英语语言学--句法学 93页

ChapterSixSyntax2021/10/51\n---Theinternalstructuresofsentences---differenttreatmentsofsentencestructurebydifferentlinguisticschools---ICanalysis,deepstructure,surfacestructure,treediagram2021/10/52\n1.Definition---thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,thatis,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.2021/10/53\n2.Discussthenotionofsentence2.1.ThenotionsofsentenceView1:Agrammaticalunitthatissyntacticallyindependentandhasasubjectthatisexpressedor,asinimperativesentences,understoodandapredicatethatcontainsatleastonefiniteverb.View2:Anindependentgroupofwordsexpressingacompletethought.View3:Astatementcontainingasubjectandapredicate,asubjectistheelementaboutwhichastatementismade,andapredicateistheelementmadeaboutasubject.2021/10/54\n2.2.ThetypesofsentenceA.Accordingtothestructure:Sentencecanbesimpleandnon-simple(complexandcompound).ThesimplesentenceThegirliswatchingTV.MaryandJohnaresittingonthesofa.ThecompoundsentenceAcompoundsentenceconsistsoftwoormoresimplesentences,usuallyconnectedbyacommaplusajoiningword(and,but,for,or,nor,so,yet).Acompoundsentenceisusedwhenyouwanttogiveequalweighttocloselyrelatedideas.Wearewateringthetrees,forwedon’thaveanyrainforamonth.2021/10/55\nThecomplexsentenceAcomplexsentenceismadeupofasimplesentenceandastatementthatbeginswithadependentword.Acomplexsentenceisusedwhenyouwanttoemphasizeoneideaoveranotherinasentence.WhatIwanttoemphasizeisthis.Weshouldneverpretendtoknowwhatwedon’tknow.Thecompound-complexsentenceEllipsisisacommonfeatureinEnglish,butinmanysentencesofthistypeitisnotpossibletostateexactlywhatis‘leftout’.2021/10/56\nB.Accordingtocommunicativefunction:Sentencecanbedeclarative,interrogative,imperativeandexclamatory.2021/10/57\n2.3.TheextensionofsentenceSentencecanbeextendedeitherbyconjoiningorembedding.Conjoiningisawaybywhichclausesarejoinedbymeansofcoordinatingconjunctions并列连词(and,but,or),orconnectives连接词andparataxis.并列(一系列相关的从句或词组之间没有连词)(如:"Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.")Embedding嵌入法isaprocessofconstructionwherebyoneclauseisaconstituentofanotherorissubordinatedtoanother.2021/10/58\n2.4.ThestructureofsentenceThelinearandhierarchicalstructuresofsentences2021/10/59\nA.ThelinearwordorderofasentenceThewordsofthesentenceiswrittendownorheardoneafteranotherinasequence.2021/10/510\nB.ThehierarchicalstructureofasentenceSentencesarenotonlylinearly-structured.Theyarealsohierarchicallystructured,thatis,sentencesareorganizedbygroupingtogetherwordsofthesamesyntacticcategorysuchasnounphraseorverbphrase.(NPandVP).2021/10/511\nThehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure,socalledbecausesuchadiagramlookslikeaninvertedtree.SNPVPDetNVNPThestudentlikesthesubjectoflinguistics.2021/10/512\n3.Traditionalapproach3.1.Aboutthetraditionalgrammar2021/10/513\nThetraditionalapproachisalsoknownastraditionalgrammar.Ithasalonghistory.ItcamefromthestudyofGreek.SinceLatinhasacloseconnectiontoGreekinstructure,thestudywasappliedtoLatin.2021/10/514\nScholarsintheMiddleAgesusedtoconsiderLatinasaninternationallanguageandasastandardmodeltotheirownlanguages,thoughthereweremanydifferencesbetweenLatinandotherEuropeanlanguages.Therefore,traditionalgrammarisamodeldevelopedoriginallyforGreek,lateradaptedtoLatin,andsubsequentlyappliedtootherEuropeanlanguagesthatwerequitesimilarinformtoLatin.2021/10/515\nTheprimarypurposeofthetraditionalgrammaristheteachingofLatintothoseunfamiliarwithLatin.Thegrammarswerenottodescribethelanguagebuttosetuprulesasnormative标准化的andprescriptive说明性的.Traditionally,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Thestudyofsentenceformationinvolvesagreatdealofthestudyofthewordssuchasthedistinctionofpartsofspeech,functionsandtheconcordandgovernmentofnumber,gender,case,tense,aspectandvoice.2021/10/516\n3.2.Somebasicconceptsa.Category:b.Definingpropertiesofthesecategoriesc.Tense,aspect,voiceandmoodd.Concordandgovernment(Cf.118-119)2021/10/517\nCategoryCategoryinsyntaxusuallyreferstoclassesandfunctions,likenoun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Inthissense,asyntacticcategoryreferstoaword,aphraseoraclausethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchassubjectinasentence.AccordingtoLyons(1968:274),therearethreekindsofcategories.“Partsofspeech”isreferredtoasprimarygrammaticalcategoriesandsuchnotionsasnumber,gender,tense,mood,case,person,concord,government,etc.asthesecondarygrammaticalcategories.Thetraditionalsyntacticnotionsof“subject”,“predicate”,“object”,etc.arereferredtoasfunctionalcategories.Inthissection,weshalldealespeciallywiththesecondarygrammaticalcategories.Someofthemwillbediscussedbelow.2021/10/518\nLexicalcategories:Noun,Fullverb,Adjective,Adverb/Determiner,Preposition,Pronoun,Conjunction,Primaryandmodalverb,Interjection,NumeralPhrasalcategories:lexicalitemshavecertaincombinationalpropertiesthatallowthemtocombinewithwordsofdifferentcategoriestoformphrases:NP:thethreetallestgirls;VP:hasbeendoing,walkwithastickPP:inapark,tothedoor;AP:quiterude,extremelydifficult;2021/10/519\nb.Definingpropertiesofcategory:Number:TheEnglishnumbersystemconstitutesatwo-termcontrast:singularandplural.Numberisagrammaticalcategoryfortheanalysisofsuchcontrastsassingularandpluralofcertainwordclasses.InEnglish,numberisafeatureofnounsandverbs.Forexample,thepluralofbirdisbirds.Numberisalsoseenintheinflectionsofprounsandverbs,suchashesings;theysing,thatwoman;thosewomen.InFrench,numbercanalsobeseeninanumberofwordclasses:nouns,adjectives,articles,etc.2021/10/520\nGender:Genderdemonstratessuchcontrastsasmasculine:feminine:neuter,animate:inanimate,etc.fortheanalysisofcertainwordclasses.Incertainlanguages,grammaticalgenderhaslittletodowiththebiologicalsex.Forinstance,inFrench,themoon,whichhasnothingtodowiththebiologicalsex,isgrammaticallyfeminine,andinGerman,agirlisgrammaticalneuter.Englishgendercontrastismostlyofthenaturalgenderkind,andisusuallyreflectedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns.Forexample,heformasculine,sheforfeminine,anditforneuter.Case:Thecasecategoryisoftenusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.Itisafeatureofthenoun,largelyfunctionallydefinable(nominative主格formentioningthesubject,vocative呼格forexclaimingorcalling,accusative宾格formentioningtheobject,genitive属格forownership,dative与格forindicatingbenefit,ablative离格fordirectionoragency).InEnglish,thegenitivecasecanbemarkedbyinflectionoraprepositionalphrase.Forexample,boy’s,apictureofthegirl..2021/10/521\nc.Tense,aspect,voiceandmoodTenseisanyoneoftheinflectedformsintheconjugationofaverbthatindicatesthetime,suchaspast,present,whereasaspectistheformstoindicatethecontinuanceorcompletionoftheactionorstate.2021/10/522\nVoiceisagrammaticalcategoryofverbsorasetofverbinflectionswhichmakesitpossibletoviewtheactionofasentenceineitheroftwoways:activeandpassive.2021/10/523\nMoodisasetofverbformsorinflectionsusedtoindicatethespeaker'sattitudetowardthefactualityorlikelihoodoftheactionorconditionexpressed.2021/10/524\nConcordandgovernment（一致关系和支配关系）Concord:therequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories,suchassubject-predicateagreement.指两个或更多处于一定语法关系中的词，要在某些范畴上互相保持一致的形式。Eg.ThismanthesemenabooksomebooksThesubjectandverbforms:Eg.HespeaksEnglish.TheyspeakEnglish.2021/10/525\nGovernment(支配):Arelationshipinwhichawordofcertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.是指某个句法构造中某些词的形式被其他词控制的另一种类型）eg.Shegavehimabook.thegovernorthegoverned2021/10/526\nShegaveabooktohim.governorgoverned2021/10/527\nInLatinlanguage,weseeVidetbovem（Heseestheox）Nocetbovi（Heharmstheox）Meminitbovis（herememberstheox）Theobjectwordinthesentenceisthesame,butitappearsindifferentcaseformsasaresultofthedifferentverbsusedbeforeit.2021/10/528\n4.Thestructuralapproach（结构主义学派）StartedbytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureinthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury.Linguisticunitsareregardedasinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructureorsystem,notasisolatedbits.（语言单位是在一种结构或系统中相互关联的，不是孤立的。2021/10/529\n4.1.Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations（组合关系与聚合关系）Syntagmaticrelationreferstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinlanguage.Itisalsocalledpositionalrelation,wordorder,horizontalrelation,chainrelation.指一个单位和同一个序列中的其他单位之间的关系，或者说是在现场的所有成分之间的关系。e.g.Iftheweatherisnice,we'llgoout.2021/10/530\nSyntagmaticrelationmustmeetsyntacticandsemanticconditionseg.（1）（a）Jackeatsanapple.（b）×eatsJackapplean.（c）×anappleeatsJack.（d）×eatJackanapple.⑵(e)Theboychasedthedog.(f)Thedogchasedtheboy.2021/10/531\nParadigmaticrelationreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothersyntacticallyinthesamesentencestructure.指在结构的某个特殊位置上彼此可以相互替换的成分之间的关系，或者说是在现场的成分与不在现场的成分之间的关系。Itisalsocalledtherelationofsubstitutability,associativerelation,verticalrelationorchoicerelation.2021/10/532\n（a）The_______issmiling.Constraints:---ananimatenoun（book,desk）---asemanticcomponentofhuman（trees,cats）---inthesingular（boys,men）2021/10/533\nHespeaksfast.fluently.eloquently.asfastashecan.ThesequencewhichasignformswiththoseitisinasyntagmaticrelationissometimescalledaSTRUCTURE,tousethewordinamorerestrictedsense;andtheclassofsignswhichareinaparadigmaticrelationaresometimescalledaSYSTEM,with“system”alsousedinarestrictedsense.由一个符号和那些跟它处于组合关系中的符号形成的序列有时叫做更严格意义上的结构；处于聚合关系中的符号的类别叫做更严格意义上的系统。这两种关系，就像坐标的两根轴，一起决定了语言符号的身份。也就是说，一个语言符号的价值是由能与它结合构成一个序列的其他符号、与它形成对照又能替换它在这一序列中的位置的其他符号决定的。2021/10/534\nAconstructionisanorderedarrangementofgrammaticalunitsformingalargerunit-howaword,aphrase,aclauseorasentenceisconstructedoutofasetofmorphemesbyfollowingasetofrules.2021/10/535\nAconstituentisonegrammaticalunit(awordoramorpheme)thatenterssyntacticallyormorphologicallyintoaconstructionatanylevel.2021/10/536\nAnimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstructiondirectly.Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.ICanalysisemphasizesthefunctionoftheintermediatelevel---wordgroup,seeingahierarchicalstructureofthesentenceaswell.2021/10/537\n4.2.Immediateconstituentanalysis（ICanalysis）theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents—wordgroups（orphrases）,whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语）再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成份为止。2021/10/538\nWithbrackets:（（Poor）（John））（（ran）（away））2021/10/539\nb.atreediagramPoorJohnranaway2021/10/540\nTheadvantagesofICanalysisThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,andambiguities,ifany,willberevealed.Forexample,Leavethebookontheshelf.2021/10/541\nLeavethebookontheshelf.Leaveitthere.Leavethebookontheshelf.Don’ttouchit.Leavethebookontheshelf.2021/10/542\nmysmallchild'scotmysmallchild'scotmysmallchild'scotmysmallchild'scot2021/10/543\nProblemsofICanalysisAtthebeginning,someadvocatorsinsistedonbinarydivisions.Anyconstruction,atanylevel,willbecutintotwoparts.Oldmenandwomen①old+menandwomenmen+and+woman②oldmen+andwomanoldmen+and+womanConstructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis.2021/10/544\n4.3.EndocentricandexocentricconstructionsEndocentricconstruction（向心结构）isaconstructionwhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalentorapproachingequivalencetooneofitsconstituents.Theconstituentwhichcanstandforthewholeconstructioniscalledthecenterorhead.Theconstituentwhichcannotstandforthewholeiscalledthemodifier.Therefore,anendocentricconstructionisalsocalledaheadedconstruction.向心结构的分布和它的一个成分的分布相同或相近，这个成分是整体的核心和中心。因此向心结构也叫做中心结构2021/10/545\nEg.girlinacleanwhitedress,bridgedamagedbeyondrepair,walkedalongthestreet,hotbeyondendurance2021/10/546\nItcanbefurtherdividedintotwotypes:subordinatingandcoordinatingSubordinatingconstructionisaconstructioninwhichtheunitshavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentontheother,thereisonlyonehead,theotherismodifier.eg.twodogs,baldgentlemen,swimminginthelake;Coordinateconstructionisoneinwhichtwoormoreunitshavingequivalentsyntacticstatus,theseunitsarejoinedbyconjunctions,e.g.boysandgirls,warandpeace,coffeeandtea,timeandtide,Theoldmanandthesea.2021/10/547\nExocentricconstruction（离心结构）isonewhosedistributionisnotequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents,thereisnohead,thewholeconstructionhasadifferentgrammaticalfunctionfromeitherofitsconstituents,e.g.theboysmiled.Hehidbehindthedoor.Moreexamplesontextbook(cf.PP.129-131)它的分布跟其中任何成分的分布都不相同，他们不能相互替换。2021/10/548\nPP:ontheshelfSubordinateclause:IfheisgoingSentence:Thegirlsmiles※Verb+objectconstruction:Gerund:eg.Readingbooksisaverygoodpastime.Heenjoysreadingbooks.Theuseornon-useoftheobjectbookswillnotaffectthenatureoftheconstruction2021/10/549\n5.GenerativeapproachTransformational-Generativegrammar(TGgrammar)hasbeenregardedasarevolutioninlinguisticsinthemid1950s.ThepublicationofNoamChomsky’sSyntacticStructurein1957markedthebeginningofChomskyanrevolution.2021/10/550\n5.1NoamChomsky’sviewoflanguageChomskybelievesthatchildrenarebornwithapredispositiontodevelopalanguageinmuchthesamewayastheyarebornwithapredispositiontolearntowalk.Languageissomewhatinnate,andchildrenarebornwithwhathecallsaLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD).Theideathatchildrenarepredisposedtoacquirealanguageiscalledtheinnatenesshypothesis.Childrenarebornwithaninnatefacultyforlanguageingeneral,itimpliesthathumanlanguageshaveunderlyingprinciplesincommon,whichiscalledbyChomskylanguageuniversalsorlinguisticuniversals:thecommonfeaturessharedbyallhumanlanguages.Thestudyofthesefeaturesisuniversalgrammar.2021/10/551\n5.2.DeepandsurfacestructuresAccordingtoChomsky,asentencemayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.Deepstructureistheabstractrepresentationoftheunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituentsofasentence.Fromthisabstractunderlyingstructure,theactualformofasentenceisderived.Deepstructureisgeneratedbythebasecomponent.深层结构是指一个结构体的句法属性的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。2021/10/552\nSurfacestructureisaformalrepresentationofthefinalsyntacticformofasentence,asitexistsafterthetransformationalcomponenthasmodifiedadeepstructure.表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们实际发送、接受的结构组织是相符合的。ItisderivedfromtheDeepStructure.2021/10/553\nAdeepstructuremayhavedifferentsurfacestructures:(1)   Themanopenedthedoor.(2)   Themandidn’topenthedoor.(3)   Didthemanopenthedoor?(4)   Didn’tthemanopenthedoor?(5)   Thedoorwasopenedbytheman.(6)   Thedoorwasnotopenedbytheman.(7)   Wasthedooropenedbytheman?(8)   Wasn’tthedooropenedbytheman?2021/10/554\nAsurfacestructuremaycomefromdifferentdeepstructures.Eg.Heisanxious/difficulttoteach.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(Ifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivity;planesthatareflyingaredangerousobjects)2021/10/555\n5.3.ThedevelopmentofTGgrammarFromitsbirthtothepresent,theTGgrammarhasseenfiveperiodsinitsdevelopment:2021/10/556\nTheperiodofClassicaltheory:1957-65,theaimistomakelinguisticsascience.Thistheoryischaracterizedbythreefeatures:A.emphasisongenerativeabilityoflanguage;B.introductiontotransformationalrules;C.grammaticaldescriptionregardlessofmeaning.2021/10/557\n2.TheperiodofStandardTheory:1965-1970:theaimistodealwithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinlinguistics.3.TheperiodofExtendedStandardTheory:1970-1980:focusonlanguageuniversalsanduniversalgrammar:4.Theperiodofgovernment（管辖）andbinding（约束）:1981-1992,5.Theperiodofminimalistprogram:1992-today,therevisionoftheprevioustheory.2021/10/558\n5.3.1.GenerativeaspectForChomsky,whatisinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisnotacompletelistofwordsandphrasesbutarulesystemofgrammaticalknowledge.2021/10/559\nPhrasestructuralrules短语结构规则/rewriterules重写规则PSrule---thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrasewhichbringsaboutthegenerationofdeepstructure:2021/10/560\nS→NPVPItisreadas“asentenceconsistsoforisrewrittenasanounphraseandverbphrase.NP→(Det)(Adj)N(pp)(S)Eg.thetallmanwithglassesthatIliked;VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)Eg.eatanappleduringbreakfastthatwaspreparedbymumAP→A(PP)(S)Eg.curiousthatnoonewasthere;PP→PNPEg.aftertheclass;2021/10/561\nPhrasestructurerulesexplainhowsentencesgenerated.Wecanuseadiagramtoshowtherulesofthesentence:Thedogchasedthecat.2021/10/562\n2021/10/563\n5.3.2.TransformationalaspectChomskyproposesasetofrulestoformalizeallthesetransformations.InhisSyntacticStructures,ChomskylistssixteenTRANSFORMATIONALRULESforEnglish.2021/10/564\nNPmovementThemanbeatthechild..→Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.Wh-movementHesoldabooktoMary.→WhatdidheselltoMary?AUX-movement:be,have,do,will,can,shouldJohnwillgotoEngland.→WillJohngotoEngland?2021/10/565\nHewanttogotoEngland.→HewantstogotoEnglandS-insertion→Hedoesn’twanttogotoEngland.NOT–insertion2021/10/566\nPhrasestructurerules+lexiconNP,VP,AP,PP….XP（generate)一般的陈述句或概念性短语Deepstructure(转换规则使用之前）Movementrules(transform)Surfacestructure2021/10/567\nSNPVPsbbeatdogM---passiveThedogwasbeatenbytheman.2021/10/568\nThestudentlikesthenewteacher.SNPVPDet.NVNPDet.NPAdj.NThestudentslikesthenewteacher.2021/10/569\nJohnsuggestedthatMaryshouldtakelinguisticsclass.SNPVPVSNPVPVNPNNJohnsuggestedMary(should)takelinguisticsclass2021/10/570\n可识别ambiguoussentence:Visitingprofessorcanbeinteresting.SNPVPVisitingprofessorcanbeinterestingSS’VPNPVP(sb)visitprofessorcanbeinteresting2021/10/571\n树型图练习Thetallmanandwomanleft.Aclevermagicianfooledtheaudience.Thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind.Theyknew(that)thesenatorwouldwintheelection.2021/10/572\nThetallmanandwomanleft.SNPVPNPNDet.NPA.N.Thetallmanwomanleft.SNPVPDet.NPA.NPNNthetallmanwomanleft.2021/10/573\nAclevermagicianfooledtheaudience.SNPVPDet.NPV.NPAdj.N.Det.N.Aclevermagicianfooledtheaudience.2021/10/574\nThetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind.SNPVPNPPPV.PPDet.N.P.NPP.NPDet.N.Det.N.Thetoweronthehillcollapsedinthewind2021/10/575\nTheyknow(that)thesenatorwouldwintheelection.SNPVPV.S'NPVPDet.N.V.NPDet.N.theyknowthesenatorwouldtheelection.win2021/10/576\n5.4ThestandardtheoryandafterThefirstproblemisthatthetransformationalrulesaretoopowerful.Anordinarysentencecanbetransformedatwill,negated,passivised,withcertainelementsaddedordeleted,withoutrestrictions.Thesecondproblemisthathisrulesmaygenerateill-formedsentencesaswellaswell-formedones.Forexample,withtherulesSNP+VP,andVPV+NP,theremightbegeneratedthefollowingtwo.Eg.Johndrinkswine.WinedrinksJohn.2021/10/577\nAccordingtothestandardtheory,atransformationalgrammarhasthreemajorcomponents:asyntacticcomponent(dealingwithsyntax);aphonologicalcomponent(dealingwithsounds);asemanticcomponent(dealingwithmeaning).2021/10/578\nThesyntacticcomponentismadeupofthebasecomponentandthetransformationalcomponent.ThebasecontainsrulesfortheformationofdeepstructurescategoriesThebasecomponent:lexicon2021/10/579\nCategory:aconceptsuchasasentence,anounphrase,averb.(ThatpartofthebasecomponentofthegrammarwhichspecifiessuchsyntacticcategoriesasS,NP,VP.)Thecategorycomponentcontainsrewritingrulesmoreorlessthesameasthephrasestructurerulesintheclassicalmodel.ThePS-rulesaredifferentfromthoseinthefirstmodel,theyarewithfeaturespecificationsforthewordstobeinserted,N→[+N,+Common,-Count,+Abstract].Thefeaturesarespecifiedinthelexicon.2021/10/580\nTheLexiconThelexicongivesinformationabouttheclassthatawordbelongsto,egN,V,andinformationaboutthegrammaticalstructureswithwhichthewordmayoccur.Forexample,theEnglishverbsleepcannothaveanobjectafterit.2021/10/581\nThelexiconshouldcontainselectionalrestrictions.selectionalrestrictions:Thesearetherestrictionsonthetypeofnounthatcanbeselectedwitheachverb.*Themanhitsincerity.2021/10/582\nAccordingtotheStandardTheory,transformationcannotchangemeaning.However,theycandelete,copy,addandreordermeaning.2021/10/583\ndeletion:(Youwill)bequiet;SomeonemusthelpJohn.→Johnmustbehelped(bysomeone)copy:asintagtransformationHeiscoming,isn’the?add:Afishisswimminginthepond.→Thereisafishswimminginthepond.reorder:HegoeshomeonSunday.→OnSunday,hegoeshome.2021/10/584\nThesemanticcomponentmakessemanticinterpretationsonthedeepstructure.Thetaskofthesemanticcomponentistoanalyzethedeepstructureofasentenceintobasicsemanticfeaturesandthentoderiveitssemanticinterpretationfromthedeepstructure.2021/10/585\nThephonologicalcomponentmakesphonologicalinterpretationsonthesurfacestructure.2021/10/586\n5.3.2.Severaltypesofstructuralrelations1.Dominance:onenodeAdominatesanotherBistosaythatAoccurshigherupthetreethanB,andisconnectedtoBbyanunbrokensetofbranches.2021/10/587\nNP2支配D和N，PP支配P、NP2、以及NP2以下的所以节点。2021/10/588\n6.FunctionalapproachThefunctionalapproachanalyzesthesentenceintermsofthefunctionsofthesentenceelements,thatis,howtheycontributetothedistributionofinformationinthewholesentence.Eg.Janestoodonit.OnitstoodJane.2021/10/589\n6.1FunctionalsentenceperspectiveAccordingtoFSP,asentencecontainsapointofdepartureandagoalofdiscourse.ThepointofdepartureisequallypresenttothespeakerandtothehearerandthisiscalledtheTheme.Thegoalofdiscoursepresentstheveryinformationthatistobepassedtothehearer.ItiscalledRheme.2021/10/590\nAccordingtotheschool,peopletendtousethesameorderofinformationinthesentence.Itisnaturalforthespeakertostartfromtheknowntotheunknown.ThemeRhemeKnowninformationNewinformation2021/10/591\nMoreexamples:（a）.Thefatboy（T）thoughtforamoment（R）.（b）.Unwillingly（T）Ralphfelthislipstwitch（R）.（c）.Behindthis（T）wasthedarknessoftheforestproperandtheopenspaceofthescar（R）.2021/10/592\n6.2.CommunicativedynamismElementsinasentenceconveydifferentdegreesofinformation.TheextenttowhichthesentenceelementhelpstopushthecommunicationforwardismeasuredbyCD.Sincethemeconveystheknowninformation,itcarriesthelowestdegreeofCD.2021/10/593