语言学讲座8 80页

semantics\nSemanticsisgenerallyconsideredtobethestudyofmeaninginlanguage.WhatisSemantics?\nButthequestionofwhatmeaningreallyisisdifficulttoanswer.Everylinguistscannotagreeamongthemselvesconcerningthisquestion.Whatmakesthemattermorecomplicatedisthatphilosophers,psychologists,andlogiciansallclaimadeepinterestinthestudyofmeaning.Buttheydifferintheirfocusofinterest.\nThisiswhyitisnotsurprisingtofindtenbooksallbearingthetitle“Semantics”buttalkingaboutdifferentthings.Inourdiscussion,wewilllimitourselvestothestudyofmeaningfromalinguisticpointofview.\nSomeViewsonsemantics1)OneoftheoldestviewsistheNamingTheory.\nThenamingtheoryOneoftheoldesttheoryconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.\nWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Meaningaretheobjectswhichthewordsstandfor,referto,ordenote?\nInotherwords,thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenwordsandthingsistherelationshipofnaming.\nWeakpointsofNamingTheories1)Thistheoryseemstoapplyonlytonouns.Nounscanbeconsideredasnamesorlabels.Butverbs,adjectives,andadverbsarenotlabelsofobjects.\n2)evenwithnouns,therewillbeproblems,becausemanynounssuchasunicorn,fairy,ghost,dragonrelatetocreaturesorthingsthatdonotexist.\n对命名论的批评斯特劳森认为：如果词的意义就是词的指称对象，那就意味着人可以从口袋里掏出手帕这个名称的意义。还有别的学者这样批评指称论：我们只能把苹果吃下去，但不能吃它的意义。\n2.ConceptsThistheoryholdsthatwordsandthingsarerelatedthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.ThiscanbebestillustratedbytheSemioticTriangleadvancedbyOgdenandRichards.\nThoughtorReferenceSymbol/FormReferent\nThoughtorReferenceSymbolReferentLinguisticelementssuchaswordsorsentencesTheobject,etc,intheworldofexperienceconcept\nAccordingtothistheory,thereisnodirectlinkbetweensymbolandreferent(betweenlanguageandtheworld).Thelinkisviathoughtorreference,theconceptsofourminds.\nThistheoryraisesanewproblem.Forexample,whatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandconcept?Weakpoints?\nSomescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone---whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.\nTheproblemisthatpeopledon’tactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmind’seyeeverytimetheyutteraword.\n3.ContextandbehaviourismDuringtheperiodroughlyfrom1930to1960,linguistsgavemoreattentiontotheempiricalorobservationalaspectinthestudyofmeaning.\nThistheoryholdsthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context---elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.\nFirth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiodheldtheviewthat“Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”\napieceofpaperadailypaperanexaminationpaperatermpaper\nExamples“Thesealcouldnotbefound”cannotbedeterminedunlessthecontextinwhichisprovided.\nThesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thekingbecameworried.\n4.behaviouristtheoryAccordingtoBloomfield,themeaningofalinguisticformshouldbeviewedas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersit,andtheresponsewhichitcallsforthinthehearer.”\nSrsREventsbeforespeechEventsafterspeechSpeechthefamousaccountofJackandJill\nSrsREventsbeforespeechEventsafterspeechSpeechBloomfieldarguedthatmeaningconsistsintherelationbetweenspeechandthepracticaleventsSandRthatprecedeandfollowit.\nexampleWhenJillseesanappleandwantstohaveit,shehasastimulus,aphysicalone(representedbythecapitalletterS),whichgivesrisetoaverbalresponsetoJill.Forinstance,shemightsay“Iamthirsty.”WhatshesaysresultsinaverbalstimulustoJack(representedbythesmallletters).Thisstimulusleadstoanon-verbalresponsefromJack,suchaspickingtheappleforher.\n5.MentalismThisapproachhasbeenheadedbyChomskysince1960’sMentalistsbelievethatdataneededforthestudyoflanguagecanbesuppliedbydirectresorttointuition.\nTheyarguethatpeopleoftenjudgewhichsentencesaresynonymous,whichsentencesareambiguous,whichsentencesareill-formedorabsurd,basedontheirintuition.\nThereforetheyregardthetaskofsemanticsmainlyasonetoexplainthosedatasuppliedbydirectresorttointuitionbyconstructingtheories\nLexicalMeaningTwoConceptstoUnderstandSenseVsReference\nSenseSenserelatestothecomplexsystemofrelationshipsthatholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves;itisconcernedonlywithintra-linguisticrelations.\nsenseSenseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesoflinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contextualized.SoItisthetheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.\nsow(femalepig)/boar(malepig),ewe(femalesheep)/ram(malesheep),mare/stallionetc.formapatternindicatingameaningrelatedtosex.Pairsofwordscanbeformedintocertainpatternstoindicatesenserelations.\nDuck/duckling,pig/piglet,dog/puppy,lion/cub,etc.formanotherpatternindicatingarelationshipbetweenadultandyoung.\nNarrow/wide,male/female,buy/sell,etc.showadifferentpatternrelatedtoopposition.\nInfact,whenwearetalkingofsenserelations,wearetalkingofsynonymy,antonymy,hyponymy,polysemy,homonymy,etc.\n3.2synonymySynonymyisusedtomean“samenessofmeaning”\nContextplaysanimportantpartindecidingwhetherasetoflexicalitemsissynonymous."Whatanice----offlowers!"Theitems“range,selection,choice,”etc.aresynonymous.\n"His----ofknowledgeisenormous!"Range,breadth,etc.aresynonymous.\nDifferenceinmeaningAmazeandastoundformapairofsynonyms.Bothsuggestgreatwonderorbewildermentinthefaceofsomethingthatseemsimpossibleorhighlyimprobable.\nButtheydifferindegreesofwonderorbewilderment.Amazedenotesdifficultyofbeliefandastoundextremedifficultyofbelief.\nAteacherwasamazedtofindthatalazystudenthadgainedamarkof100inanimportanttest.Awomanmaybeastoundedtolearnthatherdearestfriendhasbeenspreadingmaliciousgossipabouther.\n“Anger,rage,fury,indignationandwrath”aresynonymousindenotingtheemotionalexcitementinducedbyintensedispleasure.\n"Anger",themostgeneralterm,describesmerelytheemotionalreaction;theworditselfsuggestsnodefinitedegreeofintensity,andcarriesnonecessaryimplicationofoutwardmanifestation;\n"toconcealone'sanger","Tomiseasilyarousedtoanger."\n"Rage"oftenimpliesalossofself-control."fury",thestrongestwordinthegroup,suggestsaragesoviolentthatitmayapproachmadness;\nTheinsolenceofthewaitersdrovehimintoarage,andheflunghisplatetothefloorandstalkedoutoftherestaurant.Madwithfury,Johnpoundedhisfistsonthewallandbeathisbreast.\n"Indignation"denotesangerbasedonamoralcondemnationofsomethingfelttobewrongandunfair;e.g.\nAbolitionistsviewedtheinstitutionofslaverywithindignation.Maryexpressedherindignationatbeingunfairlydismissed.\nEnglishisparticularlyrichinsynonymsforthehistoricalreasonthatitsvocabularyhascomefromtwodifferentsources,fromAnglo-SaxonontheonehandandfromFrench,LatinandGreekontheother.\nSinceEnglishisconsideredtobeaGermaniclanguagefromahistoricalpointofview,withAnglo-Saxonasanearlierstageofitsdevelopment,the"Anglo-Saxon"wordsareoftenconsidered"native"whilethosefromFrench,LatinorGreekare“foreign”,“borrowed”fromtheselanguages.\nNativewordsBorrowedwordsAnswerreplyhomelydomesticmightpowerbuypurchasefiddleviolin\nNativewordsBorrowedwordsbrotherlyfraternallybodilycorporalhousemansionheartycordialdriverchauffeur\nNativeFrenchLatinkinglyroyalregaltimeageepochrisemountascendfastfirmsecureTriplets\nnativeFrenchLatinbellystomachabdomenholysacredconsecratedfireflameconflagrationfearterrortrepidationaskquestioninterrogate\nA)dialectalsynonymsSynonymsbelongingtodifferentdialectsofthelanguage\nBritishEnglishAmericanEnglishcoachbusgarageServicestationCarparkparkinglottubesubway\nBritishEnglishAmericanEnglishCallboxTelephoneboothtelephonistoperatorvestundershirtpavementsidewalkpetroleumgasoline\nB)wordsdifferinginstylesorregistersWordshavingthesamecognitivemeaningbuthavingdifferentstylisticmeanings\nPenaltiesforoverduebookswillbestrictlyenforced.(written)Youhavegottopayfinesforoverduebooks.(spoken)\nTheymadeadecisiontoabandontheproject.(formal)Theydecidedtowalkoutontheproject.(informal)\ntochide(literary)toberate(neutral)toscold(neutral)toblame(neutral)totelloff(colloquial)tobawlout(AmE,slang)\nman(neutral)chap(colloquial)fellow(colloquial)bird(colloquial)guy(slang)\ndomicile(veryformal)residence(formal)abode(poetic)home(general)\nsteed(poetic)horse(general)nag(slang)gee-gee(babytalk)\nC)wordsdifferinginemotiveorevaluativemeaning\n"little"and"small"aresynonyms.Butifanyemotionisassociatedwiththedesignation,wemustchoose"little".\n"Asmallboy"isasgoodEnglishas"alittleboy."Yetifyoushouldexclaim"*Poorsmallboy!",thephraseisunidiomatic,becausetheword"small"hasnoaffectivemeaning.\nWhataprettylittlehouse!Thatpoorlittlegirl!(indicatingsympathy)Isn'thealittledevil!(indicatingaffectionateregard).\n...Sheisanicelittlething.(indicatingtendernessorregard,butpossiblypatronage,orafeelingofsuperiority)...."\nappreciativederogativefrugalmiserbraveryfoolhardinessFirmpigheadedstatesmanpoliticianintellectualegghead\nD)collocationally-restrictedsynonymsThesewordscanbeconsideredassynonymsonlywhentheyoccurinconjunctionwithcertainwords.\nrancid,addled,sour,rotten:rancidbaconrancidbutteraddledeggsourmilkrottenbutterandegg\naflockof,aheardof,aschoolof,aprideof:aflockofsheepaheardofcows,aschoolofwhales,aprideoflions\naccuse...of,e.g.Thepolicemenaccusedhisofthearson.charge...with,e.g.Atthemeetinghechargedhisopponentwithevasionofthebasicissues.\nrebuke...for,e.g.Theteacherrebukedthestudentforbeingimpudent.reproach...withorfor,e.g.Hereproachedmewith(orfor)extravagance.\nprettyhandsomegirlboychildmanflowercargardentablecolorovercoatvillageairlinercottagehouse\nsailasmallboatnavigatealinerteacharithmeticinculcatedoctrinescholarlyintelligenceanimalcunning