语言学概论(杨忠) 12页

1.Whatarethecategoriesoflexicalmeaning?Lexicalmeaningincludes:a)referentialmeaning(alsodenotativemeaning).b)Associativemeanings.Referentialmeaningisthecentralmeaninganditismorestableanduniversal.Associativemeaningsaremeaningsaremeaningsthathingeonreferentialmeaning,whicharelessstableandmoreculture-specific.Typesofassociativemeanings:connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,collectivemeaning2.Whatarethecomponentsofmetaphor?Therearetwopositionsonthefunctionofmetaphors:a)theclassicalviewseesmetaphorarhetoricaldevice;b)anotherviewholdsmetaphoracognitivedevice.Metaphors一spossiblepreciselybecausetherearemetaphorsinaperson’sconceptualsystems. Allmetaphorsarecomposedoftwodomains:targetdomain(alsotenor)andsourcedomain(vehicle).3.Howdoestransformationalgrammaraccountforsentence-relatedness?1)AccordingtoChomsky,agrammarasthetacitsharedknowledgeofallspeakersisasystemoffiniterulesbywhichaninfinitenumberofsentencescanbegenerated.Heattemptstoaccountforthisaspectofsyntaxbypostulatingthatdeepstructuresandsurfacestructures.2)Deepstructuresarethebasicstructuresgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.3)Surfacestructuresarederivedstructures,thestructuresofsentencesthatweactuallyspeak.Surfacestructuresarederivedfromdeepstructuresthroughtransformationalruleswhichincludereplacement,insertion,deletionandcoping,etc.4.Onwhatbasisdolinguistsregardhumanlanguageasspecies-specific(uniqueto12\nhumans)?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Manyphilosophersandlinguistsbelievethatlanguageisuniquetoman.Languageisahumantraitthatsetsusapartfromotherlivingcreatures.Theyspelloutanumberoffeaturesoflanguagewhicharenotfoundinanimalcommunicationsystems.Thesefeatures:creativity,duality,arbitrariness,displacement,culturaltransmission,interchangeabilityandreflexivity.Theseareuniversalfeaturespossessedbyallhumanlanguages.Althoughsomeanimalcommunicationsystemspossess,toaverylimiteddegree,oneoranotherofthesefeaturesexceptcreativityandduality,noneisfoundtohaveallthefeatures.Onthisbasislinguiststendtoconcludethathumanlanguagesarequalitativelydifferentformanimalcommunicationsystems.5.Whatpartofsyntaxcanphrasestructurerulesaccountforandwhattheycannot?Phrasestructurerulesarerulesthatspecifytheconstituentsofsyntacticcategories.Theserulesarepartofspeakers’syntacticknowledge,whichgoverntheconstructionofsentences.Therearealotofpartofsyntacticknowledge,includingstructuralambiguity(whichstringsofwordshavemorethanonemeaning),wordsorder(differentarrangementsofthesamewordshavedifferentmeanings),grammaticalrelations(whatelementrelatestowhatotherelementdirectlyorindirectly),recursion(therepeateduseofthesamerulestocreateinfinitesentences),sentencerelatedness(sentencesmaybestructurallyvariantbutsemanticallyrelated),andsyntacticcategories(aclassofwordsorphrasesthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality)etc.Phrasestructurerulescanaccountforstructuralambiguity,wordorder,grammaticalrelations,recursion,and12\nsyntacticcategories;buttheycannotaccountforsentencerelatedness.6.HowdosociolinguistsclassifythevarietiesofEnglish?Thetermvarietyisthelabelgiventotheformofalanguageusedbyanygroupofspeakersorusedinaparticularfield.Avarietyischaracterizedbythebasiclexicon,phonology,syntaxsharedbymembersofthegroup.Varietiesofalanguageareoffourtypes:thestandardvariety,regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.Aregionaldialectisavarietyofalanguagespokenbypeoplelivinginanarea.TheEnglishlanguagehasmanyregionaldialects.BritishEnglish,AmericanEnglish,AustralianEnglish.IndianEnglish,SouthAfricanEnglish,etc.areallregionalvarietiesofthelanguage.Onedialectisdistinctivefromanotherphonologically,lexicallyandgrammatically.7.Whatarethefunctionsofsupra-segmentalfeatures?Thephoneticfeatures,distinctiveornon-distinctive,thatwehavediscussedsofarmaybepropertiesofsinglesegments.Inthissectionwewilllookatfeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorsequenceoftwoormoresegments,whicharecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Thesefeaturesarealsodistinctivefeatures.Theyarefoundinsuchunitsofsyllables,words,phrasesandsentences.Themostwidelyfoundsuprasegmentalfeaturesarestress,intonationandtone.Stressisdefinedastheperceivedprominence(comparativeloudness)ofoneormoresyllableelementsoverothersinaword.Thisdefinitionimpliesthatstressisarelativenotion.Intonation:whenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.Thesamesentenceutteredwithdifferentintonationmayexpressdifferentattitudeofthespeaker.InEnglish,therearethreebasicintonationpatterns:fall,riseandfall-rise.Toneisthevariationofpitchatthewordleveltodistinguishwords.Thesamesequenceof12\nsegmentscanbedifferentwordsifutteredwithdifferenttones.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Chineseisatypicaltonelanguage.Intonationandstressgenerallyoccursimultaneouslyinutterance.Whenintonationcontourfallsonasyllable,thenucleusisstressedandthevowelisnaturallylengthenedabit.Inthemeantime,thereisalittlepauseafterthesyllable.Thissimultaneousfunctioningofthefeaturesservestohighlighttheinformationfocus,ortoeliminateambiguity(doubleinterpretationsofthesamephraseorsentence).8.Whatareaspectsofsyntacticknowledge?Syntacticknowledgeistheknowingofwhichstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhicharenot.Inaddition,itincludes:1)structuralambiguity2)wordorder3)grammaticalrelations4)recursion5)sentencerelatedness6)syntacticcategories.9.Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofcomponentialanalysis?1st,itisabreakthroughintheformalrepresentationofmeaning.Onceformallyrepresented,meaningcomponentscanbeseen.2nd,itrevealstheimprecisenessoftheterminologyinthetraditionalapproachtomeaninganalysis.Lookingatthesemanticformulaofmanandwomanagainyoucanseethatitisnottruethatthetotalmeaningofonewordcontrastswiththatoftheother.Itismerelyinonesemanticfeaturethatthetwowordscontrast.Whenwelookatthesemanticformulaeofmanandfather,wefindthatallthesemanticfeaturesofmanareincludedinthesemanticformulaoffather.Thenwereachadifferentconclusionfromcommonsenseinregardtotherelationbetweenmanandfather.Isthiscontradictory?TheanswerisNo.Theobviousfactthatmanincludesfatherisderivedfromtheperspectiveofreference.Componentialanalysisexaminesthecomponentsofsense.Themoresemanticfeaturesawordhas,thenarroweritsreferenceitis.12\nThelimitationsofcomponentialanalysisarealsoapparent.Itcannotbeappliedtotheanalysisofalllexicon,merelytowordswithinthesamesemanticfield.Itiscontroversialwhethersemanticfeaturesareuniversalprimesofwordmeaningsinalllanguage.Nevertheless,CAissofaramostinfluentialapproachinthestructuralanalysisoflexicalmeaning.11.Whyislinguisticsavastfieldofstudy?Linguisticsisabroadfieldofstudy,becauselanguageisacomplicatedentitywithmanylayersandfacets.Thereareanumberofdivisionsoflinguistics,whichcanbeputintotwocategories.1)Intra-disciplinarydivisions:thestudyoflanguageingeneralisoftentermedgenerallinguistics.Itisbasedontheviewthatlanguageasasystemiscomposedofthreeaspects:sound,structureandmeaning.2)Inter-disciplinarydivisions.a)Sociologydealswithlanguageandculture.b)Psycholinguisticsdealswiththerelationbetweenlanguageandmindc)appliedlinguisticsisconcernedwiththeapplicationoflinguistictheoriesanddescriptionsinotherfields.Allabovethreebelongtosociolinguistics.12.Howislinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?1)Traditionalgrammarisprescriptiveandmodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.2)TraditionalgrammaticalcategoriesaremerelybasedonEuropeanlanguagebutlinguisticstudiesalllanguages.3)Traditionalgrammarlacksatheoreticalframework,whilemodernlinguisticsistheoreticallyratherthanpedagogicallyoriented.13.Howarespeechsoundsdescribed?Thestudyofspeechsoundsisphoneticswhichincludes3parts:1)articulatoryphonetics2)acousticphonetics3)auditoryphonetics.Articulatoryphoneticsistheprimaryconcernin12\nlinguistics,inwhichspeechsoundisdescribedwithin3sides:Thedescriptionofconsonants:a)placeofarticulationb)mannersofarticulationc)voicingd)aspirationThedescriptionofvowels:a)monophthongsb)diphthongsc)liproundingd)tensity14.Differencebetweenlinguisticcompetenceandcommunicativecompetence1)LinguistslikeChomskywhoarenotconcernedwithlanguageuseproposethetermlinguisticcompetencetoaccountforaspeaker’sknowledgeofhisorherlanguage.2)SociolinguistslikeDellHymesproposecommunicativecompetenceasthemostgeneraltermtoaccountforboththetacitknowledgeoflanguageandtheabilitytouseit.AccordingtoHymes,thereare4parametersthatunderlieaspeaker’scommunicativecompetence,namelytheabilitytojudge:a)whethersthispossible.b)feasiblec)appropriate4)done.15.Howarewordsdecomposedintotheirconstituents1)Wordsarecomposedofoneormorethanonemorphemes.2)Morphemesarethesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.3)Morphemescanbecategorizedinto2kinds.a)freemorphemes(theyconstitutewordsbythemselves)b)boundmorphemes(theyareneverusedindependently)4)Boundmorphemesincludeinflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.16.Whatareaspectsofsyntacticknowledge?Syntacticknowledgeistheknowingofwhichstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhicharenot.Inaddition,itincludes:1)structuralambiguity2)wordorder3)grammaticalrelations4)recursion5)sentencerelatedness6)syntacticcategories.17.Whatarethetwoclassesofphoneticfeatures?Whatisthefundamentaldifference?12\nThetwoclassesofphoneticfeaturesaredistinctivefeaturesandnon-distinctivefeatures.Featuresthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,inotherwords,thosedistinguishingphonemes.Non-distinctivefeaturesdonotdistinguishmeanings,i.e.thefeaturesbelongtoallophones.However,whetheraphoneticfeatureisdistinctiveornon-distinctivevariesfromonelanguagetoanotherlanguage.18.Howdoyouaccountfortherelationbetweenphoneticsandphonology?Phonologyandphoneticsarebothconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds,butthetwodifferinperspectives.Phonetics,particularlyarticulatoryphonetics,focusesonhowspeechsoundsareproduced,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,andhowtotranscribethem.Inphonetics,soundsegmentsareassumedtobeinvariable;variationsareoverlooked.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?19.Whatarethecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence？AccordingtoHedge,therearemainlyfivecomponentsofcommunicativecompetence.Theyarelinguisticcompetence,pragmaticcompetence,discoursecompetence,strategiccompetence,andfluency.1.Analyzethesentenceintermsoftypeofprocess,moodstructure,andthemeandrheme:Theacademicianwilladdresstheissueofthelegitimacyofcloningattheconference.Itistheverbalprocess.Inthissentence,thesayeristheacademician,thereceiversarethepeopleattheconferencethoughitisnotmentionedbutwecaninferitfromthesentence.Theverbiageistheissueofthelegitimacyofcloning.12\nThissentenceistherealizationoflinguisticinteraction,itisthegivingofinformation.Itssyntacticformisstatement.Thesubjectistheacademician,thefiniteistheverbaloperator“will”.Theconstituentthatstandsforthestarting-pointforthemessageistermedtheme;alltherestofthesentenceislabeledrheme.Inthissentence,thethemeistheacademicianand“theissueofthelegitimacyofcloningattheconference”istherheme.2.AnalyzethetwoEnglishsoundsegments【K】and【Kh】intermsofdistributionandthephoneticfeaturethatdistinguishthem.1)Bothareincomplementarydistribution.Theyaretheallophonesofthephoneme【K】.【K】:fricative,voiceless,alveolar.【Kh】:elsewhere2)thephoneticfeaturethatdistinguishthemisaspirationWhatareaspectsofsyntacticknowledge?Syntacticknowledgeistheknowingofwhichstringsofwordsaregrammaticalandwhicharenot.Inaddition,itincludes:1)structuralambiguity2)wordorder3)grammaticalrelations4)recursion5)sentencerelatedness6)syntacticcategories.3.Pointoutthesemanticproblemofthesentence"theorphanisstayingwithhisparentsTherearesomesentenceswhichsoundgrammaticalbutmeaningless.Thesentence"theorphanisstayingwithhisparents”isjustoneexample.Thissentenceisalwaysfalsewhichiscalledcontradiction.Anorphanisachildwhoseparentsaredead,orachildwhohasbeendeprivedofparentalcare.Thetheme(theorphan)andtherheme(isstayingwithhisparents)areincompatible.4.Analyzethechangeoffeatureconcerningtheliquidsandnasalsinflight,snow,smart,12\nprayandgeneralizetherule.Liquids/l//r/appearafteravoicelessconsonant/f/and/p/respectively,theyaredevoiced.Nasals/n//m/appearafteravoicelessconsonant/s/,theyaredevoiced.Rule:Devoiceavoicedconsonantafteravoicelessconsonant.Or:WhentheEnglishliquids,glidesandthetwoanteriornasalsappearafteravoicelessconsonant,itisdevoiced.Thisrulecanbeexpressedasfollows:devoiceavoicedconsonantafteravoicelessconsonant，thatis,[+voiced+consonantal][-voiced]/[-voiced+consonantal]-.Thephonology/l//r/belongtoliquids,and/m//n/belongtoanteriornasals.Allthesefourarevoicedconsonant,butinthesewords,theychangetothevoiceless,fortheyappearaftervoicelessconsonants.6.Analyzethecookingtermstewasaverbbywayofcomponentialanalysisandmarkthefeaturethatyouthinkisdistinguisher.stew:+cook+hot+closedish+juice(+juice:semanticdistinguisher)7.AnalyzethecauseoftheerrorthatsomeChinesespeakersofEnglishusealthoughandbutwithinonesentence.Intheprocessofanalyzinglearners'language,erroranalysisisamilestone.Explainingerrorsisthefinalbutveryimportantstepinerroranalysis.Intermsofsources,errorsaredividedintointerlingualerrorsandintralingualerrors.Interlingualerrorsarecausedbymothertongueinterferencewhichmeansthenegativeroleone'sknowledgeofL1toL2learning.InChinese,wecanuse“不但”，“而且”inthesamesentence,sosomeChinesespeakerstransferthisexpressiondirectlytoEnglish.ButaccordingtoEnglishgrammar,“although”and“but”cannotappearinthesamesentence.Thisphenomenonisakindof12\nnegativetransferoflearners'syntacticknowledge.Thisisatypicalphenomenonofinterferenceinlearning.9.Analyzethesemanticpropertiesofthegivencookingterms,usingthefeatures[+/-WATER],[+/-FAT],[+/-PAN],[+/-POT],[+/-OVEN],[+/-SIEVE],etc.boil:[+WATER][-FAT][-PAN][+POT][-OVEN][-SIEVE]fry:[-WATER][+FAT][+PAN][-POT],[-OVEN][+SIEVE]steam:[+WATER][-FAT][-PAN][+POT][-OVEN][-SIEVE]stew:[+WATER][+FAT][-PAN][+POT][-OVEN][-SIEVE]bake:[-WATER][+FAT][-PAN][-POT][+OVEN][-SIEVE]10.Writethetypeofreferenceofitineachofthefollowingsentences:(1)Itisratherfoggythesedays.(2)Itissofarhardtotellhowmanylivesareclaimedinthecatastrophe..(3)ThemostpowerfulearthquaketriggeredmassivetidalwavesthatslammedintocoastlinesacrossAsiayesterday.Itkilledover30,000peopleinSriLanka,Indonesia,India,Thailand,Malaysia,Myanmar,BangladeshandMaldives.(1)“It”herereferstotheweather.Itisanexphoricreference,referringtotheworldoutsidelinguisticforms.(2)“It”referstothefollowingexpression,“howmanlivesareclaimedinthecatastrophe”,whichisalinguisticform..Thus,itisanendophoricreference,specifically,cataphoricreference(cataphora).(3)“It”referstotheprecedingexpression,that“massivetidalwavesslammedintocoastlinesacrossAsiayesterday”.Therefore,itisanendophoricreference,specifically,anaphoricreference(anaphora).12\n11.Analyzetheambiguityofthetwosentences,tellingthedifference:(1)Flyingplanescanbedangerous.(2)Shecannotbearchildren.1.a.Thebehaviorofflyingplanescanbedangerous.b.Planeswhichisflyingcanbedangerous.2.a.Shecannotendurechildren.b.Shecannotgivebirthtochildren.1Analyzetherelationof–er–estandmoremostinEnglishandgeneralizetheirdistribution.-erestaretheinflectionalaffixesofadj.oradv.–erandmoreareallomorphsofasamemorphemeindicatingcomparative.–estandmostareallomorphsofasamemorphemeindicatingsuperlative.Distributionofmoremostisbeforeaadj.whichhasatleasttwosyllables.–er–estareusedastheaffixesofadj.andadv.whichhasoneoretwosyllables.2analyzethesemanticdifferenceoffatheranddaddyinthegivensentence,usingLeech`sclassificationoflexicalmeanings.Classification:connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaningandcollocativemeaning.Daddyhasanaffectivemeaning.Whenyouusetheterm,youareinintimaterelationshipwithyourfather.Soafatherisjustwhohasachild,butdaddyistheonelovedbyhischild.3analyzethedifferencebetweensummonandcallintermsofregister.Registerreferstovarietiesaccordingtouse.Summonisaformalword,usedincourtoflawtoordersbtoappear,whilecalliswidelyusedindailylife.12\n4pointoutthemaximfloutedandtheimplicatureofB`sutterance:A:Didyounoticesomethingoddbetweenthehostandhostess?B:Haveanotherglassofbeer?Itfloutedthemaximofrelevance.TheimplicatureofB`sutterance:thehearerdoesn`twanttogossipaboutthosepeople.5pointoutthedegreeofformalityof:Itisgratifyingthatthecooperativeprogramhasbeenproceedingsmoothlyformal.6whatisdistinctivefeatureDistinctivefeaturesarefeaturesthatdistinguishmeanings.7Howdoyouaccountfortherelationbetweensemanticsandpragmatics.Theyaretwoseparatefields.Bothstudymeaning,butsemanticsstudiestheconventionalmeaningofawordwhilepragmaticsstudiestheinternationalmeaning,themeaninginuse.Semanticsisbilateralwhilepragmaticsistrilateral.Semanticsstudiestherelationshipbetweensignandmeaning,butpragmaticsstudiesthesign,meaninganduser.8Whatarethetwomainschoolsofcontemporarywesternlinguistics?Whatarethefundamentaldifferencesbetweenthem?TGgrammarv.ssystematic-functionalgrammarTGbasedonUG,studiesthegeneralprincipleswhilesystematic-functionalgrammarstudieslanguagefunctions.12