圆唇元音：[i:][i][e][][a][:][][][a:]roundedvowel圆唇元音：[u:][u][:][]按语音的长短分Longvowel长元音[i:][:][a:][u:][:]Shortvowel短元音[i][e][][a][][][u][]在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei][ai][u][au][i][i][e][u]\nChapter2——3PhonologyandphoneticsBothphonologyandphoneticsarestudiesofspeechsounds.Phoneticsisofageneralnature,itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;Phonologyisinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage,itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Thusthesetwoareatoncerelatedanddistinctbranchesoflinguisticstudies.Example:单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。所以，如果从语音学角度来说，这是两个不同的语音，而从音系学角度来说，这是同一基本实体的两个变体。音系学家对不引起意义区别的语音间的细微区别并不关注，但语音学家却要对所有的语音进行描述，不论它们之间的差别对表达意义有没有关系。\nChapter2——3Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhonePhonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.phonemePhonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Aphonemeisnotasound,itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.allophoneThedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.\nChapter2——3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Theymightformacontrastiftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,ortheydonotformacontrastinmeaningiftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.PhonemiccontrastTheformeriscalledphonemiccontrast,theycanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning.complementarydistributionThelatteriscalledcomplementarydistribution;theyaretwoallophonesofthesamephoneme.Theyonlyoccurindifferentenvironments.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotheroneresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.minimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.\nChapter2——3SomerulesinphonologysequentialrulesTherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsequentialrules.重要的规则I.如果单词以[l]或[r]为首，其后的一个语音必定为元音，如rude,last,II.如果三个辅音同时出现在单词词首，则：第一音位必定为/s/，第二音位必定是/p//t//k/，第三音位必定是/l//r//w/，如strict,splendid.III.塞擦音[t][d]和咝音[s][z][][]后不能紧跟另一个咝音，如teach变复数为teaches[ti:tiz]。IV.制约音位模式的规则是随语言的不同而不同，英语中适用，其它语言却不适用。assimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.重要的规则I.元音后紧跟一个鼻音时，该元音要鼻音话。如bean/green中的[i:]音。II.在一个单词中，鼻音[n]所处的发音部位和紧随其后的辅音的发音部位变得一样。如correct–incorrect。III.语音同化规则也体现在有关单词的拼写中。如possible的否定形式是impossible，是因为[n]音同化成了[m]音。deletionrulesTheruletellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.重要的规则如[g]音出现在位于词尾的一个鼻辅音前时要省略。如sign中的[g]音不发音。而在加了后缀的signature中，[g]却要发音的。\nChapter2——3Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress,tone,intonationDistinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.Stress重音重要的规则I.一个单词如果既可以作名词，又可以作动词，则名词重音在第一个音节上，相应的动词重音则在第二个音节上。如import。II.英语复合词的重音常在第一个成分上，第二个成分是次重音。如hotdog。Tone声调：英语不是声调语言，这里不作研究。IntonationWhenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.\nChapter3\nChapter3——1DefinitionMorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatteristhestudyofwordformation.\nChapter3——2DefinitionMorphemeThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage。Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.TypesofmorphemesFreemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.\nChapter3——2TypesofBoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixesArootisoftenseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivationalInflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheEnglishinflectionalaffixesinclude:-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns表示名词复数-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons表示过去时-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect表示进行时-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词比较级-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadj.andadverbs表示形容词和副词最高级-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns表示名词的所有格\nChapter3——2TypesofBoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixesDerivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivationandthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.实例：Tolerate词根toler-＋词缀-ateQuickly自由语素quick＋词缀-lyCarelessness自由语素care＋词缀-less形成的派生词careless＋词缀-nessAffixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixesandsuffixes前缀和后缀Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”.Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestem,theymodify=ythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.\nChapter3——3TypesofcompoundwordsNoun+noun名词＋名词如：handbook,sunshineAdjective+noun形容词＋名词如：highway,sweetheartAdjective+noun+ed形容词＋名词＋ed如：white-haired,green=eyedVerb+noun动词＋名词如：pickpocket,drivewayAdverb+noun副词＋名词如：downtown,upgradeNoun+verb名词＋动词如：toothpick,snowfallVerb+adverb动词＋副词如：follow-up,kick-offNoun+adjective名词＋形容词如：world-famous,life-long-ingform+noun-ing形式＋名词如：dining-room,reading-glassesOtherforms其它形式如：go-between,father-in-law,upbringing,have-nots,thank-younote\nChapter3——3Featuresofcompounds拼写上Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.语法上Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.语义上Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.语音上Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.\nChapter4\nChapter4——1WhatisSyntax?Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.\nChapter4——1SyntaxasasystemofrulesSyntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsfallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.\nChapter4——2.1ThebasiccomponentsofasentenceAsentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject（主语）anditspredicate（谓语）whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.Thereferringexpression（被指称的对象）,suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,isgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectisusuallyanounoranounphrase.Thepartofsentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.\nChapter4——2.2TypesofsentenceThesimplesentenceAsimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.ThecoordinatesentenceAcoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.ThecomplexsentenceAcomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.\nChapter4——2.3ThelinearwordorderofasentenceWhenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.ThehierarchicalstructureofasentenceThesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.TreediagramsofsentencestructureThehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.\nChapter4——3.1LexicalcategoriesWordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.主要词类：Noun(N)名词：studentVerb(V)动词：likeAdjective(Adj)形容词：tallAdverb(Adv)副词：loudly次要词类：Determiner(Det)限定词：the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助动词：can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介词：in,at,overPronoun(Pron)代词：he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj)连词：and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感叹词：oh,ah,eh\nChapter4——3.2PhrasalcategoriesFourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP).NPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.\nChapter4——4GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.InEnglishandmanyotherlanguages,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.Strictlyspeaking,thisstatementistrueonlyintermsofthestructuralsubject（结构主语）andthestructuralobject（结构宾语）.Thelogicalsubject（逻辑主语）andthelogicalobject（逻辑宾语）mayhavedifferentpositions.\nChapter4——5PhrasalstructurerulesThecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.Example1:S→NPVP.Thearrowisreadas“consistof”,or“isrewrittenas”Theruleis:asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase.Example2:NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)Anounphraseconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anoptionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatorynoun,anoptionalprepositionalphrase,and/oranoptionalsentence.Example3:VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)AP→A(PP)(S)PP→PNP\nChapter4——5TherecursivenessofphrasestructurerulesSignificantly,theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Althoughtheserulesarepartoftherulesandregulationsofthegrammar,theysufficetoexplainhowlanguageis“creative”,andhowspeakerswith“finite”mindshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitesetofsentences.Thatis,therecursivepropertycapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.\nChapter4——5X-bartheoryX标杆理论NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXstandsforN/V/A/P.Therulemodifiedas:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement).X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论，短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成，其中指示语和补语可有可无，但核心词却不可缺少。\nChapter4——6SyntacticmovementandmovementrulesNPmovementNP-movementoccurswhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Themanbeatthechild./Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.NotallNP-movementarerelatedtochangingasentencefromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Itseemstheyarequitefitforthejob./Theyseemquitefitforthejob.NP“they”hasmovedfromthesubjectpositionoftheembeddedclausetothematrixclause.WHmovementWH-movementisobligatoryinEnglishwhichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.WH-movementissyntacticallyrequiredwhenthesentencechangesfromastatementintoaquestion.Othertypesofmovement（1）Generalquestions(一般疑问句)inEnglishmayalsoinvolvesyntacticmovementwithAUX-movement.AUX-movementisthemovementofanauxiliaryverb,suchasbe/have/do/will/can/should,tothesentence-initialposition.Example:SheisanEnglishprofessor./IssheanEnglishprofessor?（2）Forstylisticpurposes,apost-verbadjectiveinanadverbialclausebeginningwith“though”mayproposetothesentenceinitialposition.Example:Thoughshewassick,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren./Sickthoughshewas,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren.\nChapter4——6TherecursivenessofphrasestructurerulesSignificantly,theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Althoughtheserulesarepartoftherulesandregulationsofthegrammar,theysufficetoexplainhowlanguageis“creative”,andhowspeakerswith“finite”mindshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitesetofsentences.Thatis,therecursivepropertycapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.\nChapter4——6D-structureandS-structureWhatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure.Sincesyntacticmovementdoesnotoccurtoallsentences,theD-structureandS-structureofsomesentenceslookexactlythesameatdifferentlevelsofrepresentation.\nChapter4——6Moveα–ageneralmovementruleJustasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplace”.Itistoopowerful,sothegrammarshouldincludesomeconditionswhichwillrestrainthemovementpoweroftheruleandwhichwillstimulatethatonly“certainconstituents”canmovetoonly“certainpositions.\nChapter4——7TheoryofuniversalgrammarSinceearly1980sNoamChomskydevelopedatheoryofuniversalgrammar(UG)knowastheprinciple-an-parameterstheory.UGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahumanspecies-specificgiftwhichexistsinthemindorbrainofanormalhumanbeing.UGconsistsofasetofgeneralconditions,orgeneralprinciplesandalsocontainsasetofparameters.Generalprinciplesofuniversalgrammara)CaseCondition.AsisrequiredbytheCaseConditionprinciple,anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyverborprepositiontotheobjectposition,orbyauxiliarytothesubjectposition.ThetheoryofCaseConditionaccountsforthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.b)AdjacencyCondition.AsisrequiredbyAdjacencyConditionprinciple,aCaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.Thisconditionexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.\nChapter4——7TheparametersofuniversalgrammarParametersaresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.Setinoneofthepermissibleways,aparameteracquiresaparticularvalue,forexample,aplusorminusvalue,whichallowsthegrammarofalanguagetobehaveinawayverydifferentfromthatofanotherlanguage.a)UGisbelievedtocontainaparameterwitthevalues(+strictadjacency)and(-strictadjacency)setontheAdjacencyCondition.WithEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe(+strictadjacency)value,whileforFrench-typelanguages,theparameterissettotheother.b)Anotherparameter,theonethatinvolveswordorder,concernsthedirectionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalityParameter.ThisparameteroffersaneatandconsistentaccountforthetypologicaldifferenceinthewordorderwithintheVPcategorybetweenEnglishandJapanese.InEnglish,VP→VNPwhileinJapanese,VP→NPV.\nChapter5\nChapter5——1Whatissemantics？Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.\nChapter5——2SomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningThenamingtheoryItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.TheconceptualistviewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ContextualismContextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.BehaviorismBehavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.\nChapter5——3SenseandreferenceTheyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.1Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompliersareinterestedin.2Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandnon-linguisticworldofexperience.\nChapter5——2Majorsenserelations——SynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:a)Dialectalsynonyms–synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.b)Stylisticsynonyms–synonymsdifferinginstyle.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.b)SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.b)SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.b)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms–synonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.\nChapter5——2Majorsenserelations——Polysemy&Homonymy&Hyponymy&AntonymyThesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordhavingdifferentmeaninghavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneralmoreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuper-ordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuper-ordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning,wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.a)Gradableantonyms:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.b)Complementaryantonyms:Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.c)Relationalopposites:Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.\nChapter5——4SenserelationsbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithYX:Heisabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.XisinconsistentwithYX:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.XentailsYYisanentailmentofXX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.XpresupposesY.YisaprerequisiteofXX:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.Xisacontradiction.X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtobachelor.Xissemanticallyanomalous.X:Thetablehasbadintentions.\nChapter5——5Componentialanalysis–awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningexTheapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.egMan和woman这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE这些共同的特征，但在MALE这一特征上不同。Man和boy这两个单词有＋HUMAN,+ANIMATE,+MALE这些共同的特征，但在ADULT这一特征上不同。\nChapter5——5Predicationanalysis–awaytoanalyzesentencemeaningLinguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbythelinguistGLeech.Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,anditisanalyzedintosuchgrammaticalcomponentsassubject,predicate,andattribute.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsnasentence.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).示例：Thebuildingisnexttothelibrary.(Two-placepredication)Heissnoring.(One-placepredication)Itislate.(No-placepredication)\nChapter6\nChapter6——1Whatispragmatics?Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Itplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.\nChapter6——1PragmaticsandsemanticsPragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,buttheyaredifferent.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaning,thecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.ContextContextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.SentencemeaningandutterancemeaningThemeaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized,whileutterancemeaningisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.\nChapter6——2SpeechacttheorySpeechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50’softhe20thcentury.Accordingtospeechacttheory,weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Accordingtospeechacttheory,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.aAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntaxlexiconandphonology.bAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.cAperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtabouttheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.\nChapter6——2SpeechacttheoryAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearleclassifiedillocutionaryactsintofivegeneraltypes.Eachtypehasacommon,generalpurpose.arepresentatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue示例：Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore./theearthisglobe.bdirectives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething示例：Openthewindow!/Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?ccommissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction示例：Ipromisetocome./Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.dexpressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate示例：I’msorryforthemessIhavemade./It’sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.edeclarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething示例：Inowdeclarethemeetingopen./Ifireyou.Importantremark:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforth.\nChapter6——3PrincipleofconversationAmericanphilosopherPaulGriceconcludedthatnaturallanguagehaditsownlogic.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:ThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationBerelevant.ThemaximofmannerAvoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).Beorderly.说话要有条理。ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Forvariousreasonsthesemaximsareoftenviolated,or“flouted”.MostoftheseviolationsgiverisetowhatGricecalls“conversationalimplicature”.Inotherword,whenweviolateanyofthesemaxims,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.\nChapter7\nChapter7ThepurposeandsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguageThehistoricalstudyoflanguageisofgreatimportancetoourunderstandingofhumanlanguagesandhumanlinguisticcompetence.Researchesinhistoricallinguisticsshedlightonprehistoricdevelopmentintheevolutionoflanguageandtheconnectionsofearlierandlatervariantsofthesamelanguage,andprovidevaluableinsightsintothekinshippatternsofdifferentlanguages.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguagealsoenablesustodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassocial,culturalandpsychologicalfactors,interactovertimetotriggerlinguisticchange.\nChapter7ThenatureoflanguagechangeAlllivinglanguageschangewithtime.Unlessalanguageisnolongerspokenbythegeneralpublicofasociety,suchasLatin,itschangeisinevitable.Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.Languagechangeisextensive,takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar.Althoughlanguagechangeisuniversal,inevitable,andinsomecases,vigorous,itisneveranovernightoccurrence.Languagedevelopmentmayberegardedaslinguisticevolutionfromonestagetoanother.\nChapter7MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglishOldEnglish(450-1100)MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)ModernEnglish(1500-今)MostModernEnglishspeakersfindMiddleEnglishonlypartiallycomprehensible,andOldEnglishsimplyunintelligible,justlikeaforeignlanguagehardlyrecognizableasthenativelanguagetheyspeak.OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.MiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEngland.MiddleEnglishhadbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.ModernEnglishisseparatedwithMiddleEnglishwithEuropeanrenaissancemovement.AsBritishinfluencereachedothercontinents,the“BritishEmpire”establishedEnglish-speakingcoloniesinmanypartsoftheworld.EnglishisnowthenativelanguageintheUnitedStates,Canada,AustraliaandNewZealand.\nChapter7LinguisticchangeinEnglishLanguagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.Linguisticchangeoccursinallcomponentsofthegrammar,includingchangesinthesound,morphological,syntactic,lexicalandsemanticsystems.soundchangeVowelsoundchangeThechangeoccurredattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiod,approximately1400-1600.Thesechangesledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenthephonemicrepresentationsofwordsandmorphemes,thatis,betweenthepronunciationandthespellingsystemofModernEnglish.KnownastheGreatVowelShiftinthehistoryofEnglish,thesechangesinvolvesevenlong,ortense,vowels.RefertoP132ofthetestbookforexamples.SoundlossNotonlydidtypesofvowelsoundschange,butsomesoundssimplydisappearedfromthegeneralpronunciationofEnglish.SoundadditionWhilesomesoundswerelostinthecourseofthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish,othersoundswereadded.Soundadditionincludesthegainorinsertionofasound.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.RefertoP134ofthetextbookforexamples.\nChapter7LinguisticchangeinEnglishLanguagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthegrammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.Linguisticchangeoccursinallcomponentsofthegrammar,includingchangesinthesound,morphological,syntactic,lexicalandsemanticsystems.soundchangeSoundmovementSoundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasmetathesis,involvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegments.Affixloss消失了的词缀包括：-baere（形容词派生词缀）-bora（相应动作的施为者）-yan（加在形容词后称为使役动词）注：现代英语中的-en不再具有产出性技能，因而我们不能派生出诸如以下的一些单词Green-en/blue-en/asleep-enAffixaddition增加了的词缀包括：-able（动词转化为形容词的词缀）-ment（动词转化为名词的词缀）-ze（名词或形容词转化为动词的词缀）\nChapter7LinguisticchangeinEnglishSyntacticchangeRuleloss1》Morphosyntacticruleofadjectiveagreement.Therulestipulatedthattheendingsofadjectivesmustagreewiththeheadnounincase,number,andgender.2》OldEnglishsyntaxcontainedadouble-negationrule,whichwouldnegateasentencewithbothnegatorsof“ne”(“not”)andfre”(“never”).Ruleaddition1》Particlemovementrule.小品词移位规则。Johnthrewouttheballthroughthewindow.其中throwout中的小品词out可以移位Johnthrewtheballoutthroughthewindow.2》AnothersyntacticrulegaininEnglishconcernsthedistinctionbetweenauxiliaryverbsandmainverbs.InmodernEnglishthesyntacticbehaviorofauxiliaryverbsdiffersfromthatofmainverbsinthatonlyauxiliaryverbscanbefrontedininterrogativesentences.Rulechange1》Anegativesentencecouldbeformedbymerelyadding“not’attheendofanaffirmativesentencepriortoShakespeare’stime.2》Languagesvaryintheorderofthesubject,theverbandtheobject.\nChapter7LinguisticchangeinEnglishLexicalchangeLexicalloss实例见书本141页。LexicaladditionThehistoryofEnglishlexicalexpansionisonethatischaracterizedwithheavyborrowingandwordformation.AlthoughEnglishhasborrowedmostheavilyfromFrench,otherlanguagesasLatinandGreekhavealsomadetheircontributions.Inadditiontoborrowing,newwordshavemadetheirentryintoEnglishviawordformationrulessuchascompounding,derivation,acronymformation,blending,abbreviation,clipping,back-formation,andcoinage.SemanticchangeSemanticbroadening实例见书本146页。包括bird/dog/aunt/holiday这些词。Semanticnarrowing实例见书本146和147页。包括hound/meat/wife/girl/liquor/fowl/disease这些词。Semanticshift实例见书本147和148页。包括silly/fond/nice/immoral这些词。\nChapter7LanguageFamilyLanguagefamilyisagroupofhistorically(orgenetically)relatedlanguagesthathavedevelopedfromacommonancestrallanguage.Forexample,mostofthelanguagesofEurope,Persia,andthenorthpartofIndiabelongtotheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily,andtheyhavethesameoriginknownasProto-Indo-European.\nChapter7ClassifyinggeneticallyrelatedlanguagesItisestimatedthatoverfivethousandlanguagesarespokenintheworldtoday.Thereareabout30languagefamilieswithfourmainones:theIndo-EuropeanFamily,theSino-TibetanFamily,theAustronesianFamily,andtheAfroasiaticFamily.TheIndo-Europeanfamilyhasamembershipofabout150languages.TheSino-Tibetanfamilyconsistsofabout300EastAsianlanguages.TheAustronesianFamilycomprisesupto1000differentlanguagesscatteredoveronethirdoftheSouthernHemisphere.TheAfroasiaticFamilyismadeupofabout250languagesspreadacrossthenorthernpartofAfricaandwesternAsia.EnglishisbelongedtotheIndo-EuropeanFamily.Manyseeminglydifferentlanguagesareactuallygeneticallyrelatedassistersorcousinsofabiglanguagefamilyandhavedevelopedfromacommon,possibly“dead”,ancestrallanguage.Historicallinguistshavetoidentifyandclassifyfamiliesofrelatedlanguagesinagenealogicalfamilytree,andtoreconstructtheprotolanguage.Alanguagefamilyisestablishedbytheuseofamethodknownascomparativereconstruction.Byidentifyingandcomparingsimilarlinguisticformswithsimilarmeaningsacrossrelatedlanguages,,historicallinguistsreconstructtheprotoforminthecommonancestrallanguage.Workonthesystematicform-meaningresemblanceincognates,wordsthathavedescendedfromacommonsource,liesatthecoreofcomparativereconstruction.\nChapter7TheIndo-EuropeanlanguagefamilyTheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamilyisthefirstandmostwidelyinvestigatedlanguagefamilyoftheworld.ThediscoveryofIndo-EuropeanbeganwiththeworkofBritishscholarSirWilliamJones.In1822,theGermanscholarJacobGrimmspecifiedinhistreatisetheregularsoundcorrespondencesamongSanskrit,Greek,Latin,andtheGermaniclanguages.Grimm’smajorcontributiontohistoricallinguisticsishisexplanationoftherelationshipsamongcognatesintermsofasoundshift,thesystematicmodificationofaseriesofphonemes.Becausethesesoundchangesweresostrikinglyregularandlaw-like,theybecamecollectivelyasGrimm’sLaw.\nChapter7ThecausesoflanguagechangeSoundassimilationSoundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Assimilationprocessesarephonologicalchangesduetophysiologicalmechanisms.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundismadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology-thelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.Anotherexampleofsoundassimilationinvolvesvowelnasalization.Anotherexampleofsoundassimilationthatresultsinmorpho-logicalandlexicalchangesisthe/k/soundasintheword“key”.RulesimplificationandregularizationRulesimplificationandregularizationinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.InternalborrowingAnotherkindofchangethatismotivatedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemoryiscalledinternalborrowing.ElaborationRuleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.Languageseemstomaintainabalanceinexpressivenessandgrammaticalelaborationovertime.Ifaparticulargrammaticalfeatureislostasaresultof,say,achangeinthephonologicalsystem,someotherfeaturemaybeaddedinanothercomponentofthegrammar,suchasinthesyntax.\nChapter7ThecausesoflanguagechangeSociologicaltriggersLinguisticshavebecomeincreasinglyawareofsociologicaltriggersforlanguagechange.Radicalsocio-politicalchangessuchaswars,invasions,occupation,colonialization,andlanguageplanningandstandardizationpoliciesleadtovigorouslanguagechanges.CulturaltransmissionAlthoughanewgenerationhastofindawayofusingthelanguageofthepreviousgeneration,ithastofindexpressionsthatcanbestcommunicatetheviewsandconceptsofthetimeandthechangedandever-changingsociallife,andre-createthelanguagesofthecommunity.Manyyoungspeakershavethedesiretosounddifferentfromtheoldergeneration.Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammarChildrenacquiretheirnativelanguagenotthroughformalinstructionofgrammaticalrules.Childrenusuallyconstructtheirpersonalgrammarsbythemselvesandgeneralizerulesfrothelinguisticinformationtheyhear.Theyareexposedtodiverselinguisticinformation.Childrenhaveastrongdesiretosimplifyandregularizegrammaticalrules,particularlywhentheyseeadultsusecertainrulesoptionally.Insuchcases,achangeinthegrammaroccurs.\nChapter8\nChapter81.Whatissocio-linguistics?什么是社会语言学？Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontexts.\nChapter8LanguagevariationSpeechcommunityInsociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledspeechcommunity.Aspeechcommunitythusdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity(whichmayhaveasfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymemberasacountry),andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.SpeechvarietySpeechvarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Aspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.Consideredamoreneutralterm,speechvarietyissometimesusedinsteadofstandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialect,pidgin,creole,etc.Speechvariationmovesonascaleofthenationallanguage,dialect,andindividualwaysofcommunication.Sociolinguistsareparticularlyinterestedintheretypesofspeechvariety,ordialects,namely,regionaldialects,sociolectsorsocialdialects,andfunctionalspeechvarietiesknownasregisters.Thetermdialect,asatechnicalterminlinguistics,carriesnovaluejudgmentandsimplyreferstoadistinctformoflanguage.\nChapter8RegionalvariationRegionalvariationRegionalvariationisspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisitsaccent.Oftenspeakersofthesamelanguagebutofdifferentregionaldialectsofthelanguagehaveaverydifficulttimecommunicating.Onewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.SocialvariationSocialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategorieswhichreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalandethnicbackground,aswellastheirsexandage.StylisticvariationTherearedifferencesassociatedwiththespeechsituation:whoisspeakingtowhomaboutunderwhatcircumstancesforwhatpurpose.Stylisticvariationinaperson’sspeech,orwriting,usuallyrangesoncontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.Stylecanalsorefertoaparticularperson’suseofspeechorwritingatalltimes,ortoawayofspeakingorwritingataparticularperiodoftime,e.g.,Dickens’style,Hemingway’sstyle.\nChapter8RegionalvariationIdiolectalvariationWhenanindividualspeaks,whatisactuallyproducedisauniquelanguagesystemofthespeaker,expressedwithintheoverallsystemofaparticularlanguage.Suchapersonaldialectisreferredtoasidiolect.Idiolectis,thus,apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual’sspeech.\nChapter8StandardandnonstandardlanguageThestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.Thestandardlanguageofmanycountriesisalsodesignatedasthenationalorofficiallanguage.Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacular,languages.Alldialectsofalanguageareequallyeffectiveinexpressingideas.\nChapter8DiglossiaandbilingualismDiglossiaDiglossiadescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.Usually,oneismorestandardvarietycalledthehighvariety,orH-variety,whichisusedformoreformalorseriousmatter,suchasspeechesmadeingovernment,themedia,school,orchurch.Andtheotherisanon-prestigevarietycalledthelowvariety,orL-variety,whichisusedincolloquialandotherinformalsituations,suchasconversationswithfamilyorfriends,orinstructionsgiventoservants,waiters,orworkmen.Oftenthehighvarietyisregardedasaliterarystandardcalledaclassicallanguage,whereasthelowvarietyremainsalocalvernacular.BilingualismBilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.Atypicalexampleofabilingualcommunityisanethnicghettowheremost,ifnotall,ofitsinhabitantsareeitherimmigrantsorchildrenofimmigrants.Bilingualismalsooccurstocountrieswhichhavedesignatedtwoofficiallanguagesfornationorregionaluse.Perfectbilingualism,howeverisuncommon.Abilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.\nChapter8EthnicdialectBlackEnglishBlackEnglishisanethnicvarietyoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisspokenmostlybyalargesectionofnon-middle-classAmericanBlacks.BlackEnglishisstigmatizedas“badEnglish”,apurelysocialattitudethathasnolinguisticbasis.Likeothervarieties,BlackEnglishhassomevocabularyofitsown.Ithasanumberofdistinctivefeaturesinitsphonological,morphologicalandsyntacticsystemswhicharerule-governedandsystematic.ThesocialenvironmentofBlackEnglishTheassumptionthatBlackEnglishis“geneticallyinferior”,“deficient”,and“incomplete”,issimplyungrounded.ThedistinctivefeaturesofBlackEnglishpersistnotforracialreasons,butforsocial,educational,andeconomicreasons.Racialdiscrimination,accompaniedbysocialisolation,intensifiedsomedialectaldifferencesbetweenBlackEnglishandStandardEnglish.\nChapter8SocialdialectEducationvarietiesSocialdialects,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.Thespeakersofasocialdialectusuallyshareasimilarsocialbackground.Manydifferencesinlanguagesusepersistforeducationalreasons.Itis,therefore,importanttoknow,forexample,whetheragroupofspeakerssharesimilareducationalbackgrounds.AgevarietiesThewaylanguageisusedcorrelateswiththeageofindividualspeakers.Theimportanceofageasasocialfactorinlanguagevariationisstrikinglydemonstratedbychildren’slanguageasitdevelopswithage.Whilesomedifferencesinpronunciationarefoundtocorrelatewithdifferentgenerationofspeakers,themoststrikingdifferencesarelexical.GendervarietiesVariationinlanguageuseisalsoassociatedwiththesexofindividualspeakers.Sex-preferentialdifferentiationintermsofspeechvarietiesofmalesandfemalesexistsinallnaturallanguageacrosstheword.Inparticular,theintentionalorunintentionaluseofsexistlanguageinspeechorwritingreflectsgender-biasedculturaltraditionsinmanysocieties.RegistervarietiesRegistersarelanguagevarietiesappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,forthatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.Aformalsituationmayconditionaformalregister,characterizedbyformal,standardlexicalitemsandgrammaticalrules,andspeechpatterns;whileaninformalsettingmaybereflectedinalessformalregisterthatexhibitsmorecausalvocabulary,nonstandardgrammaticalfeatures,andstigmatizedspeechpatterns.\nChapter8SocialdialectAddresstermsOnespecificaspectofsituationaluseoflanguageisthatofaddresstermusage.Anaddressterm,oraddressform,referstothewordorwordsusedtoaddresssomebodyinspeechorwriting.Itisapparentthatthewayinwhichpeopleaddressoneanotherusuallydependsontheirage,sex,socialgroup,andpersonalrelationship.TheEnglishsystemoffrequentlyusedaddresstermsincludesfirstname,lastname,title+lastname,titlealone,andkinterm.SlangSlangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimebyraciness.Thecentralcharacteristicofslangcomesfromthemotiveforitsuse:adesirefornovelty,forvividemphasis,formembershipinaparticulargrouporclassofpeople,orforbeingupwiththetimesoralittleahead.Althoughslangisoftenveryvividandexpressive,thetermslanghastraditionallycarriedanegativeconnotation:itisdeemedtobeundesirableinformalstyleoflanguage.Mostslangtermscomeandgolikefadsandfashion,onlyfewremainandbecomeacceptablelanguagebythewholesociety.LinguistictabooAlinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Insociolinguistics,taboo,orratherlinguistictaboo,denotesanyprohibitionontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.Aslanguageuseiscontextualizedinparticularsocialsettings,linguistictaboooriginatesfromsocialtaboo.Whenanactistaboo,referencetothisactmayalsobecometaboo.Taboowordsandexpressionsreflecttheparticularsocialcustomsandviewsofaparticularculture.EuphemismEuphemismcomesfromtheGreekwordeuphemismos,meaning“tospeakwithgoodwords.”Aeuphemism,then,isamild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.\nChapter9\nChapter9ThebiologicalfoundationsoflanguageThecaseofPhineasGageOneafternooninSeptember1848,atragedyhappedtoGage.AhugemetalrodhadgonethroughthefrontpartofGage’sbrain,buthislanguageabilitieswereunaffected.Thepointofthisamazingcaseisthat,ifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefront.ThehumanbrainThehumanbrainisthemostcomplicatedorganofthebody.Lyingundertheskull,thehumanbraincontainsanaverageoftenbillionnervecellscalledneurons.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralcortex.Thecortexisthedecision-makingorganofthebody,receivingmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandinitiatingallvoluntaryaction.Manyofthecognitiveabilitiesthatdistinguishhumansfromothermammals,suchassophisticatedreasoning,linguisticskills,andmusicalability,arebelievedtoresideinthecortex.Thebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledhemispheres,oneontherightandoneontheleft.Thesehemispheresareconnectedliketwinsrightdownthemiddlebyanumberofinterconnectingnervepathways.Ingeneral,therighthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,theleftsideofthebody,whereasthelefthemispherecontrolsvoluntarymovementof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,therightsideofthebody.BrainlateralizationThelefthemispherehasprimaryresponsibilityforlanguage,whiletherighthemispherecontrolsandspatialskillsaswellastheperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsandmusicalmelodies.Thelocalizationofthecognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledlateralization.Becauseeachcerebralhemispherehasuniquefunctionalsuperiority,itismoreaccuratetoconceiveofthehemispheresascomplementarilyspecialized.Theprocessoflateralizationisbelievedtobematurational.Thatis,brainlateralizationisgeneticallyprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop.\nChapter9LinguisticlateralizationLefthemisphericdominanceforlanguageLinguisticlateralizationintermsoflefthemisphericdominanceforlanguageisfoundtoexistinanoverwhelmingmajorityofhumanbeings.Althoughbothrightandlefthemispheresarelateralizedcomplementarilyinmanyaspectsofhumancognitiveandperceptualactivities,languagefunctionsarebelievedtobelateralizedprimarilyinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.Researchhasshownthatdifferentaspectsoflanguageprocessingappeartobemorecharacteristicofthelefthemispherethantheother.DichoticlisteningresearchEvidenceinsupportingoflateralizationforlanguageinthelefthemispherecomesfromresearchesindichoticlisteningtasks.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.Bymeansofdichoticlisteningtask,wecananalyzethecharacteristicsofincomingstimuliprocessedbytheindividualhemisphere.Researchshowsthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatarelinguisticinnature,thusprovidingevidenceinsupportoftheviewthattheleftsideofthebrainisspecializedforlanguageandthatitiswherelanguagecentersreside.\nChapter9ThelanguagecentersBroca’sareaIn1861,aFrenchmannamedPaulBrocafoundthedamagetoaspecificareaofthebrainresultsinspeechproductiondeficit.ThisareawasnowknownasBroca’sarea.LanguagedisorderresultingfromadamagetoBroca’sareainthebrainrevealsword-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.Wernicke’sareaIn1874,ayoungGermanCarlWernickefoundanotherdifferentareaofthelefthemispherenowknownasWernicke’sarea.ThedamagetoWernick’sareawillresultinspeechcomprehensiondeficit.TheangulargyrusAngulargyrusliesbehindWernicke’sarea.Itisthelanguagecenterresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthecomprehensionofwrittenlanguage,allofwhichrequireconnectionsbetweenvisualandspeechregions.Languageperception,comprehensionandproductionThebrainactivityinvolvedinhearing,understandingandthensayingawordwouldfollowadefinitepattern.Whenwelisten,thewordisheardandcomprehendedviaWernicke’sarea.ThissignalthentransferredtoBroca’sareawherepreparationsaremadetoproduceit.Asignalisthensenttothemotorareacontrollingthevocaltracttophysicallyarticulatetheword.Whenwespeak,wordsaredrawnfromWernicke’sareaandsenttoBroca’sarea,whichdeterminesthedetailsoftheirformandpronunciation.Theappropriateinstructionsarethensenttothemotorarea.\nChapter9ThecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisitionThecriticalperiodhypothesisThecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,swiftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.ItisgenerallythoughtthatthedevelopmentoflateralizationinthebrainmaybeconnectedtothelanguagelearningabilitiesofchildreninthatcriticalagefrotheacquisitionofthefirstlanguageItisbelievedthatlanguageacquisitionbeginsataboutthesametimeaslateralizationdoesandisnormallycomplete,asfarastheessentialsareconnected,bythetimethattheprocessoflateralizationcomestoanend.Itbecomesprogressivelymoredifficulttoacquirelanguageaftertheageatwhichlateralizationiscomplete.ThecaseofGenieandthedegenerationoflanguagefacultywithageThecaseofGenieconfirmsthecriticalperiodhypothesis.AsafeconclusionthatwecandrawfromGenie’scaseforthemomentisthatthelanguagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodandconsequently,mostlinguisticskillscannotdevelop.\nChapter9LanguageandthoughtEarlyviewsonlanguageandthoughtEarlyviewsonlanguageandthoughtincludetwocontrastingviews:mentalistandempiricist.Mentaliststatedthatlanguageandthoughtwerethesamething.Thinkinginvolvedthesamemotoractivitiesusedinspeaking.Thatis,whenwe“thinkaloud”,itiscalledspeech;whenwe“speakcovertly”,itiscalledthinking.Empiricistarguedthatmankindcouldnothavethesamelanguagesandthatlanguageswerebutsignsofpsychologicalexperience.TheSapir-WhorfhypothesisTheAmericananthropologist-linguistEdwardSapirandhisstudentBenjaminLeeWhorfproposedasweeping,two-prongedhypothesisconcerninglanguageandthought.Whorfproposedfirstthatallhigherlevelsofthinkingaredependentonlanguage.Orputitmorebluntly,languagedeterminesthought,hencethestrongnotionoflinguisticdeterminism.Becauselanguagesdifferinmanyways,Whorfalsobelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,thatis,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground,hencethenotionoflinguisticrelativism.Iffollowsfromthisstrongversionofthehypothesisthatthereisnorealtranslationandthatitisimpossibletolearnthelanguageofadifferentcultureunlessthelearnerabandonshisorhereownmodeofthinkingandacquiresthethoughtpatternsofthenativespeakersofthetargetlanguage.\nChapter9LanguageandthoughtArgumentsagainsttheSapir-WhorfhypothesisWordsandmeaning.Itiswidelyacceptedthatthevocabularyofalanguageconsistsofnothingmorethanmeaninglesslabelswhicharemanipulatedbylanguageuserstoelicitemotionalreactionsorbehavioralresponses,toimpartinformationortodirectthelistener’sattention.Themeaningofawordorphrasedependslargelyonthecommunicativecontext.Asthecontextofawordorsentencechanges,itseffectandmeaningalsochange.Grammaticalstructure.ThesyntacticsystemofalanguageandtheperceptualsystemofthespeakersofthatlanguagedonothavethekindofinterdependentrelationshipthattheSapir-Whorfhypothesisclaimedtohave.Manygrammaticalfeaturesofalanguagearepurelysuperficialaspectsoflinguisticstructure.Translation.Anothermajorargumentagainstthehypothesiscomesfromthefactthatsuccessfultranslationbetweenlanguagescanbemade.ThetranslationargumentissupportedbytheveryfactthatconceptualuniquenessofalanguagesuchasHopicannonethelessbeexplainedinEnglishSecondlanguageacquisition.Iflanguageshavedifferentconceptualsystems,thensomeonewhospeaksonelanguagewillbeunabletolearntheotherlanguagebecausehelackstherightconceptualsystem.However,sincepeoplecanlearnradicallydifferentlanguages,thoselanguagescouldn’thavedifferentconceptualsystems.Languageandworldviews.Thelanguagesystemdoesnotnecessarilyprovidespecificsofone’sworldviews.Ontheonehand,peoplespeakingthesamelanguagemayhavedifferentworldviews,includingpolitical,social,religious,scientificandphilosophicalviews.Ontheotherhand,peoplespeakingdifferentlanguagesmaysharesimilarpolitical,social,religious,scientificorphilosophicalviews.Moreover,onelanguagecandescribemanydifferentworldviews,asisevidentinthecaseofsuccessfultranslation.\nChapter9UnderstandingtherelationoflanguageandthoughtMajorfunctionsoflanguageLanguageprovidesameansfortheexpressionorcommunicationofthoughtandinparticular,asservingtwomajorfunctions,namely,interpersonalcommunicationandintrapersonalcommunication.ThedevelopmentandblendingoflanguageandthoughtAlthoughlanguageandthoughtaretwodifferentsystemsthatdevelopalongtwodifferentroutes,partofthelanguagesystemisactuallypartofthethoughtsystem.Thethoughtandlanguagesystemsarejoinedthroughmeaningandideas.ThinkingwithoutlanguageThereareoccasionswhenonecanthinkwithoutlanguage,justasonemayspeakwithoutthinking.Peoplemaycommunicatetheirfeelingsorthoughtsvianonverbalsignalssuchasfacialexpressions,gestures.LanguageasaconventionalcodingsystemtoexpressthoughtRecallthatinChapter1,wedefinedlanguageasasystemofarbitrarycodesusedforhumancommunication.Whatthatmeansisthattherelationshipbetweenthecodingsystemoflanguageontheonehandandtheconceptualizingsystemofthoughtontheotherisconventionalratherthangenetic.Forsomehistoricalreasonsthatarenotcompletelyunderstood,naturallanguageshavedevelopedintodifferentcodingsystems,inspiteofthefactthatallhumansshareageneralconceptualizingcapacity.However,aparticularcodingsystemcomprisesaparticularsetofarbitraryverbalsymbolswhichdonotarisefrom,nordotheygivebirthto,aparticularconceptualsystem.ThewaysinwhichlanguageaffectsthoughtAlthoughlanguageisnotalwaysanecessaryconditionforthought,theuseofitisindispensabletothecontent,direction,andelaborationofparticularthoughts.WhilewerejectthestrongversionoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,itsweakerversionisgenerallyacceptedbymostscholars.Werecognizethatlanguagedoesnotsomuchdeterminethewaywethinkasitinfluencesthewayweperceivetheworldandrecallthings,andaffectstheeasewithwhichweperformmentaltasks.\nChapter10\nChapter10FirstlanguageacquisitionThebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisitionisageneticallydeterminedcapacitythatallhumansareendowedwith.Humanisbiologicallyprogrammedtoacquireatleastonelanguage.Anychildwhoiscapableofacquiringsomeparticularhumanlanguageiscapableofacquiringanyhumanlanguagespontaneouslyandeffortlessly.LanguageacquisitionastheacquisitionofgrammaticalrulesLanguageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthegrammaticalsystemoflanguage.Itdoesn’tmeanthateveryspecificruleallowedbythegrammaticalsystemofalanguagemustbeacquired.Whatisactuallyacquiredbyyoungchildrenaresomegeneralprinciplethatarefundamentaltothegrammaticalityofspeech.TheroleofinputandinteractionAlthoughhumanbeingsaregeneticallypredeterminedtoacquirelanguage,thisgeneticpredispositionisnotasufficientconditionforlanguagedevelopment.Forlanguagetobeeventuallyacquired,childrenmustbeprovidedwithanappropriatelinguisticenvironmentwhichtheyhaveaccesstolanguagedataandopportunitiestointeractwiththeinput.TheroleofinstructionForthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursspontaneouslyandrequireslittleconsciousinstruction.Infact,parentsoftenfailintheirattempttoteachchildrengrammaticalrules.TheroleofcorrectionandreinforcementCorrectionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment.Reinforcementhasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren’spronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthaninthegrammaticalityofsentences.TheroleofimitationSelectiveimitationsuggeststhatchildrendonotblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploititinveryrestrictedwaytoimprovetheirlinguisticskills.Thepointisthatimitationplaysatbestaveryminorroleinthechild’smasteryoflanguage.\nChapter10StagesoffirstlanguageacquisitionTheprelinguisticstageTheearliestsoundsproducedbyinfantscannotbeconsideredearlylanguage.Thenoisessuchascriesandwhimpersofthenewborninalllanguagecommunitiessoundthesame.Suchnoisesarecompletelystimulus-controlled.Theone-wordstageAtsomepointinthelatepartofthefirstyearortheearlypartofthesecondyear,thebabblingstagegraduallygiveswaytotheearliestrecognizablestageoflanguage,oftenreferredtoastheone-wordstage.Children’sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.One-wordutterancessometimesshowanoverextensionorunder-extensionofreference.Typically,childrenusethesamewordforthingsthathaveasimilarappearance.Thetwo-wordstageIngeneral,thetwo-wordstagebeginsroughlyinthesecondhalfofhechild’ssecondyear.Atthisstage,childrenareheardutteringtwo-wordexpressionsinavarietyofcombinations;expressacertainvarietyofgrammaticalrelations.Inaddition,thelanguageatthisstagebeginstoreflectthedistinctionbetweensentencetypes,suchasnegativesentences,imperativeandquestions.\nChapter10StagesoffirstlanguageacquisitionThemultiwordstageBetweentwoandthreeyearsold,childrenbegintoproducelongerutteranceswithmorecomplexgrammaticalstructures.Whenachildstartsstringingmorethantwowordstogether,theutterancesmaybetwo,three,four,orfivewordsorlonger,hencethemultiwordstage.Theearlymultiwordutterancestypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalcategoriesas“to”,“the”,“can”.Thesemultiwordutterancesareusuallythe“substantive”or“content”wordsthatcarrythemainmessage.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestyleoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utterancesatthisacquisitionstageareoftenreferredtoastelegraphicspeech.Althoughtheylackgrammaticalmorphemes,telegraphicsentencesarenotsimplywordsthatarerandomlystrungtogether,butfollowtheprinciplesofsentenceformation.Asthistypeoftelegram-formatspeechincreases,anumberofgrammaticalmorphemesbegintoappearinchildren’sspeech,suchas“-s”,“-ed”andprepositions.Itisnormallyassumedthatbytheageoffive,withanoperatingvocabularyofmorethan2000words,childrenhavecompletedthegreaterpartofthelanguageacquisitionprocess.\nChapter10ThedevelopmentofthegrammaticalsystemThedevelopmentofphonologyIt’ssuggestedthatevenbeforechildrenmasterthephonemiccontrastsoftheirlanguage,theybegintodevelopthearticulatorymovementsneededtoproducethesedistinctionsinspeech.Astheydeveloptheirnativelanguage,childrenmustmasterasystematicsetofpatternsandlearnhowtofitgivensoundsintothosepatterns.Childrenfirstacquirethesoundsfoundinalllanguagesoftheworld,nomatterwhatlanguagetheyareexposedto,andinlaterstageacquirethe“moredifficult”sounds.Ithasbeennotedthatcertainsoundsthatoccurinbabblingarelostwhenchildrenbegintospeakthelanguage,andthenreappearatalaterstage.ThedevelopmentofsyntaxAschildrenproducesentencesthatmoreandmorecloselyapproximatetheadultgrammar,theybegintousefunctionalwordsaswellasinflectionalandderivationalmorphemesofthelanguageThedevelopmentofmorphologyChildren’searlywordsaresimplyabunchofbarestemswithoutaffixes.Bythetimetheyaregoingbeyondthetelegraphicstage,children’sbegintoincorporatesomeoftheinflectionalmorphemeswhichindicatethegrammaticalfunctionofnounsandverbsused.–ing/-s/-ed.ThedevelopmentofvocabularyandsemanticsItisestimatedthatduringthefirsttwoyears,achildhaveaverylimitedvocabularyrangingfrom50to100words.Atthisstage,thesemanticreferentofawordexpands.Overgeneralizationcanbeobservedinchildren’sacquisitionofthesemanticsystem,astheyacquiremoreandmorewords,the“over-generalized”meaningnarrowsdown.Bytheageoftwoandahalfyears,children’svocabularyisexpandingrapidlyandtheyareactuallyinitiatingmoretalks.Byfive,children’sutterancesaverageabout4.6wordspersentence,andtheirvocabularyincreasesbyabouttwentywordseachday.Six-7800Eight-17600(28000ifderivedformsincluded)Ingeneral,childrenhavevirtuallyacquiredthebasicfabricoftheirnativelanguageattheageoffiveorsix.Itisagreedthatthepre-schoolyearsareacrucialperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition\nChapter10SecondlanguageacquisitionAcquisitionandlearningAcquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.Learning,however,isdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.TransferandinterferenceNaturally,learnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirL1knowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Thisisknownaslanguagetransfer.Transfercanbepositiveornegative.Presumably,positivetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisidenticalwith,orsimilarto,atargetlanguagepattern.Conversely,negativetransferoccurswhenanL1patternisdifferentfromthecounterpartpatternofthetargetlanguage.Negativetransferisaprocessmorecommonlyknownasinterference.Inordertoidentifytheareasoflearningdifficulty,aninter-lingualcontrastiveprocedurecalledContrastiveAnalysiswasdeveloped.Itwasfoundthatalargeproportionofgrammaticalerrorscouldnotbeexplainedbymothertongueinterference.Manyactualerrorsareattributabletoovergeneralizationinsteadofnegativetransfer.ErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopmentTheErrorAnalysisapproachshowsthattherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.Alargeproportionofdevelopmental-typeerrorsinlearners’L2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.EvidencefromanumberofmorphemeandlongitudinalstudiesalsolendsupportfortheclaimthatL2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.\nChapter10SecondlanguageacquisitionInter-languageandfossilizationSLAisviewedasaprocessofcreativeconstruction,inwhichalearnerconstructsaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprisesthelearner’sinterimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage,knownasinter-language,thatis,thelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.Specifically,inter-languageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctformthelearner’snativeandtargetlanguage.Itrepresentsthelearner’stransitionalcompetencemovingalongalearningcontinuumstretchingfromone’sL1competencetothetargetcompetence.Learner’sinter-languagefossilizedsomewayshortoftargetlanguagecompetencewhiletheinternalizedrulesystemcontainedrulesthataredifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguagesystem.Thefossilizationofthelearner’sinter-languageisbelievedtobeamajorsourceofincorrectformsresistanttofurtherinstruction.TheroleofinputItisevidentthatSLAtakesplaceonlywhenthelearnerhasaccesstoL2inputandtheopportunitytointeractwiththeinput.TheroleofformalinstructionAgreatnumberofadultslearnasecondlanguagethroughformalinstruction.Formalinstructionoccursinclassroomswhenattemptsaremadetoraiselearner’sconsciousnessaboutthenatureoftargetlanguagerulesinordertoaidlearning.AlthoughitisfoundthatformalinstructionhardlyaffectsthenaturalrouteofSLA,itdoesprovideopportunitiestoreceivecomprehensibleinput,andinsodoingenablestheclassroomlearnertoperformawiderangeoflinguistictasksthanthenaturalisticlearnerandtherebyacceleratestherateofacquisition.Studiessuggestthatformalinstructionmaynoteasilyinfluenceaparticulartypeoflanguagetask,suchascasualandspontaneousconversation,butitmayhelplearnersperformothertypesoftasks,suchasthoseassociatedwithplannedspeech,writingorcareer-orientedexamination.\nChapter10SecondlanguageacquisitionErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopmentTheErrorAnalysisapproachshowsthattherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.Alargeproportionofdevelopmental-typeerrorsinlearners’L2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.EvidencefromanumberofmorphemeandlongitudinalstudiesalsolendsupportfortheclaimthatL2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.IndividuallearnerfactorsItisknownthatthereisnouniformwayinwhichlearnersacquiretheknowledgeofasecondlanguage.Thereareanumberoffactorspertainingtothelearnerthatpotentiallyinfluencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired.Thelearnerfactorsincludeage,aptitude,motivation,personality,andcognitivestyle.ErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopmentTheErrorAnalysisapproachshowsthattherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.Alargeproportionofdevelopmental-typeerrorsinlearners’L2utterancesprovidesupportfortheclaimthatthesesimilaritiespointtoanaturalrouteofL2developmentwhichresemblesthatreportedforL1development.EvidencefromanumberofmorphemeandlongitudinalstudiesalsolendsupportfortheclaimthatL2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.