语言学-名词解释 3页

1.Languageisascientificsystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.Minimalpairsarethewordformswhichdifferfromeachotheronlybyonesound.Inotherwords,whentwodifferentformsreidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring;thetwowordsarecalledminimalpairs.3.Amorphemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitthatcarriesgrammaticaland/orsemanticmeaning.4.IPA:Aphonetictranscriptionisaneconomicalmeansforcapturingsoundsonpaper,thatis,amethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway.Thebest-knownsystem,theInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA),hasbeendevelopingsince1888.5.SLA:secondlanguageacquisitiontorefertotheprocessofacquiringorlearninganadditionallanguageafterthelearnerhasacquiredhisorhermothertongue.6.Linguisticsisthescienceoflanguageforallhumansocieties,andisdefinedasthesystematicstudyoflanguage.7.Diachronicstudy:thedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguage.Linguisticstudyinthe19thcenturywasprimarilyconcernedwiththediachronicdescription.8.Synchronicstudy:thedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageatasinglepointoftime.Thepriorityofsynchronicdescriptionisacharacteristicofmosttwentieth-centurylinguistictheories.9.Syntagmaticrelation:therelationsbetweenunitswhichcombinetoformsequences10.Paradigmaticrelation:oppositionswhichproducedistinctandalternativeterms11.Competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemofabstractformalrelations.Thatistheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.12.Performancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten,thatis,theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.13.Acorpusreferstoacollectionoflinguisticdata,eithercomplicatedaswrittentextsorasatranscriptionofrecordedspeech.14.Aphonetictranscriptionisaneconomicalmeansforcapturingsoundsonpaper,thatis,amethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway.15.Phonemeistheminimumphonemicunitthatisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits.Itisthebasicunitinphonologicalanalysis.16.Soundpatternsrefertothesetofsoundsthatoccurinagivenlanguage,thepermissiblearrangementsofthesesoundsinwords,andtheprocessesforadding,deleting,orchangingsounds.17.Stressisthepronunciationofawordorsyllablewithmoreforcethanthesurroundingwordsorsyllables.18.Pitchisasuprasegmentalqualitywhichextendsoverindividualsegmentsandlongerstretchesofspeech.19.Inflectionreferstotheprocessofaddinganaffixtoawordorchangingitinsomeotherwayaccordingtotherulesofthegrammarofalanguage.20.Proverbsarenormallyintheformofasentence.Aproverbisoftenashortsentencethatpeopleoftenquoteandusetogiveadviceandstatesomegeneralhumanlifeexperienceandproblem.21.Synonymy:wordsorexpressionswiththesameorsimilarmeaningaresaidtobesynonymy.22.Homonymyreferstocaseswherelexemeswiththesamephonologicalormorphologicalshapehavedifferentmeanings.23.aspeechact：Anactionperformedbytheuseofanutterancetocommunicateiscalledaspeechact.24.Dialectreferstoanyregional,socialorethnicvarietyofalanguage.25.Registerreferstothefunctionalvarietyoflanguagethatisdefinedaccordingtoitsuseincontext.Registersvaryaccordingtothethreeparametersofcontext:field,tenorandmode(Halliday,1978).26.Languageplanningreferstoadeliberateattempt,usuallyatthelevelofthestateorgovernmentadministration,toaffectlanguageuseinordertopreventortosolvesomeproblemsofcommunication.27.Hyponymyisusedtorefertoaspecific—generalsemanticrelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.1.Whatisthescopeoflinguistics?Answer:therearesixbranchesoflinguistics.1)Phoneticsisthestudyofhumanspeechsounds.2)Phonologyisthestudyofsoundpatterning.3)Morphologyisthestudyoftheinternalstructuresoftheformofwords.4)Syntaxisthestudyofsentencestructure.5)Semanticsisthestudyofmeaning.6)Pragmaticsstudieshowspeakersuselanguageinwayswhichcannotbepredictedfromlinguisticknowledgealone.2.WhatarethedifferencesbetweenLangueandParole?PleaseanalysisthedistinctionsofLangueandParole.Answer:ThisdistinctionisproposedbySaussureinhisCourseinGeneralLinguistics.Langue:theabstractsystem;acollectivebodyofknowledge;akindofcommonreferencemanual;acquiredbyallmembersofacommunityofspeakers;relativelystableandsystematic.Parole:theparticularactualitiesofindividualutterance;thecontingentexecutivesideofthings;therelativelysuperficialbehavioralreflexesofknowledge;theuseoflanguageinutterances;subjecttopersonalorsituationalconstraints.3.PleasedescribethethreekindsofOriginofLanguage?Answer:1)Creation(DevineOrigin)Almosteveryreligionhasstoriesabouthowmanreceivedlanguagefromgod.Thedivineorigintheoristsproposethatinthebeginningtherewasonelanguagefromonesource,whichlaterbecamecorruptedintomanylanguages.2)Evolution:Menevolvedfromlowerformsoflife;language,too,evolved.3)Invention:Theinventiontheorybelievesthatthereisanaturalconnectionbetweentheformsoflanguageandtheessenceofthings.4.Pleasedescribethesemanticrelationsbriefly.Answer:(1)synonymyandantonymy:Wordsorexpressionswiththesameorsimilarmeaningaresaidtobesynonymous.Antonymyistherelationshipofoppositenessofmeaning.(2)meronymyandhyponymy:Meronymyisatermusedtodescribeapart-wholerelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.Hyponymyisusedtorefertoaspecific—generalsemanticrelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.(3)polysemyandhomonymy:Whenasinglelexemehasseveralmeanings,itiscalledpolysemic.Homonymyreferstocaseswherelexemeswiththesamephonologicalormorphologicalshapehavedifferentmeanings.5.In1967,linguistGriceproposedthetermofthecooperativeprincipleanditsmaxims.Thenpleasedescribethecooperativeprincipleanditsmaxims.Answer:Accordingtocooperativeprinciple,theparticipantsinaconversationnormallycommunicateinamaximallyefficient,rationalandcooperativeway.Theyshouldspeaksincerely,relevantlyandclearly,whileprovidingsufficientinformation.Fourmaxims:(1)ThemaximofqualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue,especially:(i)donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalseand(ii)donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.(2)Themaximofquantity.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequiredforthecurrentpurposesoftheexchangeand(ii)donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(3)Themaximofrelevance.Makeyourcontributionrelevant.(4)Themaximofmanner.Beperspicuous,andspecifically:(i)Avoidobscurityofexpression;(ii)Avoidambiguity;(iii)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)and(iv)Beorderly.6.Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenacquisitionandlanguagelearning?Acquisitioniscalledasthespontaneousinternalizationofrulesandformulas.Firstlanguageacquisitionisalsocalledmothertongueacquisition.Acquisitiontakesplaceinthespeechcommunitywhereone’sfirstlanguageorsecondlanguageisspoken.Itisoftennatural,withoutmuchfocusonform.ThelearningofEnglishbyspeakersofotherlanguagesintheUnitedStatesisanexampleofsecondlanguageacquisition.Foreignlanguagelearningisusuallytakesplaceinthespeechcommunitywhereone’sfirstlanguageisspoken.Itisaconsciousprocessthroughformalschool-likesettingsandrequirestimeforprocessing,forexample,thelearningofEnglishinChina.\n7.Isthelanguagearbitrary?Pleaseanalyzetheconceptofarbitrariness.Answer:LanguageisArbitrarySaussureregardsthelinguisticsignasatwo-sidedpsychologicalentity.Conceptandsound-imagearereplacedbysignified所指andsignifier能指respectively.Arbitrarinessistheresultoftheneedtoexpressandcodeawiderangeofmeanings.Thespeakerofalanguage,basedupontheconventionestablishedinthespeechcommunity,associateslinguisticsignswiththingsandconcepts.Forexample,thereisnoconnectionbetweenthewordtreeandtheplantitsignifies.ItcanequallybecalledshùinChineseandarbreinFrench.8.Whatisregister?Andpleasedescribeitsthreeparameters.Answer:Registerreferstothefunctionalvarietyoflanguagethatisdefinedaccordingtoitsuseincontext.Registersvaryaccordingtothethreeparametersofcontext:field,tenorandmode.(1)Fieldreferstothesocialaction.Itinvolveswhatishappening,thenatureofthesocialactionthatistakingplaceandwhattheparticipantsareengagedin.Fieldisthelinguisticreflectionoftheroleofthelanguageusewithadefinitepurposeinthesituationinwhichatexthasoccurred.(2)Tenorreferstherolestructure.Itinvolves:whoistakingpart,thenatureoftheparticipants,theirstatusandroles,andthetypeofrolerelationshipbetweentheparticipants.(3)Modereferstothelinguisticchannelandtherhetoricalmode.Modereflectstherelationshipofthelanguageusetothemediumoftransmission.(Halliday,1978)9.WhatarethePolitenessPrincipleanditsmaxims?Answer:Leech(1983:132)developsthefacetheoryfurtherandformulatesthepolitenessprinciple.a)Tactmaxim：Minimizecosttoother;Maximizecostofselfb)Generositymaxim：Minimizebenefittoself;Maximizepraiseofotherc)Approbationmaxim：Minimizedispraiseofother;Maximizedispraiseofselfd)Modestymaxim：Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother;Maximizesympathybetweenselfandothere)Agreementmaxim：Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother;Maximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherf)Sympathymaxim:Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother;Maximizesympathybetweenselfandother.10.PleaseanalyzethedistinctionsbetweenFreeandboundmorphemes.Answer:Ifamorphemecanconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,itiscalledafreemorpheme,likeroom,bottle,stand,large.Ifamorphemehasmeaningonlywhenconnectedwithatleastanothermorpheme,itisbound,likeun-inunlucky,andtheplural–sinbags.Aboundmorphemeisalsocalledanaffixinthesensethatitisalwaysaddedtoanothermorpheme.Affixescanbefurtherdividedintoprefixes,suffixesandinfixes.e.g.dis-indisorder;mini-inminibus;en-inensure;-ful,inuseful;-lessincareless;-e-inmenandwomen;-i-inmiceandlice;-ee-infeetandteeth.11.Specifically,whatdotheinflectionalmorphemesincludeinmodernEnglish,andwhatdotheseinflectionalmorphemesindicate?Answer:InflectionalmorphemesincludeinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.Specially,modernEnglishinflectionalmorphemesinclude:-’s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnouns;-(e)s,indicatingthepluralformofnoun;-(e)s,indicatingthesimplepresenttenseofverbssgreeingwithathirdpersonsigularsubject;-ed,indicationgthepasttenseofverbs;-ing,indicatingtheprogressiveaspectofverbs;-er,indicatingthecomparativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs;-est,indicatingthesuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.12.PleaseexplaintheNatureofLanguageasclearlyasyoucan.Answer:Thenatureoflanguagehas6characteristics:1)LanguageisSystematic;2)LanguageisSymbolic;3)LanguageisArbitrary;4)Languageisprimarilyvocal;5)LanguageisHumanSpecific;6)LanguageisUsedforCommunication.13.WhatarethemajordifferencesbetweenSpeechandWriting?Answer:Linguistsregardthespokenlanguagesasprimary,notthewritten.1)Speechispriortowritinghistorically.2)Genetically,childrenalwayslearntospeakbeforetheylearntowrite.Thisisnottodenytheimportanceofwriting:1)Withwriting,messagescanbecarriedthroughspace.2)Withwriting,messagescanbecarriedthroughtime.3)Oralmessagesaresubjecttomisunderstandingdistortion.Everythingconsidered,speechisbelievedtobemorerepresentativeofhumanlanguagethanwriting.Writtenlanguagehasalifeofitsown.Speechhastherestrictionofbothtimeandspace.14.WhatarethemajordifferencesbetweenCompetenceandPerformance?Answer:ThisdistinctionwasproposedbyAmericanlinguistChomskyinthe1950s.Competencereferstotheknowledgethatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemofabstractformalrelations.Thatistheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten,thatis,theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablebuthisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.16.Whatmaylanguagevarietiesinclude?Describethemclearly.Answer:Languagevarietiesmayincludelinguafranca,pidgin,andcreole.(1)Linguafranca通用语------thegeneraltermthatservesasameansofcommunicationbetweendifferentgroupsofspeakers.ItcanbeinternationallyusedlanguagelikeEnglish,orthemothertongueofoneofthegroups.(2)Pidgin洋泾浜------acontactlanguagethatarisesinsituationswherespeakersofdifferentlanguagescannotunderstandeachother’sfirstlanguageornativelanguageand,thus,needtodevelopacommonmeansofcommunication.Linguistically,pidginsarecharacterizedbyalimitedvocabulary,agreateruseofparaphraseandmetaphor,asimplifiedphonologicalsystem,andareducedmorphologyandsyntax.(3)Creole克里奥尔语------creolesareformerpidginswhosefunctionalandgrammaticallimitationsandsimplificationhavebeeneliminatedandwhichnowfunctionasfull-fledged,standardizednativelanguages.\n17.Whatisdialectanditssubdivisionsofalanguage?Answer:Dialectreferstoanyregional,socialorethnicvarietyofalanguage.Alllanguagesspokenbymorethanonesmallhomogeneouscommunityarefoundtoconsistoftwoormoredialects.Dialectsaresubdivisionsofalanguage.1)RegionalDialects---thelanguagevarietyusedinageographicalregion.Whenpeopleareseparatedfromeachothergeographically,dialectaldiversitydevelops.2)SocialDialects---isusedtodescribedifferencesinspeechassociatedwithvarioussocialgroupsorclasses.Whereasregionaldialectsaregeographicallybased,socialdialectsoriginateamongsocialgroupsandarerelatedtoavarietyoffactors.Socialdialectcouldbefurtherdistinguishedbygender,age,ethnicgroup,religion,andclass.3)StandardDialect---referstoaspecialvarietyoflanguagethathasnoconnectionwithaparticularregionorsocialclass.18.Whatareregisterandthethreeparameters?Answer:Registerreferstothefunctionalvarietyoflanguagethatisdefinedaccordingtoitsuseincontext.Registersvaryaccordingtothethreeparametersofcontext:field,tenorandmode(Halliday,1978).(1)Fieldreferstothesocialaction.Itinvolveswhatishappening,thenatureofthesocialactionthatistakingplaceandwhattheparticipantsareengagedin.Fieldisthelinguisticreflectionoftheroleofthelanguageusewithadefinitepurposeinthesituationinwhichatexthasoccurred.(2)Tenorreferstherolestructure.Itinvolves:whoistakingpart,thenatureoftheparticipants,theirstatusandroles,andthetypeofrolerelationshipbetweentheparticipants.(3)Modereferstothelinguisticchannelandtherhetoricalmode.Modereflectstherelationshipofthelanguageusetothemediumoftransmission.15.WhataretheLeech’sSevenTypesofMeaning?Describethemclearly.Answer:AccordingtoLeech(1981),thereexistseventypesofmeaning,fiveofwhichareincludedintheassociativemeaning.(1)Conceptualmeaning:概念意义itiscalled“denotative”or“cognitive”meaning.Thisreferstothedefinitiongiveninthedictionary.Forexample,mancanbedefinedbythecontrastivefeatures[+Human],[+Male],[+Adult],asdistinctfromgirl,whichcanbedefinedas[+Human],[-Male],[-Adult].(2)Associativemeaning:联想意义itreferstothemeaningassociatedwiththeconceptualmeaning,whichcanbefurtherdividedintofollowingfivetypes.(i)Connotativemeaning.内涵意义Thisisthecommunicativevalueattributedtoanexpressionoverandaboveispurelyconceptualmeaning.Forexample,womanwithunappreciablepropertiessuchasfrail,pronetotears,cowardly,irrational,inconstant,aswellasvirtueslikegentle,compassionate,hardworking,sensitive.(ii)Socialmeaning:itisrefersowhatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse,includingvariationslikedialect,time,topic,andstyle.(iii)Affectivemeaning:情感意义itiswhatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writertowardsthelistener/reader/and/orwhatheorsheistalkingabout.E.g.idiotconveysone’sdespiseordescribessth.as“marvelous”toexpressone’spositiveevaluation.(iv)Reflectedmeaning:itisthemeaningwhenweassociateonesenseofanexpressionwithanother.Forexample,theworddearincertaincontextisusedinthesense“expensive”butalsoalludestothesenseof“beloved”.(v)Collocativemeaning搭配意义:Thisreferstowhatiscommunicatedthoughassociationwithwordswhichtendstooccurintheenvironmentofanotherwords.Bothprettyandhandsomecanbeusedtomean“good-looking”butdifferintherangeofnounswithwhichtheycanco-occurorcollocate.Forexample,prettycangowithgirl,woman,flower,garden,color,village,etc.whilehandsomecancollocatewithboy,man,car,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.(3)Thematicmeaning主题意义Thisiswhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.