英语语言学概论整理 11页

Chapter1Language语言1.Designfeature(识别特征)referstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.2.Productivity(能产性)referstotheabilitythatpeoplehaveinmakingandcomprehendingindefinitelylargequantitiesofsentencesintheirnativelanguage.3.arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrarinessreferstothephenomenonthatthereisnomotivatedrelationshipbetweenalinguisticformanditsmeaning.4.symbol(符号)Symbolreferstosomethingsuchasanobject,word,orsoundthatrepresentssomethingelsebyassociationorconvention.5.discreteness(离散性)Discretenessreferstothephenomenonthatthesoundsinalanguagearemeaningfullydistinct.6.displacement(不受时空限制的特性)Displacementreferstothefactthathumanlanguagecanbeusedtotalkaboutthingsthatarenotintheimmediatesituationsofitsusers.7.dualityofstructure(结构二重性)Theorganizationoflanguageintotwolevels,oneofsounds,theotherofmeaning,isknownasdualityofstructure.8.culturetransmission(文化传播)Culturetransmissionreferstothefactthatlanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinheritance.9.interchangeability(互换性)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.1.★Whatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.First,languageisasystem.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesense.Thethirdfeatureoflanguageissymbolicnature.2.★Whatarethedesignfeaturesoflanguage?Languagehassevendesignfeaturesasfollowing:1)Productivity.2)Discreteness.3)Displacement4)Arbitrariness.5)Culturaltransmission6)Dualityofstructure.7)Interchangeability.3.Whydowesaylanguageisasystem?Becauseelementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules,andeverylanguagecontainsasetofrules.Bysystem,therecurringpatternsorarrangementsortheparticularwaysordesignsinwhichalanguageoperates.Andthesounds,thewordsandthesentencesareusedinfixedpatternsthatspeakerofalanguagecanunderstandeachother.4.★(Functionoflanguage.)AccordingtoHalliday,whataretheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage?Andwhatarethethreefunctionalcomponentsofadultlanguage?I.Hallidayusesthefollowingtermstorefertotheinitialfunctionsofchildren’slanguage:1)Instrumentalfunction.工具功能2)Regulatoryfunction.调节功能3)Representationalfunction.表现功能4)Interactionalfunction.互动功能5)Personalfunction.自指性功能6)Heuristicfunction.启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7)Imaginativefunction.想象功能II.Adultlanguagehasthreefunctionalcomponentsasfollowing:1)Interpersonalcomponents.人际2)Ideationalcomponents.概念3)Textualcomponents.语篇11\nChapter2Linguistics语言学1.generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学)Theformerdealswithlanguageingeneralwhereasthelatterisconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage.2.synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学)Diachroniclinguisticstracesthehistoricaldevelopmentofthelanguageandrecordsthechangesthathavetakenplaceinitbetweensuccessivepointsintime.Andsynchroniclinguisticspresentsanaccountoflanguageasitisatsomeparticularpointintime.3.theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics(理论语言学与应用语言学)Theformercopeswithlanguageswithaviewtoestablishingatheoryoftheirstructuresandfunctionswhereasthelatterisconcernedwiththeapplicationoftheconceptsandfindingsoflinguisticstoallsortsofpracticaltasks.4.microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)Theformerstudiesonlythestructureoflanguagesystemwhereasthelatterdealswitheverythingthatisrelatedtolanguages.5.langueandparole(语言与言语)Theformerreferstotheabstractlinguisticssystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhereasthelatterreferstotheconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationbyanindividualspeaker.6.competenceandperformance(语言能力与语言运用)Theformerisone’sknowledgeofallthelinguisticregulationsystemswhereasthelatteristheuseoflanguageinconcretesituation.7.speechandwriting(口头语与书面语)Speechisthespokenformoflanguagewhereaswritingiswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscope.8.linguisticsbehaviorpotentialandactuallinguisticbehavior(语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)Peopleactuallysaysonacertainoccasiontoacertainpersonisactuallinguisticsbehavior.Andeachofpossiblelinguisticitemsthathecouldhavesaidislinguisticbehaviorpotential.9.syntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系)Theformerdescribesthehorizontaldimensionofalanguagewhilethelatterdescribestheverticaldimensionofalanguage.10.verbalcommunicationandnon-verbalcommunication(言语交际与非言语交际)Usualuseoflanguageasameansoftransmittinginformationiscalledverbalcommunication.Thewaysweconveymeaningwithoutusinglanguageiscallednon-verbalcommunication.1.★HowdoesJohnLyonsclassifylinguistics?AccordingtoJohnLyons,thefieldoflinguisticsasawholecanbedividedintoseveralsubfieldsasfollowing:1)Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguistics.2)Synchroniclinguisticsanddiachroniclinguistics.3)Theoreticallinguisticsandappliedlinguistics.4)Microlinguisticsandmacrolinguistics.2.Explainthethreeprinciplesbywhichthelinguistisguided:consistency,adequacyandsimplicity.1)Consistencymeansthatthereshouldbenocontradictionsbetweendifferentpartsofthetheoryandthedescription.2)Adequacymeansthatthetheorymustbebroadenoughinscopetooffersignificantgeneralizations.3)Simplicityrequiresustobeasbriefandeconomicaspossible.3.★Whatarethesub-branchesoflinguisticswithinthelanguagesystem?Withinthelanguagesystemtherearesixsub-branchesasfollowing:1)Phonetics.语音学isastudyofspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.2)Phonology.音位学studiesaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofaspeaker’snativelanguage.3)Morphology.形态学studiesabouthowawordisformed.4)Syntax.句法学studiesaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.5)Semantics.语义学studiesaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofsentences.6)Pragmatics.语用学★Thescopeoflanguage:Linguisticsisreferredtoasascientificstudyoflanguage.★Thescientificprocessoflinguisticstudy:Itinvolvesfourstages:collectingdata,formingahypothesis,testingthehypothesisanddrawingconclusions.11\n11\nChapter3Phonetics语音学1.articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)Thestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.2.acousticphonetics(声学语音学)Thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.3.auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)Thestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.4.consonant(辅音)Consonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairformthelanguageiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblocked,orwheretheopeningbetweenthespeechorgansissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.5.vowel(元音)isdefinedasaspeechsoundinwhichtheairfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayandispronouncedwithvocal-cordvibration.6.bilabials(双唇音)Bilabialsmeansthatconsonantsforwhichtheflowofairisstoppedorrestrictedbythetwolips.[p][b][m][w]7.affricates(塞擦音)Thesoundproducedbystoppingtheairstreamandthenimmediatelyreleasingitslowlyiscalledaffricates.[tX][dY][tr][dr]8.glottis(声门)Glottisisthespacebetweenthevocalcords.9.roundedvowel(圆唇元音)Roundedvowelisdefinedasthevowelsoundpronouncedbythelipsformingacircularopening.[u:][u][OB][O]10.diphthongs(双元音)Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.[ei][ai][Oi][Qu][au]11.triphthongs(三合元音)Triphthongsarethosewhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherandthenrapidlyandcontinuouslytoathirdone.[eiQ][aiQ][OiQ][QuQ][auQ]12.laxvowels(松元音)Accordingtodistinctionoflongandshortvowels,vowelsareclassifiedtensevowelsandlaxvowels.Allthelongvowelsaretensevowelsbutoftheshortvowels,[e]isatensevowelaswell,andtherestshortvowelsarelaxvowels.1.★Howareconsonantsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?TheconsonantsinEnglishcanbedescribedintermsoffourdimensions.1)Thepositionofthesoftpalate.2)Thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration.3)Theplaceofarticulation.4)Themannerofarticulation.2.★Howarevowelsclassifiedintermsofdifferentcriteria?Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors.1)Thestateofthevelum2)Thepositionofthetongue.3)Theopennessofthemouth.4)Theshapeofthelips.5)Thelengthofthevowels.6)Thetensionofthemusclesatpharynx.3.★Whatarethethreesub-branchesofphonetics?Howdotheydifferfromeachother?Phoneticshasthreesub-branchesasfollowing:1)Articulatoryphoneticsisthestudyofhowspeechorgansproducethesoundsiscalledarticulatoryphonetics.2)Acousticphoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesandofthetransmissionofspeechsoundsiscalledacousticphonetics.3)Auditoryphoneticsisthestudyofthewayhearersperceivespeechsoundsiscalledauditoryphonetics.4.★Whatarethecommonlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsandvowelsrespectively?I.Thefrequentlyusedphoneticfeaturesforconsonantsincludethefollowing:1)Voiced.2)Nasal.3)Consonantal.4)Vocalic.5)Continuant.6)Anterior.11\n1)Coronal.2)Aspirated.II.Themostcommonphoneticfeaturesforvowelsincludethefollowing:1)High.2)Low.3)Front.4)Back.5)Rounded.6)Tense.11\nChapter4Phonology音位学1.phonemes(音位)Phonemesareminimaldistinctiveunitsinthesoundsystemofalanguage.2.allophones(音位变体)Allophonesarethephoneticvariantsandrealizationsofaparticularphoneme.3.phones(单音)Thesmallestidentifiablephoneticunitfoundinastreamofspeechiscalledaphone.4.minimalpair(最小对立体)Minimalpairmeanswordswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.5.contrastivedistribution(对比分布)Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.6.complementarydistribution(互补分布)Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,thentheyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.7.freevariation(自由变异)Whentwosoundscanappearinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotcauseanychangeinmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.8.distinctivefeatures(区别性特征)Adistinctivefeatureisafeaturewhichdistinguishesonephonemefromanother.9.suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.10.tonelanguages(声调语言)Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevel.11.intonationlanguages(语调语言)Intonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel.12.juncture(连音)Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeatureswhichmaydemarcategrammaticalunits.1.★WhatarethedifferencesbetweenEnglishphoneticsandEnglishphonology?1)Phoneticsisthestudyoftheproduction,perception,andphysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,whilephonologyattemptstoaccountforhowtheyarecombined,organized,andconveymeaninginparticularlanguages.2)Phoneticsisthestudyoftheactualsoundswhilephonologyisconcernedwithamoreabstractdescriptionofspeechsoundsandtriestodescribetheregularitiesofsoundpatterns.2.Giveexamplestoillustratetherelationshipbetweenphonemes,phonesandallophones.Whenwehear[pit],[tip],[spit],etc,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare/p/.And/p/and/b/areseparatephonemesinEnglish,while[ph]and[p]areallophones.3.Howcanwedecideaminimalpairoraminimalset?Aminimalpairshouldmeetthreeconditions:1)Thetwoformsaredifferentinmeaning.2)Thetwoformsaredifferentinonesoundsegment.3)Thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositionofthetwostrings.4.★Useexamplestoexplainthethreetypesofdistribution.1)Contrastivedistribution.Sounds[m]inmetand[n]innetareincontrastivedistributionbecausesubstituting[m]for[n]willresultinachangeofmeaning.2)Complementarydistribution.Theaspiratedplosive[ph]andtheunaspiratedplosive[p]areincomplementarydistributionbecausetheformeroccurseitherinitiallyinawordorinitiallyinastressedsyllablewhilethelatterneveroccursinsuchenvironments.3)Freevariation.InEnglish,theword“direct”maybepronounceintwoways:/di’rekt/and/dia’rekt/,andthetwodifferentsounds/i/and/ai/canbesaidtobeinfreevariation.5.What’sthedifferencebetweensegmentalfeaturesandsuprasegmentalfeatures?WhatarethesuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglish?I.1)Distinctivefeatures,whichareusedtodistinguishonephonemefromanotherandthushaveeffectononesoundsegment,arereferredtoassegmentalfeatures.2)Thedistinctive(phonological)featureswhichapplytogroupslargerthanthesinglesegmentareknownassuprasegmentalfeatures.3)Suprasegmentalfeaturesmayhaveeffectonmorethanonesoundsegment.Theymayapplytoastringofseveralsounds.II.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,tone,intonationandjuncture.6.What’sthedifferencebetweentonelanguagesandintonationlanguage?Tonelanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevelwhileintonationlanguagesarethosewhichusepitchtodistinguishmeaningatphraselevelorsentencelevel7.★What’sthedifferencebetweenphonetictranscriptionsandphonemictranscriptions?Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallpossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciation,whilethelatterwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingoneword11\nfromanotherinagivenlanguage.11\nChapter5Morphology形态学1.morphemes(语素)Morphemesaretheminimalmeaningfulunitsinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.allomorphs(语素变体)Allomorphsaretherealizationsofaparticularmorpheme.morphs(形素)Morphsaretherealizationsofmorphemesingeneralandaretheactualformsusedtorealizemorphemes.2.roots(词根)Rootsisdefinedasthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.affixes(词缀)Affixesaremorphemesthatlexicallydependonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords.freemorphemes(自由语素)Freemorphemesarethosewhichcanexistasindividualwords.boundmorphemes(粘着语素)Boundmorphemesarethosewhichcannotoccurontheirownasseparatewords.3.inflectionalaffixes(屈折词缀)refertoaffixesthatservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,butdonotchangeitspartofspeech.derivationalaffixes(派生词缀)refertoaffixesthatareaddedtowordsinordertochangeitsgrammaticalcategoryoritsmeaning.4.emptymorph(空语子)Emptymorphmeansamorphwhichhasformbutnomeaning.zeromorph(零语子)Zeromorphreferstoamorphwhichhasmeaningbutnoform.5.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.6.immediateconstituents(直接成分)Aimmediateconstituentisanyoneofthelargestgrammaticalunitsthatconstituteaconstruction.Immediateconstituentsareoftenfurtherreducible.ultimateconstituents(最后成分)Ultimateconstituentsarethosegrammaticallyirreducibleunitsthatconstituteconstructions.7.morphologicalrules(形态学规则)Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.8.word-formationprocess(构词法)Word-formationprocessmeantherule-governedprocessesofformingnewwordsonthebasisofalreadyexistinglinguisticresources.1.★WhatisICAnalysis?ICanalysisistheanalysistoanalyzealinguisticexpression(bothawordandasentence)intoahierarchicallydefinedseriesofconstituents.2.Howaremorphemesclassified?1)Semanticallyspeaking,morphemesaregroupedintotwocategories:rootmorphemesandaffixationalmorphemes.2)Structurallyspeaking,theyaredividedintotwotypes:freemorphemesandboundmorphemes.3.★Explaintheinterrelationsbetweensemanticandstructuralclassificationsofmorphemes.a)Allfreemorphemesarerootsbutnotallrootsarefreemorphemes.b)Allaffixesareboundmorphemes,butnotallboundmorphemesareaffixes.4.What’sthedifferencebetweenanemptymorphandazeromorph?a)Emptymorphmeansamorphthathasformbutnomeaning.b)Zeromorphreferstoamorphthathasmeaningbutnoform.5.Explainthedifferencesbetweeninflectionalandderivationalaffixesintermofbothfunctionandposition.a)Functionally:i.Inflectionalaffixessevertomarkgrammaticalrelationsandnevercreatenewwordswhilederivationalaffixescancreatenewwords.ii.Inflectionalaffixesdonotcauseachangeingrammaticalclasswhilederivationalaffixesveryoftenbutnotalwayscauseachangeingrammaticalclass.b)Intermofposition:i.Inflectionalaffixesaresuffixeswhilederivationalaffixescanbesuffixesorprefixes.ii.Inflectionalaffixesarealwaysafterderivationalaffixesifbotharepresent.Andderivationalaffixesarealwaysbeforeinflectionalsuffixesifbotharepresent.6.Whataremorphologicalrules?Giveatleastfourruleswithexamples.Theprinciplesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedintonewwordsaresaidtobemorphologicalrules.Forexample:a)un-+adj.->adj.b)Adj./n.+-ify->v.c)V.+-able->adj.d)Adj.+-ly->adv.11\n11\nChapter6Syntax句法学1.syntagmaticrelations(横组关系)refertotherelationshipsbetweenconstituentsinaconstruction.paradigmaticrelations(纵聚合关系)refertotherelationsbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.hierarchicalrelations(等级关系)refertorelationshipsbetweenanyclassificationoflinguisticunitswhichrecognizesaseriesofsuccessivelysubordinatelevels.2.ICAnalysis(直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction.labeledICAnalysis(标记法直接成分分析)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstructionandlabeleachconstituent.phrasemarkers(短语标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichmakemajordivisionsatanylevelwithinasyntacticconstruction,andlabeleachconstituentwhileremoveallthelinguisticforms.labeledbracketing(方括号标记法)isakindofgrammaticalanalysis,whichisappliedinrepresentingthehierarchicalstructureofsentencesbyusingbrackets.3.constituency(成分关系)dependency(依存关系)4.surfacestructures(表层结构)referstothementalrepresentationofalinguisticexpression,derivedfromdeepstructurebytransformationalrules.deepstructures(深层结构)deepstructureofalinguisticexpressionisatheoreticalconstructthatseekstounifyseveralrelatedstructures.5.phrasestructurerules(短语结构规则)areawaytodescribeagivenlanguage'ssyntax.Theyareusedtobreakanaturallanguagesentencedownintoitsconstituentparts.6.transformationalrules(转换规则)7.structuralambiguity(结构歧义)1.Whatarethedifferencesbetweensurfacestructureanddeepstructure?Theyaredifferentfromeachotherinfouraspects:1)Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentenceswhiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.2)Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.3)Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences.4)Surfacestructuresarepronounceablebutdeepstructuresarenot.2.IllustratethedifferencesbetweenPSrulesandT-rules.1)PSrulesfrequentlyappliedingeneratingdeepstructures.2)T-rulesareusedtotransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructures.3.What’stheorderofgeneratingsentences?Dowestartwithsurfacestructuresorwithdeepstructures?Howdifferentlyaretheygenerated?Togenerateasentence,wealwaysstartwithitsdeepstructure,andthentransformitintoitscorrespondingsurfacestructure.Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(PSrules)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbytransformationalrules(T-rules).4.What’sthedifferencebetweenacompulsoryconstituentandanoptionalone?Optionalconstituentsmaybepresentorabsentwhilecompulsoryconstituentsmustbepresent.5.Whatarethethreesyntacticrelations?Illustratethemwithexamples.1)Syntagmaticrelations2)Paradigmaticrelations.3)Hierarchicalrelations.11\nChapter7Semantics语义学1.Lexicalsemantics(词汇语义学)isdefinedasthestudyofwordmeaninginlanguage.2.Sense(意义)referstotheinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.3.Reference(所指)meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointherealworld.4.Concept(概念)istheresultofhumancognition,reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.5.Denotation(外延)isdefinedastheconstant,abstract,andbasicmeaningofalinguisticexpressionindependentofcontextandsituation.6.Connotation(内涵)referstotheemotionalassociationswhicharesuggestedby,orarepartofthemeaningof,alinguisticunit.7.Componentialanalysis(成分分析法)isthewaytodecomposethemeaningofawordintoitscomponents.8.Semanticfield(语义场)Thevocabularyofalanguageisnotsimplyalistingofindependentitems,butisorganizedintoareas,withinwhichwordsinterrelateanddefineeachotherinvariousways.Theareasaresemanticfields.9.Hyponymy(上下义关系)referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.10.Synonymy(同义关系)referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.11.Antonymy(反义关系)referstotheoppositenessofmeaning.12.Lexicalambiguity(词汇歧义)13.Polysemy(多义性)referstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.14.Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系)referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.15.Sentencesemantics(句子语义学)referstothestudyofsentencemeaninginlanguage.1.What’sthecriterionofJohnLyonsinclassifyingsemanticsintoitssub-branches?Andhowdoesheclassifysemantics?Intermsofwhetheritfallswithinthescopeoflinguistics,JohnLyonsdistinguishesbetweenlinguisticsemanticsandnon-linguisticsemantics.AccordingJohnLyons,semanticsisoneofthesub-branchesoflinguistics;itisgenerallydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.2.Whataretheessentialfactorsfordeterminingsentencemeaning?1)Object,2)concept,3)symbol,4)user,5)context.3.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetheoryofcomponentialanalysisandthetheoryofsemantictheoryindefiningmeaningofwords?11