简明英语语言学教程 34页

ChapteroneIntroduction一、定义1.Linguistics语言学Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.GeneralLinguistics普通语言学ThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.3.Language语言Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.DesignFeatures识别特征Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。⑴Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions⑵Productivity多产性Animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.⑶Duality双重性Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.⑷Displacement移位性Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.⑸Culturaltransmission文化传递Humancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.Thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Notbyinstinct.Animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.5.Competence语言能力Competenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.6.Performance语言运用Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。7.Diachroniclinguistics历时语言学Thestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.8.Synchronicallinguistics共时语言学Thestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9.Langue语言Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.10.Parole言语Therealizationoflangueinactualuse.11.Prescriptive规定性Itaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.\n12.Descriptive描述性Alinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二、知识点1.Languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it’sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：⑴瑞士语言学家F.deSaussureF.deSaussure:Langue和parole的区别⑵U.S.AlinguistN.Chomsky美国语言学家N.Chomskyin1950针对Saussure’slangue&parole提出Competence和performance⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir---languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Hall----languageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky---fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.⑷U.S.ALinguistCharlesHockett美国语言学家CharlesHockett提出了语言的识别特征designfeatures3.Theword’language’precededbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.Inordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts.5.Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soit'shardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonce.6.Firstdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1.Whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics----it’sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-------it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It’ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.\n2.Whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it’sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethe‘arbitrariness’oflanguageis‘arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet’.3.Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedon’high’writtenlanguage.传统语法是规定性的，研究‘高级’书面语。4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:⑴Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.⑵Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.⑶speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.6.HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’s?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.TwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,andcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.6.Thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?⑴langueisabstract,relativelystable⑵paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法学）\nThestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）andcomputationallinguistics.（计算机语言学）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口头语与书面语Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveonlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.\nChapterTwoPhonology一、定义1.宽式音标BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2.窄式音标NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4.浊音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6.辅音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it’sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8.音位变体AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.9.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it’saspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10.最小对立对MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.超切分特征SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12.互补分布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.13.语言的语音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.Theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]二、知识点1.Statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.\n2.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.3.Phonetic组成⑴Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学longestestablished,mostlydeveloped⑵Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学⑶Acousticphonetics声学语音学4.articulatorApparatus/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity–咽腔Oral...–口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasal…–鼻腔5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,theextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench.6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].7.Nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[η]9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.10.Sequentialrules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:⑴thefirstphonememustbe/s/⑵thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/⑶thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone三、问答题1.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。Auditory-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?Byplaceofarticulationandbymannerofarticulation3.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?Why?语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics—descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology—descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.\nAphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning.4.What’saphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5.Whatareaminimalpairandaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要?Minimalpair—twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.一组具有上述特征的语音组合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位.6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.7.Explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.有序规则SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化规则AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby’copying’afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略规则DeletionruleIt’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology一、定义1.词素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2.自由词素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3.黏着词素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcannotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4.词根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.5.词缀Affix\nThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6.曲折词缀inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7.派生词缀DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.8.词干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9.形态学规则MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10.前缀PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes‘be-‘and‘en(m)-‘11.后缀SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.二、知识点1.Morphology:Inflectionalmorphology,Derivationalmorphology,freemorphemes,Morphemes,BoundmorphemesRootAffixes:Inflectionalaffixes,Derivationalaffixes,Prefix,Suffix2.Somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.4.Compoundfeatures:⑴orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.⑵Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.⑶semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponentChapterFourSyntax一、定义1.句子sentenceAstructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.2.语言运用LinguisticcompetenceThesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.3.谓语Predicate\nThepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.4.定式子句FiniteClauseAclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.5.从属子句EmbeddedClause(EC)Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.6.主要子句MatrixClauseInacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.7.层次结构HierarchicalstructureThesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructuralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.8.语法关系GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.9.句法类型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.10.表层结构S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.11.深层结构D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.12.普遍语法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.13.移动α规则MoveαAgeneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.14.句法移位SyntacticmovementSyntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewposition.15.转换原则TransformationrulesSyntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalledtransformationalrules,whoseoperationmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.16.X标杆理论X-bartheoryAgeneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasesstructurerulesintoasingleformat:X”→（Spec）X(Compl).一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式X”→（Spec）X(Compl)a:X”b:X”SpecX’SpecX’X’XcomplXcomplementNP’thestudentwholikeslinguistics’consistsofDet,NandSwithDetbeingtheSpecifier,Nthehead,Sthecomplement.NP(…)有冠词、名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语，名词是核心词，子句是补足语。二、知识点1.syntax这个单词源于Greek,本义是arrangement.2.我们syntax的学习看作asystemofrulesthatgoverntheformationofgrammaticalsentence.3.Amajorgoaloflinguisticsistoshowwithaconsistentandexplicitgrammaticaltheoryhow\nsyntacticrulesaccountforthisgrammaticalknowledge.4.判断题：thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.5.判断题:Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood.一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。6.句子的分类simplesentence,Typesofsentences,coordinateorcompoundsentence,Complexsentence简单句---Itconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.并列句合成句-Itcontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“but”,”and”.ect.复合句—Itcontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.复合句的特点：⑴Anembeddedclausefunctionsasagrammaticalunitinitsmatrixclause⑵MostembeddedclausesrequireanintroductorywordcalledaSubordinator,suchas”that”⑶Anembeddedclausemaynotfunctionasagrammaticallywell-formedsentenceifitstandsindependentlyasasimplesentenceunlessitsformchanges.子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。7.Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.8.Thehierarchicalnatureofsentencestructure句子结构层次特点Sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasnounphraseNPorverbphraseVP,groupedtogether.9.ThepointsatwhichthetreebrachesatvariouslevelsarecalledBranchingnodes分叉点10.Inadditiontotheuseofstructuraltreediagrams,linguistsmayshowthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.11.句法类型Major…主要词类open,canaddnewwordsLexicalcategory名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,AdvSyntacticMinor…次要词类close,wordsarefixedCategories限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,IntPhrasalcategoryApartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectinasentence.12.短语类型NounPhraseNPPhrasalVerbPhraseVPCategoriesPrepositionPhrasePPAdjectivePhraseAP13.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentence\nrelatestotheverb,inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsrefervirtuallyto’who’does’what’to’whom’.14.Weusuallyrefertothegrammaticalrelationsassubjectofanddirectobjectof.15.Combinationalrulesmustbesmallinnumbersoasnottocreateextraburdensonthehumanmemory.alsotheserulesmustbepowerfulenoughtoyieldallthepossiblesentences,andruleouttheimpossibleones组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。16.Rulesangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Itcapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复一些句法成分。17.移位类型SyntacticNP-movement=t’sinvolvingthemovementofanounphrase.Movement名词短语的移位WH-movement=Itchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.陈述变疑问句AUX-…=themovementofanauxiliaryverbtothesentenceinitialposition.助动词移位到句首的移位18.普遍语法的广义原则GeneralPrinciplesofUniversalGrammar:CaseCondition和AdjacencyCondition格条件---anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectposition,orbyAUXtothesubjectposition.名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。相邻条件—acaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother,itexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。19.UniversalGrammarisbelievedtocontainaparameterwiththevalves增and减setontheAdjacencycondition.withEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe增value,whileforFrench-typelanguage,theparameterissetto减value.三、问答题Usetheappropriatephrasestructurerulestodrawalabeledconstituentstructuretreediagramforeachofthefollowingsentences.⑴thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind⑵MarypromisedJohntoseethedoctor.Chapter5Semantics一、定义1.命名论ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2.意念论Theconceptualistview\nItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.语境论ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.heraretwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行为主义论BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.thistheorysomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.5.意义SenseIt’sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It’sthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.6.所指意义ReferenceItmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.7.同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.8.多义词PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.9.同音(形)异义HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.10.同音异义HomophonesItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinsound.e.g.rain/reign.11.同形异义HomographsItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.12.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.13.反义词AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.14.成分分析法ComponentialAnalysis----分析词汇抽象意义It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.15.述谓结构分析PredicationAnalysis由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.通过对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。16.先设前提Presupposition\nIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.17.蕴涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.B:Markmarriedablonde.二、知识点1.Majorviewsofmeaningstudy:ThenamingTheory-----希腊ScholarPlatoTheconceptualism-----观点代表人是JohnFirth,但Bloomfield阐述更有说服力TheConceptualistview----Ogden和Richards用classicsemantictriangleofsignificanceTheBehaviorism-----英国Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和Jill故事阐明Thenamingtheory的局限性:⑴It’sonlyapplicabletoNounsonly.⑵Withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdon’texistintherealworld.sense2.Lexicalmeaningreference3.主要的意义关系Synonymy;Antonymy;Hyponymy;Polysemy;homonymy4.Synonyms分类(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning(4)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms例子：(1)BritishEnglishLiftLuggageLorryPetrolFlatwindscreentorchAmericanEnglishElevatorBaggageTruckGasolineApartmentwindshieldflashlight(2)kickthebucket=popoff=die=passaway=decease5.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.6.Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.例子:Accuse….ofcharge….withrebuke….forsourmilkRottentomatoesaddledeggsrancidbaconorbutter7.Apolysemicword,i.e.,awordwithseveralmeaning,istheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword.completehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.8.Accordingnamingtheorywordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.9.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatiotemporalsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,apartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterance,thespeakerandthehearer,theactiontheyareperformingatthetime,thevariousobjectsandeventexistedinthesituation.10.ThecontextulistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield,whodrewonbehaviouristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.11.Homophones—whentwowordsareidenticalinsoundi.e.Rain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leekHomonymyHomographs—whentwowordsareidenticalinspellingi.e.Bowv./bown.tearv./tearnleadv./leadn.Completehomonyms—whentwowordsareidenticalinbothspellingandsound.i.e.Fastadj./fastv.scalen./scalev.\n12.Antonym分类(1)Gradableantonyms分级反义词(amatterofdegree)例子Old—middle-aged—young;hot-warm-cold(2)Complementaryantonyms互补反义词amatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes例子Alive—dead;male—female;(3)Relationalopposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)ather-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below13.句子间的意义关系senserelationbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithY.XentailsY.XpresupposesY.Xisacontradiction.Xissemanticallyanomalous.14.Analysisofmeaning意义的分析(1)Componentialanalysis—awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning对词汇成分的分析(2)Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning对句子意义的分析Isawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledSemanticfeatures.一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。Plusandminimumssignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsent,thesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。15.Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.TwoaspectsofSentencemeaning:grammaticalandsemanticmeaning.16.Selectionalrestrictions---Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrules.17.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication------Predicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.itappliestoallformsofasentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogative.PredicationconsistsofArgumentsandPredicates.述谓是句子基本单位，是对句子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence,apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。18.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(hastwoarguments),one-placepredication(hasoneargument),andno-placepredication(hasnoargument).19.判断题：althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsoftheir\ncomponentialmake-up,theyhavedifferentrolesinthewholepredication.thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modality,ect.itmayalsosaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberofnatureofthearguments.20.Theanalysisofmeaningisahighlyabstractandcomplicatedmatter.三、问答题1.Howaresenseandreferencerelated?Sensereferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,whichisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.Referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itisamatterofrelationshipbetweentheformandreality.2.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures,theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures,aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.3.What’sgrammaticality?whatmighttakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的?Grammaticality---thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisnotnecessarilysemanticallywell-formed,i.e.itmaynotmakesenseatallChapter6pragmatics一、定义1.语境ContextThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,it’sgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.2.言语行为理论SpeechacttheoryIt’sanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.it’saphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.itaimstoanswerthequestion”whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Theconceptofcausativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,theperlocutionaryactandthe5categoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.3.叙述句ConstativesConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruth-value.;4.行为句PerformativesPerformativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.5.言内行为LocutionaryAct\nAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.it’stheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.6.言外行为IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionit’stheactperformedinsayingsomething.7.言后行为PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.8.句子意义SentencemeaningItreferstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstractintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.9.话语意义UtterancemeaningItreferstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesandutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered.10.合作原则CooperativePrincipleIt’sproposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate,otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.11.会话含义ConversationalimplicaturesAccordingtoP.Grice,itreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedinthutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。二、知识点1.语用学的几个重要的理论⑴言语行为理论Speechacttheory由英国哲学家JohnAustin在20世纪50年代末提出在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives和行为句performatives在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为例子：youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Locutionaryact::expressedwhateachwordofthissentenceliterallymean.Illutionaryact:expressedhisintentionofspeaking,askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryact:someoneheardthesentence,andclosethedoor,thenthisactissuccessfullyperformed.※在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣costhiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention,andintheirstudyoflanguagecommunication,linguistsaremostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.⑵会话原则CP逻辑哲学家PaulGrice提出;2.合作原则的准则4MaximofCooperativePrinciple数量themaximofQuantity-----你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired质量themaximofQuality-----不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话\nDonotsaywhatyoubelievetofalse.Donotsayforwhichyoulackadequateevidence关系themaximofrelation-----使你的话与话题相关berelevant方式themaximofmanner-----避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguity;Bebrief/beorderly.3.六七十年代时，美国哲学语言学家JohnSearle对言外行为分成了5类阐述性Representatives---tocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingtheCase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.例词:stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizing最有代表性,指令性Directives---areattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.例词:inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,ordering是特有实例承诺性Commissives---whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderobligation.例词:promising,undertaking,vowing最典型表达类Expressives---thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs.例词:apologizing,thanking,congratulating宣告类Declarations---thesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.例句Inowdeclarethemeetingopen/Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee/Ifireyou.这五类differintheirstrengthorforce.4.Semantics和Pragmatics的区分Pragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.Thebasicdifferencebetweenthemisthatpragmaticsconsidersmeaningincontext,traditionalsemanticsstudiesmeaninginisolationfromthecontextofuse.5.语境中听者与说话者sharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:Theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.6.Sentencemeaning与Utterancemeaning的区别Sentencemeaning---abstract,decontextualized.Utterancemeaning---concrete,contextualizedit’sbasedonsentencemeaning,it’stherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。7.Whilemostutterancestaketheformofsentences,i.e.mostutterancesarecompletesentencesIntermsofsyntax,someutterancesarenot,andsomecan’tevenberestoredtocompletesentencesChapter7Historicallinguistics一、定义1.历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsAtermusedinsteadofhistoricallinguisticstothestudyoflanguagechangeatvariouspointsintimeatvarioushistoricalstage.2.元音大交替GreatVowelShift\nAseriesofsystematicsoundchangeinthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.3.词尾脱落ApocopeThedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.4.插入音EpenthesisTheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofaword.5.首字母缩略词AcronymAwordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.6.混合法BlendingAprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsoftwootherwords.7.缩写词AbbreviationAshortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform.8.略写词ClippingAkindofabbreviationofotherwiselongerwordsorphrases.9.逆向构词法Back-formationAprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawayhesuffixofanexistingword.10.语义扩大化SemanticbroadeningTheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricalearlierdenotation.缩小lessgeneralorinclusive11.原始语ProtolanguageTheoriginalformofalanguagefamilywhichhasceasedtoexist.12.语系FamilylanguageAgroupofhistoricallyrelatedlanguagesthathavedevelopedfromacomonancestrallanguage.13.同源词CognateAwordinonelanguagewhichissimilarinformandmeaningtoawordinanotherlanguagebecausebothlanguageshavedescendedfromacommonsource.14.语音同化SoundassimilationThephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.15.内部借用InternalborrowingTheapplicationofarulefromonepartofthegrammartoanotherpartofthegrammarbyanalogytoitsearlieroperation.16.派生法DerivationItreferstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords.17.语义转换SemanticshiftIt’saprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedmeaning.18.语义细化ElaborationRuleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.19.古英语OldEnglish\nOldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhenAnglo-SaxsonsinvadedbtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.20.中世纪英语MiddleEnglishin1066MiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEnglandunderWilliam.二、知识点1.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguageisofgreatimportancetoourunderstandingofhumanlanguagesandhumanlinguisticcompetence.2.Languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.3.MiddleEnglishhadbeendeeplyinfluencedbyNormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammar.4.InoldEnglish,nearlyhalfofthenounsareinflectedtomarknominative,genitive,dative,andaccusativecases.5.OneofthemostobviouschangeinEnglishisthesystematicandregularchangeintheVowelChange.6英语发展的三个历史时期及历史事件OldEnglish(449-1100):BeganwiththeinvasionoftheBritishIslesbyEnglish-speakingAnglo-SaxonsfromEurope,endedwiththearrivalofNormanFrenchinvadershistoricallyknownastheNormanConquest.MiddleEnglish(1100-1500)It’sdistinguishedfromtheOldEnglishperiodbytheNormanConquest.Shakespeare’splaysandMilton’sPoems受欧洲文艺复兴运动影响最大。ModernEnglish(1500uptonow)FromtheModernEnglishperiodastheresultoftheculturalinfluenceoftheEuropeanrenaissancemovement.7.古英语和现代英语词的对比OldEnglishModernEnglishMannmanWifwomanCildchildHushouseMetefoodEtaneatDrincandrinkFeohtanfight8.Themostwide-spreadmorphologicalchangeinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglisharethelossandadditionofaffixes.9.AstheresultofNormanConquestof1066,vastquantitiesofFrenchwordswereaddedtoEnglishvocabulary.10.Ingeneral,linguisticchangeinthesoundsystemandthevocabularyofalanguageismorenoticeablethanthatinothersystemsofthegrammar.11.TheancientadjectiveagreementrulewasdroppedoutofEnglishmainlybecausetheinflectionalendingstoshowagreementincase,numberandgenderbecamedistinct.12.英语的语言变化linguisticchangeofEnglish(loss,addition,change)\n声音Soundchange形态Morphologicalchange句法Syntacticchange语义Semanticchange词汇Lexicalchange13.LanguagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeintheGrammar.14.Soundchangeincludeschangesinvowelsounds,andintheloss,gainandmovementofsounds.GreatVowelShiftSoundLossSoundGainMiddleE.ModernE.MiddleE.ModernE.MiddleE.ModernE.FiveFi:vFaivNicht/nixtnaitSpinlespindleMousMu:sMausGoose/go:siGu:sFilmFilum口语发音FeetFe:tFi:tName/na:maNeimGlimseGlimpseMoodMo:dMu:dLove/luvl∧vTimertimberBreakBrз:kenBreikHelpe尾音Help消失BrokeBrc:kenBrзuk15.themostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglisharethelossandadditionofaffixes.16.Soundloss的特征或现象⑴Voicelessvelarfricative/x/whichexistedinOldenglishwordssuchas’’nicht’’,pronouncedas/nixt/,thesoundabsentinthepresent-dayformof‘night’.⑵Consonantlossinvolvesthe/kn/clustersintheword-initialposition.如goose⑶Systematicsoundlossessuchaspluralpronunciationrulehasdisappeared.⑷DeletionofWord-finalvowelsegment,如name.love17.判断题achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasEpenthesis.(此现象属于soundaddition)例子Spinle→spindleemty→emptyglimse→glimpsetimer→timber18.语音的移位Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasmetathesis.itinvolvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegments.一般是r的移位例子:bridd→birdhros→horse19.Affixloss的特征或现象⑴Morphemeswoundchangeawordfromonelexicalcategorytoanother⑵Thedropofthecausativeverbformationrule.使意动词的丢失:如-yan加在adjword后可变成causativeverb.⑶Thelossofgenderandcasemarkings20.themostdramaticmorphologicallossconcernsthelossofgenderandcasemarkings.Oldenglishhadagender-markingsystemhas3genders:Masculine,feminineandneuter.阳性、阴性和中性词。如：stan(stone)阳性；gief(gift)阴性；deor(wildanimal)中性21.语音的移位大多数是因为influenceofforeign\nlanguages.其中french影响最大，如-able,-ment,-ize.22.Ruleaddition的特征或现象⑴Particlemovement,古英语没有此现象，现代英语有⑵Auxiliaryverbsandmainverbs的区分,16世纪前没有此现象如：助动词疑问词interrogativesentences的前面23.在句法规则的增加中，oldenglishperiodisknownastheParticlemovementrule,formodernenglishshowestheparticleofsomephrasalverbslike”throwout”,”turn-off”topostponetotherightoftheobject.如Johnthewouttheballthroughthedoor/Johnthewtheballoutthroughthedoor.在古代英语中，没有particle移位现象。24.Languagesvaryintheorderofthesubject,theverbandtheobject.thetwotypicalwaystorepresentdistinctionofsubjectandobjectnounsarethroughextensivecasemarkingandrigidwordorder.25.在古英语中，句子的顺序是SVO,VSO,SOV和OSV,ThelossofcasecontrastswascompensatedforwiththeadoptionoftheconsistentSVOorder.26.Themostvigorousandon-goingchangeinthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageisthechangeinitsVocabulary.27.FrenchloanwordsdidnotalwaysreplaceOldenglishwords,butinmanyinstancesexistedalongsideofthenativeEnglishvocabulary.sometimes,frenchloanwordswereusedinconjunctionwithnativeEnglishwordstocreateContrast.28.词汇的增加borrowing和wordformation.ThemostobviouswayinwhichmodernenglishdifferslexicallyfromoldenglishisthenumberofBorrowedwordsfromotherlanguages.29.Oldenglishcontainedanumberofmorphologicalrulesthatareextinct.例子：大部分是derivationalaffixes.-baere,lust(“pleasure”)+baere→lustbaere(“agreeable”)-bora,mund(“protection”)+bora→(“protector”)DuringtheRenaisance,manylatinandGreekwordsbecamepartoftheeducatedegnlishlexicon30.Newwordshavemadetheirentryintoenglishviawordformationrules.例子Compounding:sailboat,big-mouth,cross-cultural,three-year-oldDerviation:uglification,finalize,Acronymformation:radar(radiodetectingandranging)、CD-ROM(compatdiskofread-onlymemory)、laser、UNESCOBlending:smog(smoke+fog)brunch(breafast+lunch)motel(motor+hotel)Abbreviation:TV(televistion)Dr(doctor)ft(foororfeet)N.Y(NewYork)Clipping:gym(gymnasium)scifi(sciencefiction)e-mail、physed(physicaleducation)、hi-fi(highfidelity高保真)Back-formation：typewriter(typewriter)edit(editor)Coinage:Kleenex(softcleansingtissue)kodak、xerox(photocopier)※语义的变化SemanticChange这一节非常重要32.It’scomparativeinthesensethatitaimsatdevelopingandelucidatingthegeneticrelationshipsthatexistbetweenandamonglanguages,classifyingrelatedlanguagesintolanguagefamilies,andreconstructintheirancestrallanguages.whatfollowsisaverybriefaccountfocusingonhowhistoricallinguistsestablishedgeneticrelationshipsoflanguages,andinparticular,the\nIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.33.至今世界上已有overfivethousandlanguagesarespoken.Chinese:over1.2billionnativespeakersDanish:lessthan5millionnativespeakersEnglish:fewerthanchinese,400millionThefourthousandlanguageshavedevelopedfromtheirhistoricalroots.Totoday,aboutthirtylanguagefamilieshavebeendocumentedinhistoricallinguisticliterature.34.Toidentifyandclassifyfamiliesofrelatedlanguagesinagenealogicalfamilytree,andtoreconstructtheprotolanguage,theoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexist.35.AlanguagefamilyisestablishedbytheuseofamethodknownasComparativereconstruction.36.Reliablelinguisticsignsoffamilyrelationshipsincludesystematicphonological,morphological,andsemanticresemblancesamongthevocabularyitemsofdifferentlanguages.37.语义的变化类型※41.Withtheapplicationofthecomparativemethod,Persia,northernpartofIndiawereabletoreconstructthegrammarofasingleoriginknownasproto-Indo-European,fromwhichanumberofsubfamiliesofEuropeanandIndiansubcontinentallanguagesevolved.42.判断题syntactically,theverbofanoldEnglishsentenceprecedes,ratherthanfollows,thesubject,asisindicatedbythetranscription.43.NormanConquermarkedthedawningoftheMiddleEnglishperiod.44.Bilingual,pidin＆creolespeakerscontributetoformationof新语言变体三、问答题1.描述变化的本质characterizedthenatureoflanguagechangeAlllivinglanguageschangewithtime.Languagechangeisnotonlyuniversalandinevitable,butalsosystematic,extensive,on-going,andgradual.Languagechangeisarule-governedbehavior,involvingallcomponentsofthegrammar.2.语言变化的原因listthemajorcausesoflanguagechangeSoundassimilation,Rulesimplificationandinternalborrowing与语法变化有关⑴语音同化SoundassimilationAssimilativeprocessesarephonologicalchangesduetophysiologicalmechanisms.italsoinvolvesvowelnasalizationandmorphologicalandlexicalchanges.⑵规则简化RulesimplificationIt’satypeofspontaneousmorphologicalrulechangeinvolvesexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.thesamekindofanalogicchangeisexemplifiedbytheregularizationofsomeborrowedwordswhosepluralformationruleisdifferentfromtheregularEnglish.⑶内部借用InternalBorrowingIt’smotivatedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemoryiscalledinternalborrowing.itrepresentsacontinualreadjustmentofalanguage’sgrammaticalsystemasitdevelopsfromonestateofequilibriumtoanother.⑷规则细化ElaborationItoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.⑸社会因素Socialtriggers⑹文化转移Culturaltransmission\n⑺儿童语法接近成人语法Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar.Agenerallyacceptedviewamonglanguageacquisitionscholarsisthatchildrenacquiretheirnativelanguagenotthroughformalinstructionofgrammaticalrules,theyoftenconstructtheirpersonalinformationtheyhear.Chapter8Sociolinguistics一、定义1.言语社区SpeechCommunityItreferstoagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandshareatleastonespeechvarietyaswellassimilarlinguisticnorms.2.社会方言SocialectAvarietyoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoaparticularsocialclass.3.语域RegisterAfunctionalspeechorlanguagevarietythatinvolvesdegreesofformalitydependingonthespeechsituationconcerned.4.标准语StandardLanguageAsuperposedprestigiousvarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.5.通用语LinguaFrancaAvarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeakdifferentnativelanguagesordialects.6.洋泾浜语Pidgin边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇+缩减的语法结构by其他语言的本族语者Amarginalcontactlanguagewithalimitedvocabularyandreducedgrammaticalstructures,usedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasameansofbusinesscommunication.7.双言现象DiglossiaAsociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachservingaparticularsocialfunctionandusedforaparticularsituation.8.语言禁忌LinguistictabooAnobscene,profane,orswearwordorexpressionthatisprohibitedfromgeneralusebytheeducatedand“polite”society.9.委婉语EuphemismAwordorexpressionthatisthoughttobemild,indirect,orlessoffensiveandusedasapolitesubstituteforthesupposedlyharshandunpleasantwordorexpression.10.语码转换Code-SwitchingItreferstoabilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。11.语言变体SpeechVarietyItreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.12.双语BilingualismItreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers.\n13.少数民族方言EthnicDialectItreferstoaphenomenonthatwithinasocietyspeechvariationmaycomeaboutcosofdifferentethnicbackgrounds.14.使用域DomainItreferstoaphenomenonthatmostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,that’s,afairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituations,forexample,thehomeDomain,EmploymentDomain.15.语言计划LanguagePlanningIt’scertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentchoosesaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.16.发音AccentIfreferstoawayofpronunciationwhichtellsthelistenersomethingaboutthespeaker’sregionalorsocialbackground.17.习语Idiolect=PersonaldialectApersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.18.混合语CreolesIt’soriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.e.g.French-basedcreolesspokeninHaitiandLouisiana.19.语言情景LanguageSituationAlinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguageareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.Forexample,inCanada,bothEnglishandFrenchareofficiallanguages.20.区域变体RegionalVariationSpeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.e.g.AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish,etc.21.语域变体RegisterVarieties=SituationalDialectsRegistersarelanguagevarietiesappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarietiesthatareassociatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.22.称呼术语AddressTermsAnaddressterm,oraddressformreferstothewordorwordsusedtoaddresssomebodyinspeechorwriting.23.俚语SlangIt’sacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.24.社会语言学SociolinguisticsIt’sthesubdisciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagewithinsocialcontext.二、知识点1.Sociolinguistsareconcernedwiththesocialsignificanceoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseindifferentspeechcommunitiesincludingregional,ethnicandsocialgroups.2.Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.3.Socialgroupsmaybedefinedinanumberofwaysbesidesregionally.itmaydistinguishitselffromrestofthecommunitybyitsdistinctethnicaffiliation.\n4.Consideredamoreneutralterm,speechvarietyissometimesusedinsteadofstandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialect,pidgin,creole,etc.5.语言学家最感兴趣的三个语言变体Regionaldialects,socialistsorsocialdialectsandregisters.6.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.7.Stylisticvariationinaperson’sspeech,orwriting,usuallyrangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.8.判断题thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage,it'sthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.9.Languagevarietiesotherhandthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvernacularlanguages.10.Thestandardlanguageofmanycountries,isalsodesignatedasthenationalorofficiallanguage.11.Linguafranca,anItaliantermliterallymeaning“Frankishlanguage”or“Frankishtongue”.12.Thespokenlanguageofmodernchina普通话embodiesthepronunciationoftheBeijingdialect,thegrammarofNorthernChinesedialects,thevocabularyofmoderncolloquialChinese.13.通用语LinguaFranca和洋泾浜语Pidgin的区别⑴Pidginisusedforsomepracticalpurposes,suchastrading,bygroupsofpeoplewhodonotknoweachother’slanguage.LinguaFrancamayhavenativespeakerssuchasEnglish,⑵Pidginisnotanativelanguageofaparticularregion,butsimplyamarginallanguageusedbypeoplewhoseculturesaresharplyseparatedandwhosebusinesscontactisveryspecialized.14.TheoriginalLinguaFrancaisbelievedtobeanIndian-basedpidginusedinMediterraneanports15.Mostofthehistoricalpidginshavebecomeextinct.16.Thegrammaticalfeaturessuchascase,tense,moodandvoicearegenerallyabsentinpidgins,apidgintypicallylacksinflectionalmorphemes.17.English-basedpidginsarecharacterizedbyanabsenceofanycomplexgrammaticalmorphologyandalimitedvocabulary.18.Pidginshavestrictrulesfordeterminingwordorderstocompensateforthelackofcaseendingsonnouns.19.Creoles最早来自长在南美洲的西班牙或葡萄牙裔。20.Diglossia现象存在⑴mostlyinArabic-speakingcounties,⑵ModernGreek,SwissGermanandHaitianCreole.⑶inParaguay,SpanishasthehighvarietyandlocalIndianlanguageGuaraniasthelowvariety.21.Bilingualism现象存在⑴Canada:EnglishandFrench⑵Finland:FinnishandSwedish⑶Belgium:FrenchandFlemishDutch22.Mostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,that’safairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituationknownasdomains.23.Anethnicdialectisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.\n24.ThemostwidespreadandmostfamiliarethnicvarietyoftheEnglishlanguageisBlackEnglish.25.教育变体EducationvarietiesSocialect年龄变体Agevarieties社会方言SocialDialect性别变体Gendervarieties语域变体Registervarieties称谓术语Addressterms俚语Slang语言禁语Linguistictaboo委婉Euphemism26.当五岁时,syntaxismorestandard,vocabularyislimited;十岁时,comparativelyextensivevocabulary,structureofutterancedoesnotdifferfromadults’speech.27.词汇方面，年龄和时代的不同ismorenoticeableacrossthreegenerationtimespanthantwo-generationtimespan.28.Languagereflectsdeep-rootedsexistsocialattitudetowardfemalesbythewayneutraltermsareinterpreted.29.It’sonewayoutofthecommunicationdilemmaislanguagestandardizationknownaslanguageplanning.30.Standardlanguageisasupposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.31.Onespecificaspectofsituationaluseoflanguageisaddresstermusage.32.委婉语portly,full-figured代fat,inexpensive代cheap,indisposed代sick.33.TheEnglishsystemofaddressterms称谓方法firstname：Esperantolastname:Dutitle+lastname:Mr.Dutitlealone:Professorkinterm:Dad34.Christains的禁忌语”takethelord’snameinvain”,如hell,darn,InEngland,“bloody”isataboowordwhichoriginallyreferredtothebloodofChrist,some“respectable”peopleconsideringitahorridwordonaparwithobsceneorprofanelanguageandconstantlyinthemouthsofuneducatedspeakers.35.overtthought或subvocalspeech（均可用下面定义）Languageandthoughtmaybeviewedasindependentcirclesoverlappinginsomeparts,wherelanguageandthoughtareconsistentwitheachotherandoneneveroccurswithouttheother,Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtas“subvocalspeech”,andspeechas“overtthought”.三、问答题1.特殊语域的区分howtodistinguishaparticularregisterfromotherregisters?⑴distinctivewords⑵usingwordsorphrasesinaparticularway.⑶specialgrammaticalconstructions,suchasscientificlanguage,orlegallanguage.2.双语和双言的区分distinctionbetweenBilingualismandDiglossia.Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedinaspeechcommunity;inadiglossiccommunity,twovarietiesoflanguageareusedfordifferentsituations,onebeingmorestandardandhigher,andusedformoreformalmatters,theotherlessprestigious,usedforcolloquialsituations.双言现象是一个社区有两种标准语，双言社区中，两种语言变体被用作不同的情景。一个较为标准，处于高层次；另一个较为口语化，声望不高。3.黑人英语的特点⑴oneofthemostprominentphonologicalfeaturesofblackEnglishisthesimplificationofaconsonantclusterattheendofaworddroppingtheword-finalphoneme.e.g.”desk”pronounced\nas/des/,“told”pronouncedas/tou/;音系特征，通过去掉词尾的音素简化位于词尾辅音连缀。⑵oneofthesyntacticfeatureofblackEnglishistheabsenceofthecopula,suchas“theymine”,“youcrazy”.CopuladeletionassuchoccursinsomeotherEnglishdialects,aswellasinlanguagelikeArabic,RussianandChinese;语法特征，经常缺失系词.⑶thedoublenegationconstructionwithsentencelike”Idonotknownobody”.语法特征，双重否定结构.黑人英语的distinctivefeaturepersisnotforracial,butforsocial,educationalandeconomicreasons.4.列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面Listseveralwaysofspeechofwomenandmendifferfromeachother.⑴Womentendtousemoreprestigiousforms,morepoliteandindirectlanguage,andmorespecificcolortermsthantheirmalecounterparts.⑵Womenusemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsthanmales.5.Whyisproductivityuniquetolanguage?⑴Theproductivityoflanguageisthepropertywhichenablesitsuserstoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofutterances,includingthenovelutterancesthattheyhaveneversaidheardbefore,⑵Thefeatureisuniquetohumanlanguagebecausemostanimalcommunicationsystemappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.⑶Forexample,beedancingisusedonlytoindicatenectarsources,whichistheonlykindofmessagethatcanbesentthroughthemeaning.6.Whyissyntaxregardedasasystemofrules?Asamajorcomponentofgrammar,syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitconformstothegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Ifontheotherhand,asentenceviolatesaruleaccordingtowhichwordsareorganized,thennativespeakerswilljudgeittobeanimpossiblesentenceofthatlanguage.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.Foranynaturallanguage,it’sthesetofrulesthatmakesitpossibleforthespeakerstoproduce,comprehendandmemorizethevasenumberofsentencesoftheirnativelanguage\nChapter4Syntax1.Whatissyntax?Syntaxisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.2.Whatisphrasestructurerule?Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelements(i.e.specifiers,heads,andcomplements)thatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.ThephrasestructuralruleforNP,VP,AP,andPPcanbewrittenasfollows:NP→(Det)N(PP)...VP→(Qual)V(NP)...AP→(Deg)A(PP)...PP→(Deg)P(NP)...WecanformulateasinglegeneralphrasalstructuralruleinwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.TheXPrule:XP→(specifier)X(complement)3.Whatiscategory?Howtodetermineaword'scategory?Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Todetermineaword'scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning.Themeaningsassociatedwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvariousways.Thepropertyorattributeoftheentitiesdenotedbynounscanbeelaboratedbyadjectives.Forexample,whenwesaythatprettylady,weareattributingtheproperty‘pretty’totheladydesignatedbythenoun.Similarly,thepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstatesdesignatedbyverbscantypicallybedenotedbyadverbs.Forexample,inJennyleftquietlytheadverbquietlyindicatesthemannerofJenny'sleaving.Thesecondcriteriontodetermineaword'scategoryisinflection.Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.Suchnounsasboyanddesktakethepluralaffix-s.Verbssuchasworkandhelptakepasttenseaffix-edandprogressiveaffix-ing.Andadjectiveslikequietandclevertakecomparativeaffix-erandsuperlativeaffix-est.Althoughinflectionisveryhelpfulindeterminingaword'scategory,itdoesnotalwayssuffice.Somewordsdonottakeinflections.Forexample,nounslikemoisture,fog,donotusuallytakepluralsuffix-sandadjectiveslikefrequent,intelligentdonottakecomparativeandsuperlativeaffixes-erand-est.Thelastandmorereliablecriterionofdeterminingaword'scategoryisitsdistribution.Thatiswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.Forexample,nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminerlikethegirlandacard,verbswithanauxiliarysuchasshouldstayandwillgo,andadjectiveswithadegreewordsuchasverycoolandtoobright.Aword'sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.\n4.Whatiscoordinatestructureandwhatpropertiesdoesithave?Thestructureformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctioniscalledcoordinatestructures.Ithas(或写Conjunctionexhibits)fourimportantproperties:1)Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.2)Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.3)Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.4)Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.5.Whatelementsdoesaphrasecontainandwhatroledoeseachelementplay?Aphraseusuallycontainsthefollowingelements:head,specifierandcomplement.Sometimesitalsocontainsanotherkindofelementtermedmodifier.Theroleeachelementcanplay:Head:Headisthewordaroundwhichaphraseisformed.Specifier:Specifierhasbothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles.Semantically,ithelpstomakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,ittypicallymarksaphraseboundary.Complement:Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.Modifier:Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesoftheheads.6.Whatisdeepstructureandwhatissurfacestructure?Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalleddeepstructure(orD-structure).Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图,仅供参考）7.Indicatethecategoryofeachwordinthefollowingsentences.a)Theoldladygotoffthebuscarefully.DetANVPDetNAdvb)Thecarsuddenlycrashedontotheriverbank.DetNAdvVPDetNc)Theblindingsnowstormmightdelaytheopeningoftheschools.DetANAuxVDetNPDetNd)Thisclothfeelsquitesoft.DetNVDegA8.Thefollowingphrasesincludeahead,acomplement,andaspecifier.Drawtheappropriatetreestructureforeach.a)richinminerals\nXP(AP)→head(rich)A+complement(inminerals)PPb)oftenreaddetectivestoriesXP(VP)→specifier(often)Qual+head(read)V+complement(detectivestories)NPc)theargumentagainsttheproposalsXP(NP)→specifier(the)Det+head(argument)N+complement(againsttheproposals)PPd)alreadyabovethewindowXP(VP)→specifier(already)Deg+head(above)P+complement(thewindow)NPd)Theapplemighthittheman.S→NP(Theapple)+Infl(might)+VP(hittheman)e)Heoftenreadsdetectivestories.S→NP(He)+VP(oftenreadsdetectivestories)9.Thefollowingsentencescontainmodifiersofvarioustypes.Foreachsentence,firstidentifythemodifier(s),thendrawthetreestructures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a)Acrippledpassengerlandedtheairplanewithextremecaution.b)Ahugemoonhungintheblacksky.c)Themanexaminedhiscarcarefullyyesterday.d)Awoodenhutnearthelakecollapsedinthestorm.10.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainconjoinedcategories.Drawatreestructureforeachofthesentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a)Jimhaswashedthedirtyshirtsandpants.b)Helenputonherclothesandwentout.c)Maryisfondofliteraturebuttiredofstatistics.11.Thefollowingsentencesallcontainembeddedclausesthatfunctionascomplementsofaverb,anadjective,aprepositionoranoun.Drawatreestructureforeachsentence.a)YouknowthatIhatewar.b)GerrybelievesthefactthatAnnaflunkedtheEnglishexam.c)ChriswashappythathisfatherboughthimaRolls-Royce.d)Thechildrenarguedoverwhetherbatshadwings.12.Eachofthefollowingsentencescontainsarelativeclause.Drawthedeepstructureandthesurfacestructuretreesforeachofthesesentences.a)Theessaythathewrotewasexcellent.b)Herbertboughtahousethatshelovedc)Thegirlwhomheadoresmajorsinlinguistics.13.Thederivationsofthefollowingsentencesinvolvetheinversiontransformation.Givethedeepstructureandthesurfacestructureofeachofthesesentences.（斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a)Wouldyoucometomorrow?youwouldcometomorrowb)WhatdidHelenbringtotheparty?Helenbroughtwhattothepartyc)Whobrokethewindow?whobrokethewindow\nChapter6PRAGMATICS1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?答：Generallyspeaking,pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontext.Itstudiesmeaninginadynamicwayandasaprocess.Inordertohaveasuccessfulcommunication,thespeakerandhearermusttakethecontextintotheirconsiderationsoastoeffecttherightmeaningandintention.Thedevelopmentandestablishmentpragmaticsin1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudysemantics.However,itisdifferentfromthetraditionalsemantics.Themajordifferencebetweenthemliesinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaninginadynamicway,whilesemanticsstudiesmeaninginastaticway.Pragmaticstakescontextintoconsiderationwhilesemanticsdoesnot.Pragmaticstakescareoftheaspectofmeaningthatisnotaccountedforbysemantics.2.Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialinthepragmaticstudyoflinguisticcommunication?答：Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Variouscontinentsofsharedknowledgehavebeenidentified,e.g.knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace,andknowledgeabouteachother.Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseoflanguageandalsotheheater'sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withoutsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationwouldnotbepossible,andwithoutconsideringsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationcannotbesatisfactorilyaccountedforinapragmaticsense.Lookatthefollowingsentences:(1)Howdiditgo?(2)Itiscoldinhem.(3)ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.Sentence(1)mightbeusedinaconversationbetweentwostudentstalkingaboutanexamination,ortwosurgeonstalkingaboutanoperation,orinsomeothercontexts;(2)mightbesaidbythespeakertoaskthehearertoturnontheheater,orleavetheplace,ortoputonmoreclothes,ortoapologizeforthepoorconditionoftheroom,dependingonthesituationofcontext;(3)makessenseonlyiithehearerhastheknowledgethatChristmasfallsinsummerinthesouthernhemisphere.3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?答：Asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Butifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Soitisimpossibletotellif“Thedogisbarking”isasentenceoranutterance.Itcanbeeither.Italldependsonhowwelookatitandhowwearegoingtoanalyzeit.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Therefore,whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualized,thatofan\nutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Now,takethesentence"Mybagisheavy"asanexample.Semanticanalysisofthemeaningofthesentenceresultsintheone-placepredicationBAG(BEINGHEAVY).Thenapragmaticanalysisoftheutterancemeaningofthe.sentencevarieswiththecontextinwhichitisuttered.Forexample,itcouldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthehearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Anotherpossibilityisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeone'srequestforhelp.Allthesearepossibleinterpretationsofthesameutterance“Mybagisheavy”.Howitistobeunderstooddependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.Whilemostutterancestaketheformofgrammaticallycompletesentences,someutterancesdonot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:a)Theroomismessy.b)Oh,itisraining!c)Themusicofthemovieisgood.d)Youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow.答：a)Afatherenteredhisson’sroomandfounditisverymessy.Thenwhenhesaid,“Theroomismessy,”hewasblaminghissonfornottidyingitup.b)Asonaskedhisfathertoplaywithhimoutside.Sowhenthefathersaid,“Oh,it’sraining”,hemeanttheycouldn’tplayoutside.c)Twopersonsjustwatchedamovieandhadadiscussionofit.Onepersonsaid,“Thestoryofthemovieisverymoving”,sowhentheotherpersonsaid,“Themusicofthemovieisgood”,hemeanthedidn'tthinkthestoryofthemoviewasgood.d)Apersonwantedhisnotesback,sowhenhesaid,“youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow”,hewasdemandingthereturnofhisnotes.5.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.答：AccordingtoAustin'snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Let'slookatanexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerishisutteranceofthewords“you”,“have”,“door”,“open”,etc.thusexpressingwhatthewordsliterallymean.Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakinga\ncomplaint,dependingonthecontext.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeaker'smessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstotellhimtoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.6.WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?答：(1)representatives:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue(2)directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething(3)commissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction(4)expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexisting(5)declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomethingTheillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid,inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhehimselfbelievestobetrue.Stating,believing,sweating,hypothesizingareamongthemosttypicaloftherepresentatives.Directivesateattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosome-thing.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,wanting,threateningandorderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.Commissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction,i.e.whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalones.Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudestowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.Thelastclass“declarations”hasthecharacteristicthatthesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.7.Whatisindirectlanguageuse?Howisitexplainedinthelightofspeechacttheory?答：WhensomeoneisnotsayingIanexplicitandstraightforwardmannerwhathemeanstosay,ratherheistryingtoputacrosshismessageinanimplicit,roundaboutway,wecansayheisusingindirectlanguage.Explanation(略)(见教材p.84-85)8.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingthesemaximsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature?答：CooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:(1)Themaximofquantity①Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).\n②Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(2)Themaximofquality①Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.②Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.(3)ThemaximofrelationBerelevant.(4)Themaximofmanner①Avoidobscurityofexpression.②Avoidambiguity.③Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).④Beorderly.9.Whatispragmaticfailure?TrytofindinstancesofpragmaticfailureintheEnglishusedbyChineselearnersofEnglish.答：Thetechnicaltermforbreakdownsinthecourseofcommunicationispragmaticfailure.Pragmaticfailureoccurswhenthespeakerfailstouselanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommunicationpurpose,orwhenthehearerfailstorecognizetheintentionortheillocutionaryforceofthespeaker’sutteranceinthecontextofcommunication.Instances(略)(见教材p.89)