英语专业语言学 7页

1・Languageisuniquetohumans・Butanimalsalsocommunicatewithoneanother.2.Arbitrariness：Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds・Eg.differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages•（tree,arbre,shu）Butlanguageisnotentirelyarbitrary,eg.Onomatopoeicwords,compoundwords（rumble,crash,bang;glitter,photocopy,…）Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.3.Dualityofstructure：Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerlevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaningless;atthehigherlevelthesesoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaningsuchaswords.4.significanceofdualityfeature：Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsiderablyflexiblethanonewithoutit,becauseafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Thisfeatureenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge・Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.5.Productivity/Creativity：Humanshavetheabilitytoconstmctandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinournativelanguage,includingsentenceswehaveneverheardbefore・Thiscreativityisrule-bound.6.Displacement：Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfarawayplaces.Itcanbeusedtotalkaboutlanguageitself.Thisfeatureprovidesspeakerswithanopportunitytotalkaboutawiderangeofthings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandspace・Animalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation,i.e.，incontactoffood,inpresenceofdanger,orinpain.Oncethedangerorpainisgone,callsstop・7.Culturaltransmission：Languageisnotgeneticallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration.Thedetailsofthelanguagesystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker（thoughhumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis）.Animalcallsystemsarcgeneticallytransmitted,i.e.animalsarebornwiththeabilitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies•8.SaussureandModernLinguistics：Humanshavebeeninterestedinlanguageandgrammarsinceancienttimes・Modemlinguisticsstartedinthe1920s・FerdinandSaussureisregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialfiguresinmodemlinguistics9.ScopeofLinguistics：Phonetics（语音学）-thestudyofhumanspeechsoundsPhonology（音位学）-thestudyofthesystemofspeechsoundsofalanguageMorphology（形态学）-theformationofwordsSyntax（句法"了）arrangementsofwordsinsentencesSemantics（语义学）-thestudyofthemeaningoflanguagePsycholinguistics（心理语言学）-therelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemindSociolinguistics（社会语言学）-therelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety10・Prescriptivevsdescriptive规定与描写：Descriptivelinguisticsaimstodescribeandanalysethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesfor\n"correctandstandard^behaviorinusinglanguage・11.Synchronicvsdiachronic共时与历口寸：Synchroniclinguisticsstudiesalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.Diachroniclinguisticsdescribesalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.\n11.Speechandwriting口语与书而语Speech:spokenlanguageWriting:writtenlanguage12.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguage・13.Langueandparole语言与言语：Langue一theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole一therealizationoflangueinactualuse.14.ImportantDistinctionsinLinguistics重要的概念区分Prescriptivevsdescriptive规定与描写Synchronicvsdiachronic共时与历时Speechandwriting口语与书面语Langueandparole语言与言语15.Linguisticsisdescriptive,notprescriptive（语言学是描写性的,不是规定性的）Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof"correctness^・16.Linguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten语言学认为口语是第一性的，帖面语是第二性的17.Spokenlanguageisprimary.Spokenlanguageprecedesthewrittenlanguageeverywhereintheworld・Mostwritingsystemsarederivedfromvocalsounds・18.Whywaswrittenlanguageoveremphasized:Thepermanenceofwrittenlanguage;Classicaleducation;Difficultyinstudyingspokenlanguage・19.LinguisticsdocsnotforcelanguageintoaLatin-basedframework.（不是所有的语言都口J以纳入拉丁语法的框架）ModernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework:Everylanguagehasasystemofitsownandshouldhaveitsownsystemofgrammar.e.g.wordorderinChineseisveryimportantwhileLatinhasinflection.Somelanguageshavecomplexgenderruleswhileotherlanguagesdon't.20.Processofspeechproductionandperception:Articulatoryphonetics发音语言学Acousticphonectics声学语音学Auditoryphonetics听觉语音学21.SpeechOrgans:Pharyngealcavity咽腔一Glottis声门，Vocalcords声带Oralcavity口腔-Lips,teeth,palate频,tongueNasalcavity鼻腔22.Narrowandbroadtranscriptions:Thephonetictranscriptionwithdiacritics（变音彳3：号）iscallednarrowtranscription.（严式标音）Thephonetictranscriptionwithoutdiacriticsiscalledbroadtranscription,whichisusedgenerallyindictionariesandlanguagetextbooks・（宽式标音）23.Differencebetweenvowelsandconsonants:Vowels:intheproductionofvowels,theairstreammeetsnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenose,orthemouth;Consonants:intheproductionofconsonants,theairstreamissomehowobstructed・24.ClassificationofEnglishconsonants:Placeofarticulation发音部位Mannerofarticulation发音方法Voicing是否浊音25.MannerofArticulation发音方法\n（擦音）（流音）Stops/plosives（塞音/爆破音）FricativesAffricates（塞擦音）LiquidsNasals（鼻音）Glides（音渡）11.Classificationofvowels\n•Thetonguepositionfront;central;back（前,中,后）•Theshapeofthelipsrounded;unrounded（圆唇，非圆唇）•Theopennessofthemouth（J|:,闭）open;close;semi-openandsemi-close•Thelengthofthevowelslong;short（长，短）2&Diphthongs（双丿匸音）Diphthongsareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanothe匚[ci][OU][ai][au][i][io][eo][uo]29.Aminimalpairistwowordsthatdifferinonlyonesoundinthesameposition.（cot-cat,sap-tap,seat-seed）30.Dowecount/p/and/ph/asoneconsonantortwoconsonantsinthelanguage?Wecountthemasthesameconsonant,becausethereplacementofonefortheotherdoesnotmakeanydifferenceinmeaning.31・Whatisaphoneme（音位）？Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue（彳j区别意义的功能）・11isanabstractunit.11isnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphone（音素）inacertainphoneticcontext.Thephoneme/p/isrepresenteddifterentlyin/pit/,/tip/and/spit/.32.Allophone（咅位变体）Thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemearccalleditsallophones・So[p],[ph],[p7]aretheallophonesofthesamephoneme/p/.Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdetenninedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.thechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandomorhaphazard・Inmostcases,itisrulc-govcmcd・33・Phone（音素）Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonesincludephonemesandallophones・34.Phone,phonemeandallophone音素，音位与音位变体Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit,itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue（有区别意义的功能）Thephonesthatrepresentaphonemearecalleditsallophones・35.Determiningphonemesofalanguage:Abasicwaytodetenninethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsrepresentdifferentphonemes・36.Phonemiccontrastandcomplementarydistribution音彳*对立互补分布Phoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways:一Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast,e.g./p/and/b/in[pit],[bit]Iftheyarcallophonesofthesamephoneme,theydonotdistinguishmeaningbutoccurindifferentphoneticenvironment.Theyarcincomplementarydistribution.一e.g.clear[1]anddark[l];[p]and[ph]37.PhoneticsandPhonology语音学与音位学Bothphoneticsandphonologyareconcernedwithspeechsounds・Buttheydiflerintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisgeneral,descriptive,classificatory.Itstudiesspeechsoundsastheyarc・\nPhonologyisinterestedinthesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.34.SomerulesofPhonologySequentialrules（序歹U规贝U））—inwhatwaythephonemesinalanguagecanbecombined.Assimilationrule（同化规则）—nesegmentassimilatesanotherby'copying'afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Deletionrule（省略规贝9）—whenasoundshouldbedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.35.Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段朱F征）——featuresthatrunoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments（thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegment）--Stress,includingwordandsentencestress,distinguishesmeaninginEnglish.一Tone,ThreefrequentlyusedtonesinEnglish:Falltone（降调）一affinnativeRisetone（升调）一interrogative,uncertainFall-risetone（降升调一animpliedmessage—IntonationWhenpitch（音高），stress（重音）andsoundlength（音长）aretiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.36.Tonelanguage（声调语言）Insomelanguagesthepitchesofwordsmakeadifferenceintheirmeaning・Suchlanguagesarecalledtonelanguages・Chineseisatonelanguage,andEnglishisnotatonelanguage・4LMorphemes（（i司索，语•索）一theminimalunitsofmeaning.Somewordsareformedbycombininganumberofdistinctunitsofmeaning・Thebasicelementofmeaningiscalledmorpheme.42.FreemorphemesandBoundmorphemes口hl语素与黏着语素Freemorphemes（H由语素）一morphemesthatarealsoindependentwords.Boundmorphemes（黏着诅•素）一morphemesthathavetoattachtoothermorpheme（s）toformwords.43.DerivationalandInflectionalMorphemes派生语素和屈折语素Derivationalmorphemes一whentheyarcconjoinedtoothermorphemesanewwordisderived.Inflectionalmorphemes——morphemeswhichdonotaddanylexicalmeaning,butwhichrepresenttheconceptoftenseandaspect.（P.36）44.OpenClassesandClosedClasses开放性词类与封闭词类Openclasses—Nouns,Verbs,AdjectivesAdverbs:newwordsarcregularlyaddedtothem.Closedclasses一alltherest:hardlyanynewwordsareaddedinrecenttimes.45・WordformationCompounds（复合词）arewordsfonnedbycombiningtwoorsometimesmorethantwowords.Derivatives（派生i司）arcwordsformedbyaddingaffixestoroots.46・Viewsoflanguagemeaning：—Thenamingtheory命名论Plato（427-347,Greekphilosopher）thinksthatthemeaningofawordistheobjectintheworldthatit'standsfor"or'refersto\（Onlysomeofthenouns\ncanbeexplainedthisway.（nounsthatrefertoactualthingsintheworld）Evenwithnounsthatrefertoactualobjects,thistheoiycomeswithproblems.—Conceptualistview概念主义Therelationshipbetweenwordandthereferentisnotdirect,theyarclinkedthrough"concept"—whatpeoplethinkitis.—Contextualism语•境论Context一meaningisbasedoncontext—Behaviorism彳亍为主义'languageshouldbetreatedasamodeofaction,notaninstrumentofreflection947.Senseandreference涵义与扌旨称义Senseandreferencerefertotworelatedbutverydifferentaspectsofmeaning:Sense一systemofrelationshipsbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves;intra-linguisticrelationsReference——relationshipsbetweenthelinguisticelementsandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience;ultra-linguisticrelations48・SenserelationsbetweenwordsSynonymy同义关系Polysemyandhomonymy多义词同音（或同形）异意Hyponymy上卜•义关系Antonymy反义关系