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英语语言学复习资料一:名词解释1.Language(语言)isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.2.Linguistics(语言学)isgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.3.Generallinguistics(普通/一般语言学)Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.4.Phonetics(语音学)thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.5.Phonology(语音体系)howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication.6.Morphology(形态学)thesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.7.Syntax(句法学)thenthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudiescalledsyntax.8.Semantics(语意学)thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.9.Pragmatics(语用学)whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.10.Phone(音素)isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.11.Phoneme(音位)isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.12.Allophones(音位变体)thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophones.13.IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标)It’sastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.14.Diacritics(变音符)itisasetofsymbolswhichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutthefinerdistinctions.15.broadtranscription(宽式标音)oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly.16.narrowtranscription(严式标音)theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.17.openclasswords(开放类词)InEnglish,openclasswordsarenouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbs.Wecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses.18.closedclasswords(封闭类词)InEnglish,closedclasswordareconjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronouns.Newwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.19.Morpheme(词素)themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.20.boundmorpheme(黏着词素)morphemeswhichoccursonlybeforeother78\nmorphemes.Theycannotbeusedalone.21.freemorpheme(自由词素)itisthemorphemeswhichcanbeusedalone.22.suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.23.Category(范畴)itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.24.Phrases(短语)Syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases.二:简答题1.Threedistinctofphonetics(语音学的三个分支?)Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学;auditoryphonetics听觉语音学;acousticphonetics声光语音学.2.Mainfeaturesoflanguage(语言的主要特征?)Languageisasystem.Languageisarbitrary.Languageisvocal.Languageishuman-specific.3.Synchronicvs.diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别?)Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.4.Speechandwriting(言语与文字的区别?)Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Writtenlanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.5.Whatarethebranchesoflinguisticstudy?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些?)1)sociolinguistics;2)psycholinguistics;3)appliedlinguisticsandsoon.6.Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别?)Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,tendedtoemphasize,maybeover-emphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword.ModernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.7.Prescriptivevs.descriptive(语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么?)Prescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itis78\nsaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,itissaidtobeprescriptive.8.Designfeaturesoflanguage(语言的识别特征?)Arbitrariness随意性,productivity生产性,duality二重性,displacement不受时空限制的特征,culturaltransmission文化传递系统.9.Competenceandperformance(语言能力与语言行为的区别?)Competenceisdefinedastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.10.Organsofspeech(发音器官)Pharyngealcavity—thethroat,oralcavity—themouth,nasalcavity—thenose.11.Word-levelcategories(决定词范畴的三个标准)Todetermineaword’scategory,threecriteriaareusuallyemployed,namelymeaning,inflectionanddistribution.三:问题回答1.Somerulesinphonology(音位学规则)sequentialrules(序列规则);assimilationrule(同化规则);deletionrule(省略规则)。2.Suprasegmentalfeatures(超音段特征)stress(重音);tone(声调);intonation(语调)。3.ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds(英语语音分类)TheclassificationwilldividethespeechsoundsinEnglishinto20vowelsand28consonants.4.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures(短语的范畴和类型)nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),adjectivephrase(AP),prepositionalphrase(PP).5.Morphologicalrulesofwordformation(形态学的规则)Thewayswordsareformedarecalledmorphologicalrules.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.Someofthemorphologicalrulescanbeusedquitefreelytoformnewwords.Theyareproductivemorphologicalrules.Anotherwaytoformnewwordsarecompoundwords,isbystringingwordstogether.1.1.Whatislanguage?“Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(like“book”)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferent“books”:“book”inEnglish,“livre”inFrench,inJapanese,inChinese,“check”inKorean.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforall78\nhumanlanguages,developedor“new”.Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Theterm“human”inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific.1.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage?“Designfeatures”hererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethattellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability1.3.Whatisarbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds(seeI.1).Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree.1.4.Whatisduality?Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.(p.6),languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!).Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthishonor.1.5.Whatisproductivity?Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone’snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(by78\nN.Chomsky).1.6.Whatisdisplacement?“Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatistooccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn’tbebowwowingsorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare.1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission?Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog’sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf’sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage.1.8.Whatisinterchangeability?(1)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay,andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstand,forexample,“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeople(includingme)suggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable.(2)Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecalls,whichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilarhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,alltheneighboringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)is(are0“speaking”andwhichlistening.1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific?Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem(seeI.2-8).Let’s78\nborrowC.F.Hocket’sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals’systems,fromWangGang(1998,p.8).Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.BeatniceandAlanGardnerbroughtupWashoe,afemalechimpanzee,likeahumanchild.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees.Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”inI.7)1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual(see!11-17;seeHUZhuanglinetal.,pp10-13,pp394-396).1.11Whatisthephaticfunction?The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas).Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g.“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)Isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon’tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship.1.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction?The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g.,“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle’s“indirectspeechacttheory”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp271-278)atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.,“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!”1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction?Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabeledastrue(truth)orfalse(falsehood).AccordingtoP.Grice’s“CooperativePrinciple”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp282-283),oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall.78\n1.14.Whatistheinterrogativefunction?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”.Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc.,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.,“I’dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader’s/listener’sanswer.1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction?The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens!”“MyGod!”Sentenceslike“I’msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgmentonthetruthorfalsehoodofstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker’sownattitudes.1.16.Whatistheevocativefunction?The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.,youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That’salsothecasewiththeotherwayround.1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction?Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifathirdYangtzeBridgeoughttobebuiltinWuhan,themayormaysay,“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,andmorethananaveragesocialindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Thejudge’simprisonmentsentence,thepresident’swarorindependencedeclaration,etc.,areperformativesaswell(seeJ.Austin’sspeechActTheory,HuZhuanglin,ecal.pp271-278).1.18.Whatislinguistics?“Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butalsothelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsor78\nshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp20-22)1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience?Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedata,whichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthestudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch.1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics(e.g.HuZhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988).Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography,etymology,etc.1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies?Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudy(synchrony).Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp25-27).1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting?(1)Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary;becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese.(2)Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,78\nmessagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional(causingmisunderstandingormalentendu),whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading.(3)Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore.1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches?Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.It(thelatter)believesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbedescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso.1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?F.DeSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,I.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists.1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance?(1)AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence.(2)Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeaker78\nknowsofhisnativelanguage.(3)Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically.1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehavior?M.A.K.Hallidaymadethesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,inthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential).1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts?Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent(see1.25).Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker’smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefromwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences.1.28.Whatisphonetics?“Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp39-40),speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer’spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear.Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatorphonetics.78\n1.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed?Thevocalorgans(seeFigure1,HuZhuanglinetal.,p41),orspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities.1.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation?Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved.g.Lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabial:[p,b,m];(2)labiodental:[f,v];(3)dental:[,];(4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z];(5)retroflex;(6)palato-alveolar:[,];(7)palatal:[j];(8)velar[k,g,];(9)uvular;(10)glottal:[h].Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthosetwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”.1.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation?The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreamsmaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g];(2)nasal:[m,n,];(3)trill;(4)taporflap;(5)lateral:[l];(6)fricative:[f,v,s,z];(7)approximant:[w,j];(8)affricate:[].1.32.Howdophoneticiansclassifyvowels?Phoneticians,inspiteofthedifficulty,groupvowelsin5types:(1)longandshortvowels,e.g.,[i:,];(4)roundedandunroundvowels,e.g.[,i];(5)pureandglidingvowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing?TheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions.1.34.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage.1.35.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology?78\n(1)“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist.(2)Phonetics,asdiscussedinI.28,isthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone’slanguage.1.36.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone?(1)A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]’s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit].(2)Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.,thedifferent(i.e.,phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]’sintheabovewordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist.1.37.Whatareminimalpairs?Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.,“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp65-66).78\n1.38.Whatisfreevariation?Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g.,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme.1.39.Whatiscomplementarydistribution?Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc.1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule?(1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-“servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[](alveolar)inconceivable-[](velar)input-[‘imput](bilabial)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and“paradigm”,itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling(seeDaiWeidong,pp22-23).1.41.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?“Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence.HuZhuanglinetal.,(p,73)includesstress,lengthandpitchaswhattheysupposetobe“principalsuprasegmentalfeatures”,callingtheconcurrentpatterningof78\nthree“intonation”.DaiWeidong(pp23-25)liststhreealso,buttheyarestress,toneandintonation.1.42.Whatismorphology?“Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology.1.43.Whatisinflection/inflexion?“Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached.1.44.Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph?(1)The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon’twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning.(2)Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc.1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme?A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas‘bed”,“tree”,etc.A“boundmorpheme”isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas“-s”in“beds”,“-al”in“national”andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes).1.46.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix?A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway.A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect.78\nAn“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix).1.47.Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses?InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open–classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall.1.48.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary?“Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.,[itiz‘w](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic);(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”,etc.);(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence).AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords(e.g.,-mats,seldom-?);(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords(seeI.47).Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabtractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.”“Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary.78\n1.49.Whatiscollocation?“Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates.1.segregation[,segri'geiʃən]n.隔离,分离;种族隔离2.institutional[,insti'tju:ʃənəl]adj.制度的;制度上的;学会的3.external[ik'stə:nəl]adj.外部的;表面的;[药]外用的;外国的;外面的n.外部;外观;外面4.tend[tend]vi.趋向,倾向;照料,照顾vt.照料,照管5.participants[]n.参与者(participant的复数形式)6.pedagogical[pedə'gɔdʒikəl]adj.教育学的;教学法的7.elaboration[i,læbə'reiʃən]n.苦心经营,精巧;详细阐述8.auxiliary[ɔ:g'ziljəri]n.助动词;辅助者,辅助物;附属机构adj.辅助的;副的;附加的9.thereby[,ðεə'bai,'ðεəbai]adv.从而,因此;在那附近;在那方面10.hypothesize[hai'pɔθisaiz]vt.假设,假定vi.假设,假定11.directive[di'rektiv,dai-]n.指示;指令adj.指导的;管理的12.generation[,dʒenə'reiʃən]n.一代;产生;一代人;生殖13.substantial[səb'stænʃəl]adj.大量的;实质的;内容充实的n.本质;重要材料14.alternate[ɔ:l'tə:nət,'ɔ:ltə-,'ɔ:ltəneit]vi.交替;轮流vt.使交替;使轮流adj.交替的;轮流的n.替换物15.distinction[dis'tiŋkʃən]n.区别;差别;特性;荣誉、勋章16.essential[i'senʃəl]adj.基本的;必要的;本质的;精华的n.本质;要素;要点;必需品17.notion['nəuʃən]n.概念;见解;打算18.differentiate[,difə'renʃieit]vi.区分,区别vt.区分,区别19.respectively[ri'spektivli]78\nadv.分别地;各自地,独自地20.neutral['nju:trəl]adj.中立的,中性的;中立国的;非彩色的n.中立国;中立者;非彩色;齿轮的空档21.exemplification[ig,zemplifi'keiʃən]n.范例;模范22.evolution[,i:və'lu:ʃən,,ev-]n.演变;进化论;进展23.aspect['æspekt]n.方面;方向;形势;外貌24.native['neitiv]adj.本国的;土著的;天然的;与生俱来的;天赋的n.本地人;土产;当地居民25.masculine['mæskjulin]adj.男性的;阳性的;男子气概的n.男性;阳性,阳性词26.quality['kwɔləti]n.质量,[统计]品质;特性;才能27.reinforcement[,ri:in'fɔ:smənt]n.加固;增援;援军;加强28.unique[ju:'ni:k]adj.独特的,稀罕的;[数]唯一的,独一无二的n.独一无二的人或物29.vastly['va:stli]adv.极大地;广大地;深远地30.irrespective[,iri'spektiv]adj.无关的;不考虑的;不顾的31.perceive[pə'si:v]vt.察觉,感觉;理解;认知vi.感到,感知;认识到32.ignorance['ignərəns]n.无知,愚昧;不知,不懂33.interwine[]v.缠绕34.concerned[kən'sə:nd]adj.有关的;关心的v.关心(concern的过去时和过去分词);与…有关35.inquiry[in'kwaiəri]n.探究;调查;质询36.recognize['rekəgnaiz]vt.认出,识别;承认vi.确认,承认;具结37.subtlety['sʌbtlti]n.微妙;敏锐;精明38.conversation[,kɔnvə'seiʃən]n.交谈;会话;社交39.stir[stə:]n.搅拌;轰动vt.搅拌;激起;惹起vi.搅动;传播;走动40.misplaced[,mɪs'plest]78\nadj.错位的;寄托错的v.错放(misplace的过去式)41.allophone['æləufəun]n.音位变体42.abbreviation[ə,bri:vi'eiʃən]n.缩写;缩写词43.nerve[nə:v]n.神经;勇气;[植]叶脉vt.鼓起勇气44.essentially[i'senʃəli]adv.本质上;本来45.register['redʒistə]vt.登记;注册;记录;挂号邮寄;把…挂号;正式提出vi.登记;注册;挂号n.登记;注册;记录;寄存器;登记簿46.accurately['ækjərɪtli]adv.精确地,准确地47.sequence['si:kwəns]n.[数][计]序列;顺序;续发事件vt.按顺序排好48.introduced[]v.介绍;引进(introduce的过去分词)adj.引进的;引种的49.mediation[,mi:di'eiʃən]n.调解;仲裁;调停50.interact[,intə'rækt]vt.互相影响;互相作用vi.互相影响;互相作用n.幕间剧;幕间休息51.gyrus['dʒaɪrəs]n.[解剖]脑回(形成大脑半球的组织);回转52.coincide[,kəuin'said]vi.一致,符合;同时发生53.gratitude['grætitju:d]n.感谢的心情54.rehearsal[ri'hə:səl]n.排演;预演;练习;训练;叙述55.precisely[pri'saisli]adv.精确地;恰恰56.competent['kɔmpitənt]adj.胜任的;有能力的;能干的;足够的57.paradigm['pærədim]n.范例;词形变化表58.resultative[]adj.表示结果的n.结果短语59.entity['entəti]n.实体;存在;本质60.formulated[]按配方制造61.atypical[,ei'tipikəl,-ik]adj.非典型的;不合规则的78\n62.qualification[,kwɔlifi'keiʃən]n.资格;条件;限制;赋予资格63.diverge[dai'və:dʒ,di-]vi.分歧;偏离;分叉;离题vt.使偏离;使分叉64.estimated['estimetid]adj.估计的;预计的;估算的65.priority[prai'ɔrəti]n.优先;优先权;[数]优先次序;优先考虑的事66.composition[,kɔmpə'ziʃən]n.作文,作曲;[材]构成;合成物67.perspective[pə'spektiv]n.观点;远景;透视图adj.透视的68.devote[di'vəut]vt.致力于;奉献69.materialize[mə'tiəriəlaiz]vt.使具体化,使有形;使突然出现;使重物质而轻精神vi.实现,成形;突然出现70.seemingly['si:miŋli]adv.看来似乎;表面上看来71.spectrum['spektrəm]n.光谱;频谱;范围;余象72.label['leibl]vt.标注;贴标签于n.标签;商标;签条73.display[,dis'plei]n.显示;炫耀vt.显示;表现;陈列vi.[动]作炫耀行为adj.展览的;陈列用的74.code[kəud]n.代码,密码;编码;法典vt.编码;制成法典vi.指定遗传密码75.criticism['krɪtɪsɪzəm]n.批评;考证;苛求76.ghetto['getəu]n.犹太人区;贫民区vt.使集中居住77.utter['ʌtə]vt.发出,表达;发射adj.完全的;彻底的;无条件的78.rural['ruərəl]adj.农村的,乡下的;田园的,有乡村风味的79.virtually['və:tʃuəli]adv.事实上,几乎;实质上80.stutter['stʌtə]vi.结结巴巴地说话n.口吃,结巴vt.结结巴巴地说出81.disorder[dis'ɔ:də]n.混乱;骚乱vt.使失调;扰乱82.deficiency[di'fiʃənsi]n.缺陷,缺点;缺乏;不足的数额78\n83.contradict[kɒntrə'dɪkt]vt.反驳;否定;与…矛盾;与…抵触vi.反驳;否认;发生矛盾84.distinguish[dis'tiŋgwiʃ]vt.区分;辨别;使杰出,使表现突出vi.区别,区分;辨别85.restored[ri'stɔ:d]adj.精力充沛的;精力恢复的v.修复(restore的过去式);恢复健康86.dysgraphia[]n.[医]书写困难;书写障碍87.measure['meʒə]n.测量;措施;程度;尺寸vt.测量;估量;权衡vi.测量;估量88.aristocrat[]n.贵族89.indication[,indi'keiʃən]n.指示,指出;迹象;象征90.contrastive[]adj.对比的91.evidence['evidəns]n.证据,证明;迹象;明显vt.证明92.erroneously[]adv.错误地;不正确93.stimulus['stimjuləs]n.刺激;激励;刺激物94.frozen['frəuzn]adj.冻结的;冷酷的v.结冰(freeze的过去分词);凝固;变得刻板95.perceived[]v.感知;认为(perceive的过去分词);领会adj.感知到的;感观的96.stimuli['stimjulai]n.刺激;剌激物;促进因素(stimulus的复数)97.uvula['ju:vjulə]n.[解剖]悬雍垂;[解剖]小舌98.negation[ni'geiʃən]n.否定,否认;拒绝99.wireless['waiəlis]adj.无线的;无线电的n.无线电vt.用无线电报与…联系;用无线电报发送vi.打无线电报;打无线电话100.gradual['grædʒuəl]adj.逐渐的;平缓的n.弥撒升阶圣歌集101.sequential[si'kwenʃəl]adj.连续的;相继的;有顺序的102.controversy['kɔntrə,və:si]n.争论;论战;辩论103.especially[i'speʃəli]adv.特别;尤其;格外104.generalization[,dʒenərəlai'zeiʃən,-li'z-]78\nn.概括;普遍化;一般化105.predominant[,pri'dɔminənt]adj.主要的;卓越的;支配的;有力的;有影响的106.emphasize['emfəsaiz]vt.强调,着重107.trauma['trɔ:mə;'trau-]n.[外科]创伤(由心理创伤造成精神上的异常);外伤108.subsequence['sʌbsikwəns]n.后继;随后发生的事情109.fissure['fɪʃə]vi.裂开;分裂n.裂缝;裂沟(尤指岩石上的)vt.裂开;分裂110.assertion[ə'sə:ʃən]n.断言,声明;主张,要求;坚持111.theoretical[,θiə'retikəl,,θi:ə-]adj.理论的;理论上的;假设的;推理的112.transformation[,trænsfə'meiʃən,,trænz-,trɑ:n-]n.[遗]转化;转换;改革;变形113.syllable['siləbl]n.音节vt.划分音节vi.按音节发音;讲话114.authorize['ɔ:θəraiz]vt.批准,认可;授权给;委托代替115.entire[in'taiə]adj.全部的,整个的;全体的116.intimacy['intiməsi]n.性行为;亲密;亲昵行为;隐私117.categories[]n.类别(category的复数);分类118.prominent['prɔminənt]adj.突出的,显著的;杰出的;卓越的119.peculiar[pi'kju:ljə]adj.特殊的;独特的;奇怪的;罕见的n.特权;特有财产120.govern['gʌv(ə)n]vt.管理;支配;统治;控制vi.居支配地位;进行统治121.clues[]n.线索,蛛丝马迹(clue的复数)v.提示(clue的第三人称单数);暗示122.involve[in'vɔlv]vt.包含;牵涉;使陷于;潜心于123.convey[kən'vei]vt.传达;运输;让与124.obvious['ɔbviəs]adj.明显的;显著的;平淡无奇的125.norm[nɔ:m]n.规范,基准;定额,分配之工作量126.assault[ə'sɔ:lt]78\nn.攻击;袭击vt.攻击;袭击vi.袭击;动武127.voluntary['vɒlənt(ə)rɪ]adj.自愿的;志愿的;自发的;故意的n.志愿者;自愿行动128.capability[,keipə'biləti]n.才能,能力;性能,容量129.isolate['aɪsəleɪt]vt.使隔离;使孤立;使绝缘n.[生物]隔离种群vi.隔离;孤立adj.隔离的;孤立的130.substituting['sʌbstitju:tiŋ]n.取代;代入v.代替,取代(substitute的现在分词形式)131.occipital[ɒk'sɪpɪtəl]adj.枕骨的,枕部的n.枕骨132.identify[ai'dentifai]vt.确定;识别;使参与;把…看成一样vi.确定;认同;一致133.privacy['praivəsi,'pri-,'prai-]n.隐私;秘密;隐居;隐居处134.embody[im'bɔdi]vt.体现,使具体化;具体表达135.dominant['dɔminənt]adj.显性的;占优势的;支配的,统治的n.显性136.distribution[,distri'bju:ʃən]n.分布;分配137.inadequacy[in'ædikwəsi]n.不适当,不充分;不完全;不十分138.semivowel[]n.半元音(如w,j等);半元音字(如y,ng等)139.criterion[krai'tiəriən]n.(批评判断的)标准;准则;规范;准据140.category['kætigəri]n.种类,分类;[数]范畴141.backcloth[]n.背景幕142.explicitly[ik'splisitli]adv.明确地;明白地143.proof[pru:f]n.证明;证据;校样;考验;验证;试验adj.防…的;不能透入的;证明用的;耐…的vt.试验;校对;使不被穿透144.intrinsically[in'trinsikəli]adv.本质地;内在地;固有地145.fiber['faibə]n.纤维;光纤(等于fibre)146.express[ik'spres]vt.表达;快递adj.明确的;迅速的;专门的n.快车,快递,专使;捷运公司147.acquisition[,ækwi'ziʃən]78\nn.获得物,获得148.analogous[ə'næləgəs]adj.类似的;[昆]同功的;可比拟的149.amytal['æmitæl]n.[药]阿米妥;异戊巴比妥150.bilingualism[]n.能用两种语言151.hierarchy['haiə,rɑ:ki]n.层级;等级制度152.construction[kən'strʌkʃən]n.建设;建筑物;解释;造句153.note[nəut]n.笔记;音符;票据;注解;纸币;便笺;照会;调子vt.注意;记录;注解154.portion['pɔːʃ(ə)n]n.部分;一份;命运vt.分配;给…嫁妆155.collectional[]collection的变形收集,采集;收取收集品,收藏品;(图书馆)藏书,馆藏(教堂礼拜时的)捐款,募捐,施舍物;募集的钱聚集;大量,大堆[用复数][英国英语]时装展览;展示的时装(马的)受衔姿势,正姿势156.criteria[krai'tiəriə]n.标准,条件(criterion的复数)157.focuses[]n.重点(focuse的复数);焦点v.集中(focus的三单形式);使聚焦;调节焦距158.ethical['eθɪk(ə)l]adj.伦理的;道德的;凭处方出售的n.处方药159.subconscious[,sʌb'kɔnʃəs]adj.潜意识的;下意识的n.潜在意识;下意识心理活动160.amenity[ə'mi:nəti,ə'men-]n.舒适;礼仪;愉快;便利设施161.enhancement[in'ha:nsmənt]n.增加;放大162.reserved[ri'zə:vd]adj.保留的,预订的;缄默的,冷淡的;包租的v.保留(reserve的过去分词)163.omission[əu'miʃən]n.疏忽,遗漏;省略;冗长164.focu[]焦点一种奇点165.clue[klu:]n.线索;(故事等的)情节vt.为…提供线索;为…提供情况166.efficiency[i'fiʃənsi]n.效率;效能;功效167.strengthen['streŋθən,'streŋkθən]vt.加强;巩固vi.变强;变坚挺78\n168.literally['litərəli]adv.照字面地;逐字地169.apply[ə'plai]vt.申请;涂,敷;应用vi.申请;涂,敷;适用;请求170.constrain[kən'strein]vt.驱使;强迫;束缚171.formulate['fɔ:mjuleit]vt.规划;用公式表示;明确地表达172.segment['segmənt,seg'ment,'segment]vi.分割n.段;部分vt.分割173.variation[,vεəri'eiʃən]n.变化;[生物]变异,变种174.proverb['prɔvə:b]n.谚语,格言;众所周知的人或事175.axial['æksɪəl]adj.轴的;轴向的176.rare[rεə]adj.稀有的;半熟的;稀薄的adv.非常;极其vi.用后腿站起;渴望177.request[ri'kwest]n.请求;需要vt.要求,请求178.presumption[pri'zʌmpʃən,pri:-]n.放肆,傲慢;推测179.argument['ɑ:gjumənt]n.论证;论据;争吵;内容提要180.restriction[ri'strikʃən]n.限制;约束;束缚181.designated['dezig,neitid]adj.指定的;特指的182.connotative['kɔnəuteitiv]adj.内涵的;隐含的;含蓄的183.mere[miə]adj.仅仅的;只不过的n.小湖;池塘184.scale[skeil]n.规模;比例;鳞;刻度;天平;数值范围vi.衡量;攀登;剥落;生水垢vt.测量;攀登;刮鳞;依比例决定185.illocutionary[]adj.[语言学]言外行为的;言之行言语行为的186.expansion[ik'spænʃən]n.膨胀;阐述;扩张物187.homograph['hɔməugrɑ:f,-græf]n.同形异义字188.randomly['rændəmli]adv.随便地,任意地;无目的,胡乱地;未加计划地189.heyday['heidei]78\nn.全盛期int.嘿!(表喜悦或惊奇等)190.articulation[ɑ:,tikju'leiʃən]n.关节;接合;清晰发音191.automatically[,ɔtə'mætɪkli]adv.自动地;机械地;无意识地adj.不经思索的192.ideology[,aidi'ɔlədʒi,,idi-]n.意识形态;思想意识;观念学193.utterance[]n.表达;说话;说话方式194.develop[di'veləp]vt.开发;进步;使成长;使显影vi.发育;生长;进化;显露195.denial[di'naiəl]n.否认;拒绝;节制;背弃196.derivational[,deri'veiʃənəl]adj.得来的;诱导的197.conjure['kʌndʒə,'kɔn-]vt.想象;念咒召唤;用魔法变出vi.以念咒召唤神灵;施魔法,变魔术198.lexicon['leksikən]n.词典,辞典199.attainment[ə'teinmənt]n.达到;成就;学识200.modify['mɔdifai]vt.修改,修饰;更改vi.修改201.hint[hint]n.暗示;线索vt.暗示;示意vi.示意202.instrument['instrumənt,'instrə-,-ment]n.仪器;工具;乐器;手段;器械203.illuminate[i'lju:mineit]vt.阐明,说明;照亮;使灿烂;用灯装饰vi.照亮204.infancy['infənsi]n.初期;婴儿期;幼年205.naked['neikid]adj.裸体的;无装饰的;无证据的;直率的206.identification[ai,dentifi'keiʃən]n.鉴定,识别;认同;身份证明207.scientific[,saiən'tifik]adj.科学的,系统的208.preoccupation[pri:,ɔkju'peiʃən]n.全神贯注,入神;当务之急;关注的事物;抢先占据;成见209.stem[stem]n.干;茎;船首;血统vt.阻止;除去…的茎;给…装柄vi.阻止;起源于某事物;逆行210.consistent[kən'sistənt]adj.始终如一的,一致的;坚持的78\n211.comprehension[,kɔmpri'henʃən]n.理解;包含212.technique[tek'ni:k]n.技巧,技术;手法213.maintain[mein'tein]vt.维持;继续;维修;主张;供养214.parietal[pə'raɪɪt(ə)l]adj.[解剖]腔壁的;颅顶骨的;(美)学院生活的n.顶骨,头顶骨215.ambiguity[,æmbi'gju:iti]n.含糊;不明确;暧昧;模棱两可的话216.omitted[əu'mitid]adj.省略了的;省去的v.遗漏,省略(omit的过去分词)217.neuro[]n.神经218.evident['evidənt]adj.明显的;明白的219.topography[tə'pɒgrəfɪ]n.地势;地形学;地志220.formerly['fɔ:məli]adv.以前;原来221.illegality[,ili:'gæləti]n.违法;[法]非法行为;犯规222.comprehensive[,kɔmpri'hensiv]adj.综合的;广泛的;有理解力的n.综合学校;专业综合测验223.bundle['bʌnd(ə)l]n.束;捆vt.捆vi.匆忙离开224.quantity['kwɔntəti]n.量,数量;大量;总量225.derive[di'raiv]vt.源于;得自vi.起源226.entirely[in'taiəli]adv.完全地,彻底地227.template['templit]n.模板,样板228.integrate['intigreit,'intigrit,-greit]vt.使…完整;使…成整体;求…的积分;表示…的总和vi.求积分;取消隔离;成为一体adj.整合的;完全的n.一体化;集成体229.static['stætɪk]adj.静态的;静电的;静力的n.静电;静电干扰230.scanning['skæniŋ]n.扫描;搜索,观测;扫掠adj.扫描的;观测的;搜索的;扫掠的v.扫描(scan的现在分词);浏览231.dramatical[drə'mætik,-kəl]adj.剧烈的,戏剧的78\n232.adequate['ædikwit]adj.充足的;适当的;胜任的233.attendance[ə'tendəns]n.出席;到场;出席人数234.absurd[əb'sə:d]adj.荒谬的;可笑的n.荒诞;荒诞作品235.intermediate[,intə'mi:djət,-dieit]vi.起媒介作用adj.中间的,中级的n.[化学]中间物;媒介236.endowment[in'daumənt]n.捐赠;捐助;捐款;天资237.prerequisite['pri:'rekwizit]n.先决条件adj.首要必备的238.conscious['kɔnʃəs]adj.意识到的;故意的;神志清醒的239.articulatory[ɑ:'tikjulətəri]adj.关节的;分节的;发音清晰的240.interactionist[]interactionism的变形【行为学】互相作用说;交相感应说241.monolingual[]adj.单语的;仅用一种语言的;仅懂一种语言的n.只用一种语言的人242.press[pres]vt.压;按;逼迫;紧抱vi.压;逼;重压n.压;按;新闻;出版社;[印刷]印刷机243.complex['kɔmpleks]adj.复杂的;合成的n.复合体;综合设施244.coordination[kəu,ɔ:di'neiʃən]n.协调,调和;对等,同等245.superimpose[,sju:pərim'pəuz]vt.添加;重叠;附加;安装246.substance['sʌbstəns]n.物质;实质;资产;主旨247.designed[di'zaind]adj.有计划的,原意的;故意的v.设计;计划(design的过去分词)248.significant[sig'nifikənt]adj.重大的;有效的;有意义的;值得注意的;意味深长的n.象征;有意义的事物249.relevance['relivəns]n.关联;适当;中肯250.definitely['definitli]adv.清楚地,当然;明确地,肯定地251.sentimental[,senti'mentəl]adj.感伤的;感情脆弱的252.paralysis[pə'rælɪsɪs]n.麻痹;无力;停顿78\n253.coinage['kɔinidʒ]n.造币;[金融]货币制度;新造的字及其语等254.singular['siŋgjulə]adj.单数的;单一的;非凡的;异常的n.单数255.alter['ɔ:ltə]vt.改变,更改vi.改变;修改256.material[mə'tiəriəl]adj.重要的;物质的,实质性的;肉体的n.材料,原料;物资;布料257.exhibit[ig'zibit]vt.展览;显示;提出(证据等)n.展览品;证据;展示会vi.展出;开展览会258.wrinkle['rɪŋk(ə)l]n.皱纹vi.起皱vt.使起皱纹259.corpus['kɔ:pəs]n.[计]语料库;文集;本金260.presence['prezəns]n.存在;出席;参加;风度;仪态261.equally['i:kwəli]adv.同样地;相等地,平等地;公平地262.cognition[kɔg'niʃən]n.认识;知识;认识能力263.elementary[,eli'mentəri]adj.基本的;初级的;[化学]元素的264.reflect[ri'flekt]vt.反映;反射,照出;反省vi.反射,映现;深思265.proportion[prəˈpɔːʃ(ə)n]n.比例;部分;面积;均衡vt.使成比例;使均衡;分摊266.audibly['ɔ:dəbli]adv.可听见地267.auditory['ɔ:ditəri]n.听众;礼堂adj.听觉的;耳朵的268.stylistic[stai'listik]adj.体裁上的;格式上的;文体论的269.presuppose[]vt.假定;预料;以…为先决条件270.emission[ɪ'mɪʃ(ə)n]n.(光、热等的)发射,散发;喷射;发行271.audible['ɔ:dəbl]adj.听得见的272.subsequently['sʌbsikwəntli]adv.随后,其后;后来273.motherese[]n.妈妈语274.proclaim[prəu'kleim]78\nvt.宣告,公布;声明;表明;赞扬275.acoustic[ə'ku:stik]adj.声学的;音响的;听觉的n.原声乐器;不用电传音的乐器276.ignorant['ignərənt]adj.无知的;愚昧的277.aptitude['æptitju:d]n.天资;自然倾向;适宜278.formulation[,fɔ:mju'leiʃən]n.构想,规划;公式化;简洁陈述279.comply[kəm'plai]vi.遵守;顺从,遵从;答应280.deplore[di'plɔ:]vt.谴责;悲悼;哀叹;对…深感遗憾281.repetitive[ri'petətiv]adj.重复的282.mute[mjuːt]adj.哑的;沉默的;无声的vt.减弱……的声音;使……柔和n.哑巴;弱音器;闭锁音283.preeminence[,pri:'eminəns,pri-]n.卓越;杰出284.declaration[,deklə'reiʃən]n.(纳税品等的)申报;宣布;公告;申诉书285.select[si'lekt]vt.挑选;选拔adj.精选的;挑选出来的;极好的vi.挑选n.被挑选者;精萃286.explanation[,eksplə'neiʃən]n.说明,解释;辩解287.distinctness[dɪ'stɪŋktnɪs]n.不同;明显;有特殊性288.friction['frikʃən]n.摩擦,[力]摩擦力289.verifiable['veri,faiəbl]adj.可证实的;能作证的;可检验的290.preliminary[pri'liminəri]n.准备;预赛;初步措施adj.初步的;开始的;预备的291.vary['vεəri]vi.变化;变异;违反vt.改变;使多样化;变奏292.render['rendə]vt.致使;提出;实施;着色;以…回报vi.给予补偿n.打底;交纳;粉刷293.modified['mɔdifaid]adj.改进的,修改的;改良的v.修改;缓和(modify的过去分词)294.whereas[hwεə'æz]conj.然而;鉴于;反之295.failure['feiljə]n.失败;故障;失败者;破产78\n296.elusive[i'lju:siv,-səri]adj.难懂的;易忘的;逃避的;难捉摸的297.summarize['sʌməraiz]vt.总结;概述vi.作总结;作概括298.regulate['regjuleit]vt.调节,规定;控制;校准;有系统的管理299.attempt[ə'tempt]n.企图,试图;攻击vt.企图,试图;尝试300.assimilate[ə'simileit]vt.吸收;使同化;把…比作;使相似vi.吸收;同化301.formality[fɔ:'mæliti]n.礼节;拘谨;仪式;正式手续302.stability[stə'biliti]n.稳定性;坚定,恒心303.figureout[]解决;算出;想出;理解;断定304.angular['æŋgjʊlə]adj.[生物]有角的;生硬的,笨拙的;瘦削的305.autopsy['ɔ:təpsi]n.验尸;[病理][特医]尸体解剖;[病理][特医]尸体剖检306.dental['dentəl]adj.牙科的;牙齿的,牙的n.齿音307.sincerity[sin'serəti,-'siərəti]n.真实,诚挚308.postvocalic[]adj.元音后面的309.caretaker[]n.看管者;看门人;守护者adj.临时代理的310.performance[pə'fɔ:məns]n.性能;绩效;表演;执行311.arose[ə'rəuz]vi.出现(arise的过去式);引发312.formation[fɔ:'meiʃən]n.形成;构造;编队313.beneath[bɪ'niːθ]prep.在…之下adv.在下方314.transmit[trænz'mit,træns-,trɑ:n-]vt.传输;传播;发射;传达;遗传vi.传输;发射信号315.regular['regjulə]adj.定期的;有规律的;合格的;整齐的n.常客;正式队员;中坚分子adv.定期地;经常地316.percentage[pə'sentidʒ]n.百分比;百分率,百分数317.thus[ðʌs]78\nadv.因此;从而;这样;如此conj.因此n.乳香318.imperialism[]n.帝国主义319.coincidence[kəu'insidəns]n.巧合;一致;同时发生320.manipulation[mə,nipju'leiʃən]n.操纵;操作;处理;篡改321.representative[,repri'zentətiv]adj.典型的,有代表性的;代议制的n.代表;典型;众议员322.immediate[i'mi:diət]adj.立即的;直接的;最接近的323.subtract[səb'trækt]vt.减去;扣掉324.complication[,kɔmpli'keiʃən]n.并发症;复杂;复杂化;混乱325.originally[ə'ridʒənəli]adv.最初,起初;本来326.charge[tʃɑ:dʒ]n.费用;电荷;掌管;控告;命令;负载vt.使充电;使承担;指责;装载;对…索费;向…冲去vi.充电;控告;索价;向前冲;记在账上327.regional['ri:dʒənəl]adj.地区的;局部的;整个地区的328.sensory['sens(ə)rɪ]adj.感觉的;知觉的;传递感觉的329.designate['dezigneit,'dezignit,-neit]vt.指定;指派;标出;把…定名为adj.指定的;选定的330.device[di'vais]n.装置;策略;图案331.usage['ju:zidʒ]n.使用;用法;惯例332.clarity['klærəti]n.清楚,明晰;透明333.actual['æktʃuəl]adj.真实的,实际的;现行的,目前的334.pretend[pri'tend,pri:-]vt.假装;假扮;伪称vi.假装;伪称adj.假装的335.assign[ə'sain]vt.分配;指派;[计][数]赋值vi.将财产过户(尤指过户给债权人)336.surface['sə:fis]n.表面;表层;外观adj.表面的,肤浅的vi.浮出水面vt.使浮出水面;使成平面337.articulate[ɑ:'tikjulət,ɑ:'tikjuleit]vt.清晰地发(音);明确有力地表达;用关节连接;使相互连贯vi.发音;清楚地讲话;用关节连接起来adj.发音清晰的;口才好的;有关节的78\n338.imply[im'plai]vt.意味;暗示;隐含339.mechanism['mekənizəm]n.机制;原理,途径;进程;机械装置;技巧340.beyond[bi'jɔnd]prep.超过;越过;那一边;在...较远的一边adv.在远处;在更远处n.远处341.obscurity[əb'skjuriti]n.朦胧;阴暗;晦涩;身份低微;不分明342.labelled[leibəld]adj.贴上标签的v.贴上标签(label的过去式)343.significance[sig'nifikəns]n.意义;重要性;意思344.drive[draiv]vi.开车;猛击;飞跑vt.推动,发动(机器等);驾驶(马车,汽车等);驱赶n.驱动器;驾车;[心理]内驱力,推进力;快车道345.initiate[ɪ'nɪʃɪeɪt]vt.开始,创始;发起;使初步了解n.开始;新加入者,接受初步知识者adj.新加入的;接受初步知识的346.focus['fəukəs]n.焦点;中心;清晰;焦距vt.使集中;使聚焦vi.集中;聚焦;调节焦距347.loyalty['lɔiəlti]n.忠诚;忠心;忠实348.exchange[iks'tʃeindʒ]n.交换;交流;交易所;兑换vt.交换;交易;兑换vi.交换;交易;兑换349.exponent[ik'spəunənt]n.[数]指数;典型;说明者,说明物adj.说明的350.random['rændəm]adj.[数]随机的;任意的;胡乱的n.随意adv.胡乱地351.participant[pɑ:'tisipənt]adj.参与的;有关系的n.参与者;关系者352.syndrome['sɪndrəʊm]n.[临床]综合征;综合症状;并发症状;校验子;并发位353.closure['kləuʒə]n.关闭;终止,结束vt.使终止354.suffice[sə'fais]vt.使满足;足够…用;合格vi.足够;有能力355.appropriateness[]n.适当;适合356.emancipate[i'mænsipeit]vt.解放;释放357.range[reindʒ]n.范围;幅度;排;山脉vi.平行,列为一行;延伸;漫游;射程达到vt.漫游;放牧;使并列;归类于;来回走动358.complexity[kəm'pleksiti]78\nn.复杂,复杂性;复杂错综的事物359.constantly['kɔnstəntli]adv.不断地;时常地360.permeate['pə:mieit]vt.渗透,透过;弥漫vi.弥漫;透入;散布361.copula['kɔpjulə]n.介体;接合部;连系动词362.block[blɒk]n.块;街区;大厦;障碍物vt.阻止;阻塞;限制adj.成批的,大块的;交通堵塞的363.switch[switʃ]vt.转换;用鞭子等抽打vi.转换;抽打;[体]换防n.开关;转换;鞭子364.retrieval[ri'tri:vəl]n.检索;恢复;取回;拯救365.remarkable[ri'mɑ:kəbl]adj.卓越的;非凡的;值得注意的366.circumstance['sə:kəmstəns]n.环境,情况;事件;境遇367.dichotic[daɪ'kɒtɪk]adj.二重听觉的368.homonyms[]n.同形同音异义词;同音异义词(homonym的复数)369.capacity[kə'pæsəti]n.能力;容量;资格,地位;生产力370.commissive[]adj.许诺的371.artery['ɑːtərɪ]n.动脉;干道;主流372.paraphrase['pærəfreiz]n.释义;改述;演释曲vt.改述vi.释义;意译373.homonymy[]n.同音异义374.extreme[ik'stri:m]adj.极端的;极度的;偏激的;尽头的n.极端;末端;最大程度;极端的事物375.principally['prinsəpəli]adv.主要地;大部分376.prestigious[pre'stidʒəs,-'sti:-]adj.有名望的;享有声望的377.palatal['pælətl]n.上颚音adj.腭的;上颚的378.process['prəuses,'prɔ-]vt.处理;加工n.过程,进行;方法,步骤;作用;程序;推移vi.列队前进adj.经过特殊加工(或处理)的379.reptiles['rɛptl]78\nn.爬行动物(reptile的复数);[脊椎]爬行类;爬虫类380.missionary['miʃənəri]adj.传教的;传教士的n.传教士381.underwent[,ʌndə'went]v.经验;遭遇(undergo的过去式)382.injury['indʒəri]n.伤害,损害;受伤处383.concur[kən'kə:]vi.同意;一致;互助384.despite[di'spait]prep.尽管,不管n.轻视;憎恨;侮辱385.cerebellum[,serɪ'beləm]n.[解剖]小脑386.elevate['eliveit]vt.提升;举起;振奋情绪等;提升…的职位387.unintelligible[,ʌnin'telidʒəbl]adj.莫明其妙的;无法了解的388.reflexive[ri'fleksiv]n.反身代词;反身动词adj.反身的;[物]反射的389.migrant['maigrənt]n.候鸟;移居者;随季节迁移的民工adj.移居的;流浪的390.equipped[i'kwipt]v.装备;预备(equip的过去分词);整装391.preserve[pri'zə:v]vt.保存;保护;维持;腌;禁猎n.保护区;禁猎地;加工成的食品392.contrast[kən'trɑ:st,-'træst,'kɔntrɑ:st,-træst]vi.对比;形成对照vt.使对比;使与…对照n.对比;差别;对照物393.spinal['spainəl]adj.脊髓的;脊柱的;针的;脊骨的;尖刺的n.脊椎麻醉394.prolixity[prəu'liksəti]n.冗长;罗嗦395.chief[tʃi:f]n.首领;酋长;主要部分adj.首席的;主要的;主任的adv.主要地;首要地396.counterpart['kauntə,pɑ:t]n.副本;配对物;极相似的人或物397.contradiction[,kɔntrə'dikʃən]n.矛盾;否认;反驳398.status['steitəs,'stæ-]n.地位;状态;情形;重要身分399.mark[mɑ:k]n.标志;马克;符号;痕迹vi.作记号vt.标志;做标记于;打分数400.analogic[]adj.模拟的;类推的;类似的401.hyponymy[]78\nn.(词义之间的)下义关系;上下位关系402.cognitive['kɔgnitiv]adj.认知的,认识的403.telegraphy[ti'legrəfi,tə-]n.电信;电报学404.promulgation[,prɔməl'geiʃən,,prəumʌl-]n.颁布;公布;宣传;普及405.match[mætʃ]vt.使比赛;使相配;敌得过,比得上;相配;与…竞争vi.比赛;匹配;相配,相称;相比n.比赛,竞赛;匹配;对手;火柴406.lexical['leksikəl]adj.词汇的;[语]词典的;词典编纂的407.windpipe['windpaip]n.气管;嗓门408.senior['si:njə]adj.高级的;年长的;地位较高的;年资较深的,资格较老的n.上司;较年长者;毕业班学生409.exposure[ik'spəuʒə]n.暴露;曝光;揭露;陈列410.issue['iʃju:,'isju:]n.问题;流出;期号;发行物vt.发行,发布;发给;放出,排出vi.发行;流出;造成…结果;传下411.slices[]n.切片,切割(slice的复数形式)v.切成薄片(slice的三单形式)412.state[steit]n.国家;州;情形vt.规定;声明;陈述adj.国家的;州的;正式的413.attribute[ə'tribju:t,'ætribju:t]n.属性;特质vt.归属;把…归于414.interfere[,intə'fiə]vi.干涉;妨碍;打扰vt.冲突;介入415.complement['kɔmplimənt]n.补语;余角;补足物vt.补足,补助416.orderly['ɔ:dəli]adj.有秩序的;整齐的;值班的n.勤务兵;传令兵;护理员adv.顺序地;依次地417.adolescent[,ædəu'lesnt]adj.青春期的;未成熟的n.青少年adolescenthealth青少年健康adj.青春期的;未成熟的pubertal,hebeticn.[人类]青少年youths,teener418.dramatic[drə'mætik,-kəl]adj.戏剧的;引人注目的;激动人心的419.ecology[i:'kɔlədʒi]n.生态学;社会生态学420.resort[ri'zɔ:t]n.凭借,手段;度假胜地;常去之地vi.78\n求助,诉诸;常去;采取某手段或方法421.intelligible[in'telidʒəbl]adj.可理解的;明了的;仅能用智力了解的422.apparently[ə'pærəntli]adv.显然地;似乎,表面上423.judiciary[]n.司法部;法官;司法制度adj.司法的;法官的;法院的424.definition[,defi'niʃən]n.定义;[物]清晰度;解说425.degraded[di'greidid]adj.退化的;堕落的;被降级的v.分解(degrade的过去分词);降低…的身份;削减426.interdependence[,intədi'pendəns,-dənsi]n.互相依赖427.potential[pəu'tenʃəl]n.潜能;可能性;[电]电势adj.潜在的;可能的;势的428.metaphor['metəfə]n.暗喻,隐喻;比喻说法429.neuron['njʊərɒn]n.[解剖]神经元,神经单位430.geographical[dʒiə'græfikəl]adj.地理的;地理学的431.decimal['desiməl]adj.小数的;十进位的n.小数432.locutionary[]adj.[语言学]言内行为的;言之说行为的433.deprive[di'praiv]vt.使丧失,剥夺434.address[ə'dres]vt.演说;从事;忙于;写姓名地址;向…致辞n.地址;演讲;致辞;说话的技巧435.dyslexia[dɪs'leksɪə]n.难语症;[医]诵读困难;阅读障碍436.quite[kwait]adv.很;相当;完全437.target['tɑ:git]n.目标;靶子vt.把……作为目标;规定……的指标;瞄准某物438.vividly['vividli]adv.生动地;强烈地439.fundamental[,fʌndə'mentəl]adj.基本的,根本的n.基本原理;基本原则440.fibre['faibə]n.纤维;纤维制品441.performative[pə'fɔ:mətiv]78\nadj.表述行为的n.述行成分,述行语442.reliable[ri'laiəbl]adj.可靠的;可信赖的n.可靠的人443.ebb[eb]n.衰退;退潮;衰落vi.衰退;减少;衰落;潮退444.purity['pjuəriti]n.[化学]纯度;纯洁;纯净;纯粹445.predicate['predikeit]vt.断定为…;使…基于vi.断言,断定n.谓语,述语adj.谓语的;述语的446.presupposition[,pri:sʌpə'ziʃən]n.假定;预想;臆测447.apricot['eiprikɔt]n.杏,杏子;[园艺]杏树;杏黄色adj.杏黄色的448.arithmetic[ə'riθmətik,,æriθ'metik]n.算术,算法449.evaluative[i'væljueitiv]adj.可估价的450.intact[ɪn'tækt]adj.完整的;原封不动的;未受损伤的451.discrimination[dis,krimi'neiʃən]n.歧视;区别,辨别;识别力452.attract[ə'trækt]vt.吸引;引起vi.吸引;有吸引力453.transmission[trænz'miʃən,træns-,trɑ:n-]n.传动装置,[机]变速器;传递;传送;播送454.pragmatic[præg'mætik]adj.实际的;实用主义的;国事的455.voltage['vəʊltɪdʒ;'vɒltɪdʒ]n.[电]电压456.origins[]n.品木宣言(品牌名)457.extroversion[,ekstrəu'və:ʃən]n.[心理]外向性;[医]外翻458.instrumental[,instru'mentəl,,instrə-]adj.乐器的;有帮助的;仪器的,器械的n.器乐曲;工具字,工具格459.antonymy[]n.反义词组;反义现象460.deserve[di'zə:v]vi.应受,应得vt.应受,应得461.superior[sju:'piriə,sju:pə-]adj.上级的;优秀的,出众的;高傲的n.上级,长官;优胜者,高手;长者462.indicate['indikeit]vt.表明;指出;预示;象征463.italicize[]78\nvt.在字下划横线;用斜体字排字;强调vi.用斜体字464.substitutable[]adj.可替换的465.modification[,mɔdifi'keiʃən]n.修改,修正;改变466.interplay['intəplei,,intə'plei,'in-]n.相互影响,相互作用vi.相互影响,相互作用467.domain[dəu'mein]n.领域;域名;产业;地产468.bear[bεə]vi.承受;结果实vt.忍受;具有;支撑n.熊469.monopoly[mə'nɔpəli]n.垄断;垄断者;专卖权470.elicit[i'lisit]vt.抽出,引出;引起471.compliment['kɔmplimənt]n.恭维;称赞;问候;致意;道贺vt.恭维;称赞472.whatsoever[,hwɔtsəu'evə]pron.无论什么473.exceptional[ik'sepʃənəl]adj.异常的,例外的n.超常的学生474.metaphorically[]adv.隐喻地;用比喻475.represent[,repri'zent]vt.代表;表现;描绘;回忆;再赠送vi.代表;提出异议476.insufficient[,insə'fiʃənt]adj.不足的,不充足的n.不足477.possession[pə'zeʃən]n.拥有;财产;领地;自制;着迷478.precede[pri:'si:d,pri-]vt.领先,在…之前;优于,高于vi.领先,在前面479.strung[strʌŋ]v.捆扎,系上(string的过去式和过去分词);收紧480.invariably[in'vɛəriəbli]adv.总是;不变地;一定地481.striking['straikiŋ]adj.显著的,突出的,惊人的;打击的;罢工的v.打(strike的ing形式)482.obligation[,ɔbli'geiʃən]n.义务;职责;债务483.expose[ik'spəuz]vt.揭露,揭发;使曝光;显示484.aspirated['æspəreitid]adj.送气音的v.吸气(aspirate的过去式和过去分词形式);送气发音485.approximately[ə'prɔksimitli]78\nadv.大约,近似地;近于486.capture['kæptʃə]vt.俘获;夺得n.捕获;战利品,俘虏487.consequence['kɔnsi,kwəns]n.结果;重要性;推论488.behaviourist[]n.(英)行为主义者489.grammatical[grə'mætikəl]adj.文法的;符合语法规则的490.cerebrum[]n.[解剖]大脑491.foregoing['fɔ:gəuiŋ]adj.前述的;前面的;在前的v.发生在…之前;走在…之前(forego的ing形式)492.measurement['meʒəmənt]n.测量;[计量]度量;尺寸;量度制493.colloquial[kə'ləukwiəl]adj.白话的;通俗的;口语体的494.semantically[]adv.语义地495.imitation[,imi'teiʃən]n.模仿,仿造;仿制品adj.人造的,仿制的496.comprise[kəm'praiz]vt.包含;由…组成497.tentative['tentətiv]adj.试验性的,暂定的;踌躇的n.假设,试验498.reflection[re'flekʃən]n.反射;沉思;映象499.sensation[sen'seiʃən]n.感觉;轰动;感动500.consensus[kən'sensəs]n.一致;舆论;合意501.former['fɔ:mə]adj.从前的,前者的;前任的n.模型,样板;起形成作用的人502.routine[ru:'ti:n]n.[计]程序;日常工作;例行公事adj.日常的;例行的503.plural['pluərəl]adj.复数的n.复数504.enhance[in'hɑ:ns,-hæns]vt.提高;加强;增加505.emphatic[im'fætik,-kəl]adj.着重的;加强语气的;显著的506.autism['ɔ:tizəm]n.[心理][内科]孤独症;自我中心主义78\n507.hypothesis[hai'pɔθisis]n.假设508.discipline['disiplin]n.学科;纪律;训练;惩罚vt.训练,训导;惩戒509.acculturation[ə,kʌltʃə'reiʃən]n.文化适应;文化移入;文化互渗(不同文化在频繁交流中的互相影响)510.consultative[kən'sʌltətiv]adj.咨询的511.manifestation[,mænife'steiʃən]n.表现;显示;示威运动512.etymology[,eti'mɔlədʒi]n.语源,[语]语源学513.correspondence[,kɔ:ris'pɔndəns]n.通信;一致;相当514.consolidate[kən'sɔlideit]vt.巩固,使固定;联合vi.巩固,加强515.diglossia[]n.使用两种语言或方言;双舌,舌裂516.culinary['kʌlinəri]adj.厨房的;烹调用的517.stimulate['stimjuleit]vt.刺激;鼓舞,激励vi.起刺激作用;起促进作用518.capable['keipəbl]adj.能干的,能胜任的;有才华的519.velum['vi:ləm]n.[生物]缘膜;菌膜;软腭520.shed[ʃed]vt.流出;摆脱;散发;倾吐vi.流出;脱落;散布n.小屋,棚;分水岭521.racial['reiʃəl]adj.种族的;人种的522.privilege['privilidʒ]n.特权;优待;基本权利vt.给与…特权;特免523.assumption[ə'sʌmpʃən]n.假定;设想;担任;采取524.approach[ə'prəutʃ]n.方法;途径;接近vt.接近;着手处理vi.靠近525.accompany[ə'kʌmpəni]vt.陪伴,伴随;伴奏vi.伴奏,伴唱526.observant[əb'zə:vənt]adj.善于观察的;机警的;严格遵守的527.respiration[,respə'reiʃən]n.呼吸;呼吸作用528.scorn[skɔ:n]n.轻蔑;嘲笑;藐视的对象vt.轻蔑;藐视;不屑做vi.表示轻蔑;表示鄙视78\n529.denotative[di'nəutətiv,'di:nəuteitiv]adj.外延的;指示的530.idiom['idiəm]n.成语,习语;土话531.concern[kən'sə:n]vt.涉及,关系到;使担心n.关系;关心;关心的事532.court[kɔ:t]n.法院;球场;朝廷;奉承vt.招致(失败、危险等);向…献殷勤;设法获得vi.求爱533.ultimate['ʌltimət]adj.最终的;极限的;根本的n.终极;根本;基本原则534.impose[im'pəuz]vi.利用;欺骗;施加影响vt.强加;征税;以…欺骗535.impairment[im'pɛəmənt]n.损伤,损害536.integral['intigrəl]adj.积分的;完整的,整体的n.积分;部分;完整537.activate['æktɪveɪt]vt.刺激;使活动;使活泼;使产生放射性vi.激活;有活力538.inclusive[in'klu:siv]adj.包括的,包含的539.barrier['bæriə]n.障碍物,屏障;界线vt.把…关入栅栏540.spiritual['spiritjuəl,-tʃuəl]n.圣歌(尤指美国南部黑人的)adj.精神的,心灵的541.apparatus[,æpə'reitəs]n.装置,设备;仪器;器官542.approximate[ə'prɔksimit]vt.近似;使…接近;粗略估计vi.接近于;近似于adj.[数]近似的;大概的543.import[im'pɔ:t,'impɔ:t]n.进口,进口货;输入;意思,含义;重要性vt.输入,进口;含…的意思vi.输入,进口544.synthesis['sinθisis]n.综合,[化学]合成;综合体545.central['sentrəl]adj.中心的;主要的;中枢的n.电话总机546.frustration[frʌs'treiʃən]n.挫折547.limit['limit]n.限制;限度;界线vt.限制;限定548.duality[dju:'æləti]n.二元性;[物]二象性549.novelty['nɔvəlti]n.新奇;新奇的事物;新颖小巧而廉价的物品78\n550.threaten['θretən]vt.威胁;恐吓;预示vi.威胁;可能来临551.collocation[,kɔləu'keiʃən]n.搭配;配置;排列552.committee[kə'miti]n.委员会553.delay[di'lei]vi.延期;耽搁vt.延期;耽搁n.延期;耽搁;被耽搁或推迟的时间554.converge[kən'və:dʒ]vi.聚合;集中于一点vt.会聚;使聚集;使向一点会合555.gap[gæp]n.间隙;缺口;空白vi.裂开vt.使成缺口556.expert['ekspə:t,ek'spə:t]adj.熟练的;内行的;老练的n.专家;行家;能手vt.当专家;在…中当行家557.affective[ə'fektiv]adj.情感的;表达感情的558.gradually['grædjuəli]adv.逐步地;渐渐地559.merge[mə:dʒ]vt.合并;使合并;吞没vi.合并;融合560.sulcus['sʌlkəs]n.[动]沟,槽;裂缝561.manifest['mænifest]vt.证明,表明;显示vi.显示,出现n.载货单,货单;旅客名单adj.显然的,明显的;明白的562.lesion['li:ʒən]n.损害;身体上的伤害;机能障碍563.constraint[kən'streint]n.[数]约束;局促,态度不自然;强制564.proficiency[prəu'fiʃənsi]n.精通,熟练565.suffices[]vt.使满足;足够…用;合格vi.足够;有能力566.phonetics[fəu'netiks]n.发音学,语音学567.interpretation[in,tə:pri'teiʃən]n.解释;翻译;演出568.aphasia[]n.失语症(形容词aphasic)569.sessions['sɛʃəns]n.塞申斯(姓氏)570.appreciation[əpriːʃɪ'eɪʃ(ə)n;-sɪ-]n.欣赏,鉴别;增值;感谢571.simultaneous[,siməl'teiniəs]78\nadj.同时的;联立的;同时发生的n.同时译员572.subsequent['sʌbsɪkw(ə)nt]adj.后来的,随后的573.inaccurate[in'ækjurət]adj.错误的574.prejudice['predʒudis]n.偏见;侵害vt.损害;使有偏见575.ideal[ai'diəl]adj.理想的;完美的;想象的;不切实际的n.理想;典范576.illustrate['iləstreit]vt.阐明,举例说明;图解vi.举例577.extension[ik'stenʃən]n.延长;延期;扩大;伸展;电话分机578.piecemeal[]adv.零碎地;逐个地adj.零碎的;逐渐的n.片;块vt.粉碎579.route[ru:t,raut]vt.按某路线发送n.路线;航线;通道580.item['aitəm]n.条款,项目;一则581.attached[ə'tætʃt]adj.附加的;依恋的,充满爱心的v.附上(attach的过去分词)582.account[ə'kaunt]n.[会计]账户;解释;[会计]账目,账单;理由vi.解释;导致;报账vt.认为;把…视为583.puff[pʌf]vt.喷出,张开;使膨胀;夸张;使骄傲自满vi.膨胀;张开;鼓吹;夸张n.粉扑;泡芙;蓬松;一阵喷烟;肿块;吹嘘,宣传广告584.resemblance[ri'zembləns]n.相似;相似之处;相似物;肖像585.interpretative[ɪn'tɜːprɪtətɪv]adj.解释的;作为说明的586.reveal[ri'vi:l]vt.显示;透露;揭露;泄露n.揭露;暴露;门侧,窗侧587.individual[,indi'vidjuəl,-dʒəl]adj.个人的;个别的;独特的n.个人,个体588.integrity[in'tegrəti]n.完整;正直;诚实;廉正589.perlocutionary[]adj.言语表达效果的;语效性的590.subtle['sʌtl]adj.微妙的;精细的;敏感的;狡猾的;稀薄的591.level['levəl]n.水平;标准;水平面adj.水平的;平坦的;同高的vi.瞄准;拉平;变得平坦vt.使同等;对准;弄平78\n592.faulty['fɔ:lti]adj.有错误的;有缺点的593.underlying[,ʌndə'laiiŋ]adj.潜在的;根本的;在下面的;优先的v.放在…的下面;为…的基础;优先于(underlie的ing形式)594.contexts[]n.环境,上下文(context复数)595.investigation[in,vesti'geiʃən]n.调查;调查研究596.competence['kɔmpitəns]n.能力,胜任;权限;作证能力;足以过舒适生活的收入597.appropriate[ə'prəuprieit,ə'prəupriət]adj.适当的vt.占用;拨出598.humility[hju:'miləti]n.谦卑,谦逊599.surgically['sə:dʒikəli]adv.如外科手术般地600.revolve[ri'vɔlv,-'vɔ:lv]vi.旋转;循环出现;反复考虑vt.使…旋转;使…循环;反复考虑n.旋转;循环;旋转舞台601.correlation[,kɔ:ri'leiʃən]n.[数]相关,关联;相互关系602.statement['steitmənt]n.声明;陈述,叙述;报表,清单603.operate['ɔpəreit]vi.运转;动手术;起作用vt.操作;经营;引起;对…开刀604.release[ri'li:s]vt.释放;发射;让与;允许发表n.释放;发布;让与605.commonly['kɔmənli]adv.一般地;通常地;普通地606.virtue['və:tju:]n.美德;优点;贞操;功效607.focal['fəukəl]adj.焦点的,在焦点上的;灶的,病灶的608.equivalent[i'kwivələnt]adj.等价的,相等的;同意义的n.等价物,相等物609.accomplish[ə'kʌmpliʃ,ə'kɔm-]vt.完成;实现;达到610.concept['kɔnsept]n.观念,概念611.insight['insait]n.洞察力;洞悉612.drift[drift]n.漂流,漂移;趋势;漂流物vi.漂流,漂移;漂泊vt.78\n使…漂流;使…受风吹积613.stage[steidʒ]n.阶段;舞台;戏剧;驿站vt.举行;上演;筹划vi.举行;适于上演;乘驿车旅行614.prestige[pre'sti:ʒ,-'sti:dʒ,'prestidʒ]n.威望,声望;声誉615.ordinate['ɔ:dinət,-neit]n.纵座标;纵线616.jealously['dʒeləsli]adv.妒忌地;猜疑地617.mutually['mju:tʃuəli,-tjuəli]adv.互相地;互助618.extent[ik'stent]n.程度;范围;长度619.larynx['læriŋks]n.[解剖]喉;喉头620.anomalous[ə'nɔmələs]adj.异常的;不规则的;不恰当的621.haphazard[,hæp'hæzəd,'hæphæzəd]adj.偶然的;随便的;无计划的n.偶然;偶然事件adv.偶然地;随意地622.retention[ri'tenʃən]n.保留;扣留,滞留;记忆力;闭尿623.bilingual[bai'liŋgwəl]adj.双语的n.通两种语言的人624.receive[ri'si:v]vt.收到;接待;接纳vi.接收625.customary['kʌstə,məri]adj.习惯的;通常的n.习惯法汇编626.evolve[i'vɔlv]vt.发展,进化;进化;使逐步形成;推断出vi.发展,进展;进化;逐步形成627.acronym['ækrəunim]n.首字母缩略词628.declining[di'klainiŋ]adj.下滑的;衰退的;倾斜的v.下降;衰退;婉谢(decline的ing形式)629.asterisk['æstərisk]n.星号vt.注上星号;用星号标出630.esteem[i'sti:m]vt.尊敬;认为;考虑;估价n.尊重;尊敬631.rear[rɪə]vt.培养;树立;栽种vi.暴跳;高耸adv.向后;在后面adj.后方的;后面的;背面的n.后面;屁股;后方部队632.agency['eidʒənsi]n.代理,中介;代理处,经销处633.adequately['ædikwitli]78\nadv.充分地;足够地;适当地634.duration[djuə'reiʃən]n.持续635.removed[ri'mu:vd]adj.远离的;隔了...代的v.remove的变形636.sophistication[sə,fisti'keiʃən]n.复杂;诡辩;老于世故;有教养637.occupy['ɔkjupai]vt.占据,占领;居住;使忙碌638.interation[]n.交互图标,交互影响639.constitute['kɔnstitju:t]vt.组成,构成;建立;任命640.divergence[dai'və:dʒəns,di-]n.分歧641.animate['ænimeit,'ænimət]vt.使有生气;使活泼;鼓舞;推动adj.有生命的642.retardation[,ri:tɑ:'deiʃən]n.阻滞;迟延;妨碍643.advisable[əd'vaizəbl]adj.明智的,可取的,适当的644.dot[dɔt]n.点,圆点;嫁妆vi.打上点vt.加小点于645.associate[ə'səuʃieit,ə'səuʃiət,-eit]vi.交往;结交n.同事,伙伴;关联的事物vt.联想;使联合;使发生联系adj.副的;联合的646.pride[praid]n.自豪;骄傲;自尊心vt.使得意,以…自豪vi.自豪647.phenomenon[fi'nɔminən,fə-]n.现象;奇迹;杰出的人才648.imperative[im'perətiv]adj.必要的,势在必行的;命令的;紧急的n.需要;命令;祈使语气;规则649.causative[]adj.成为原因的;惹起…的n.使役动词650.iconic[ai'kɔnik]adj.图标的,形象的651.resistance[ri'zistəns]n.阻力;电阻;抵抗;反抗;抵抗力652.compose[kəm'pəuz]vt.构成;写作;使平静;排…的版vi.组成;作曲;排字653.option['ɔpʃən]n.[计]选项;选择权;买卖的特权654.attain[ə'tein]vt.达到,实现;获得;到达vi.达到;获得;到达n.成就78\n655.serve[sə:v]vt.招待,供应;为…服务;对…有用;可作…用vi.服役,服务;适合,足够;发球;招待,侍候n.发球,轮到发球656.disturbance[di'stə:bəns]n.干扰;骚乱;忧虑657.instinct['instiŋkt]n.本能,直觉;天性adj.充满着的658.terminology[,tə:mi'nɔlədʒi]n.术语,术语学;用辞659.pharynx['færiŋks]n.[解剖]咽660.available[ə'veiləbl]adj.有效的,可得的;可利用的;空闲的661.loan[ləun]n.贷款;借款vi.借出vt.借;借给662.declare[di'klεə]vt.宣布,声明;断言,宣称vi.声明,宣布663.investigate[in'vestigeit]v.调查;研究664.content['kɔntent]n.内容,目录;满足;容量adj.满意的vt.使满足665.biologically[baiə'lɔdʒikli]adv.生物学上,生物学地666.callosum[ka:'ləusəm]n.胼胝体667.specifying['spesifaiiŋ]n.说明v.指定;具体说明(specify的ing形式)668.sameness['seimnis]n.相同;千篇一律;单调669.collection[kə'lekʃən]n.采集,聚集;[税收]征收;收藏品;募捐670.metaphorical[,metə'fɔrik-'fɔ:,-kəl]adj.比喻性的,隐喻性的671.estimate['estimeit]vi.估计,估价n.估计,估价;判断,看法vt.估计,估量;判断,评价672.implicature[im'plikətʃə]n.含意;蕴意673.critical['kritikəl]adj.鉴定的;[核]临界的;批评的,爱挑剔的;危险的;决定性的;评论的674.document['dɔkjumənt,'dɔkjument]n.文件,公文;[计]文档;证件vt.用文件证明675.figure['figə]n.数字;人物;图形;价格;(人的)体形;画像vi.计算;出现;扮演角色vt.计算;认为;描绘;象征78\n676.fierce[fiəs]adj.凶猛的;猛烈的;暴躁的677.naturalized[]adj.归化的;入籍的;[动]自然化的;驯化的v.使自然化;接受…入国籍;采纳(naturalize的过去式和过去分词)678.possess[pə'zes]vt.控制;使掌握;持有;迷住679.assess[ə'ses]vt.评定;估价;对…征税680.civil['sivəl]adj.公民的;民间的;文职的;有礼貌的;根据民法的681.intrinsic[in'trinsik,-kəl]adj.本质的,固有的682.discourse['diskɔ:s,dis'kɔ:s]n.论述;谈话;演讲vi.演说;谈论;讲述vt.说出;演奏出683.extremely[ɪk'strimli]adv.非常,极其;极端地684.facilitate[fə'siliteit]vt.促进;帮助;使容易685.previous['pri:vjəs]adj.以前的;早先的;过早的adv.在先;在…以前686.plausible['plɔ:zəble]adj.貌似可信的,花言巧语的;貌似真实的,貌似有理的687.eventually[i'ventʃuəli]adv.最后,终于688.selection[si'lekʃən]n.选择,挑选;选集;精选品689.employ[im'plɔi]vt.使用,采用;雇用;使忙于,使从事于n.使用;雇用690.pattern['pætən]n.模式;图案;样品vt.模仿;以图案装饰vi.形成图案691.string[striŋ]n.线,细绳;一串,一行vt.扎,缚;使排成一列,串起;伸展,拉直vi.连成一串;排成一列692.reinforce[,ri:in'fɔ:s]vt.加强,加固;强化;补充vi.求援;得到增援;给予更多的支持n.加强;加固物;加固材料693.confirm[kən'fə:m]vt.确认;确定;证实;批准;使巩固694.respect[ri'spekt]n.尊敬,尊重;方面;敬意vt.尊敬,尊重;遵守695.minor['mainə]adj.未成年的;次要的;较小的;小调的;二流的n.未成年人;小调;副修科目vi.副修78\n696.simplification[,simplifi'keiʃən]n.简单化;单纯化697.encounter[in'kauntə]vt.遭遇,邂逅;遇到n.遭遇,偶然碰见vi.遭遇;偶然相遇698.abrupt[ə'brʌpt]adj.生硬的;突然的;唐突的;陡峭的699.affected[ə'fektid]adj.受到影响的;做作的;假装的vt.影响;假装;使…感动(affect的过去式和过去分词)700.hemisphere['hemi,sfiə]n.半球701.fundamentally[,fʌndə'mentli]adv.根本地,从根本上;基础地702.conservative[kən'sə:vətiv]adj.保守的n.保守派,守旧者703.expand[ik'spænd]vt.扩张;使膨胀;详述vi.发展;张开,展开704.gender['dʒendə]n.性;性别;性交vt.生(过去式gendered,过去分词gendered,现在分词gendering,第三人称单数genders,形容词genderless)705.instance['instəns]n.实例;情况;建议vt.举...为例706.signify['signifai]vt.表示;意味;预示vi.有重要性;要紧;冒充内行707.presupposes[]vt.假定;预料;以…为先决条件708.demonstrate['demənstreit]vt.证明;展示;论证vi.示威709.association[ə,səusi'eiʃən,ə,səuʃi'ei-]n.协会,联盟,社团;联合;联想710.spontaneously[spɔn'teniəsli]adv.自发地;自然地;不由自主地711.alternative[ɔ:l'tə:nətiv]adj.供选择的;选择性的;交替的n.二中择一;供替代的选择712.reduce[ri'dju:s,-'du:s]vt.减少;降低;使处于;把…分解vi.减少;缩小;归纳为713.consciously['kɔnʃəsli]adv.自觉地;有意识地714.comparative[kəm'pærətiv]adj.比较的;相当的n.比较级;对手715.enormously[]adv.巨大地,庞大地;非常地,在极大程度上716.passive['pæsiv]adj.被动的,消极的;被动语态的n.被动语态78\n717.previously['pri:vju:sli]adv.以前;预先;仓促地718.irregular[i'regjulə]n.不规则物;不合规格的产品adj.不规则的;无规律的;非正规的;不合法的719.empirical[]adj.经验主义的,完全根据经验的720.disciplinary['disiplinəri,disi'plinəri]adj.规律的;训练的;训诫的721.subsection['sʌb,sekʃən,sʌb's-]n.分段,分部;细分;小部分722.perception[pə'sepʃən]n.知觉;[生理]感觉;看法;洞察力;获取723.interpret[in'tə:prit]vt.说明;口译vi.解释;翻译724.elaborate[i'læbərət,i'læbəreit]adj.精心制作的;详尽的;煞费苦心的vt.精心制作;详细阐述;从简单成分合成(复杂有机物)vi.详细描述;变复杂725.companion[kəm'pænjən]n.同伴;朋友;指南;手册vt.陪伴726.definite['definit]adj.一定的;确切的727.constative[kən'steitiv]adj.表命令、计划、愿望等之假定的728.instruction[in'strʌkʃən]n.指令,命令;指示;教导;用法说明729.severe[si'viə]adj.严峻的;严厉的;剧烈的;苛刻的730.accent['æksənt,æk'sent]n.口音;重音;强调;特点;重音符号vt.强调;重读;带…口音讲话731.ethnic['eθnik]adj.种族的;人种的732.cerebral['serɪbr(ə)l;sə'riːbr(ə)l]adj.大脑的,脑的733.crucial['kru:ʃəl]adj.重要的;决定性的;定局的;决断的734.sincere[sin'siə]adj.真诚的;诚挚的;真实的735.expanding[ik'spændiŋ]adj.扩大的;扩展的v.扩大,扩展(expand的现在分词形式);使膨胀,详述736.variety[və'raiəti]n.多样;种类;杂耍737.analogy[ə'nælədʒi]n.类比;类推;类似738.subsystem['sʌb,sistəm,sʌb's-]78\nn.子系统;次要系统739.praise[preiz]n.赞扬;称赞;荣耀;崇拜vt.赞美,歌颂;表扬vi.赞美;赞扬740.claim[kleim]vi.提出要求vt.要求;声称;需要;认领n.要求;声称;索赔;断言;值得741.halt[hɔːlt]vi.停止;立定;踌躇,犹豫n.停止;立定;休息vt.使停止;使立定742.brief[bri:f]adj.简短的,简洁的;短暂的,草率的n.摘要,简报;概要,诉书vt.简报,摘要;作…的提要743.chunk[tʃʌŋk]n.大块;矮胖的人或物744.examine[ig'zæmin]vt.检查;调查;检测;考试vi.检查;调查745.generalize['dʒenərəlaiz]vt.概括;推广;使...一般化vi.形成概念746.acquaintance[ə'kweintəns]n.熟人;相识;了解;知道747.tempo['tempəu]n.速度,发展速度;拍子748.technical['teknikəl]adj.工艺的,科技的;技术上的;专门的749.maintaining[mein'teiniŋ]n.维护;保养v.维持;保养(maintain的ing形式)750.prototype['prəutətaip]n.原型;标准,模范751.whether['weðə]conj.是否;不论752.distinct[dis'tiŋkt]adj.明显的;独特的;清楚的;有区别的753.course[kɔ:s]n.过程;进程;道路;一道菜vt.追赶;跑过vi.指引航线;快跑754.simultaneously[saiməl'teiniəsli]adv.同时地755.utterances[]n.表达;说话;说话方式756.propose[prəu'pəuz]vt.建议;打算,计划;求婚vi.建议;求婚;打算757.initial[i'niʃəl]adj.最初的;字首的vt.用姓名的首字母签名n.词首大写字母758.intimate['intimət]adj.亲密的;私人的;精通的;有性关系的n.知己;至交vt.暗示;通知;宣布759.undergo[,ʌndə'gəu]78\nvt.经历,经受;忍受[过去式underwent过去分词undergone现在分词undergoing]760.clarify['klærifai]vt.澄清;阐明vi.得到澄清;变得明晰;得到净化761.idiomatic[,idiə'mætik]adj.惯用的;符合语言习惯的;通顺的762.false[fɔ:ls]adj.错误的;虚伪的;伪造的adv.欺诈地763.affiliation[ə,fili'eiʃən]n.友好关系;加入;联盟;从属关系764.cohesion[kəu'hi:ʒən]n.凝聚;结合;[力]内聚力765.grasp[grɑ:sp,græsp]n.抓住;理解;控制vt.抓住;领会vi.抓766.plus[plʌs]n.正号,加号;好处;附加额adj.正的;附加的prep.加,加上767.form[fɔ:m]n.形式,形状;形态,外形;方式;表格vt.构成,组成;排列,组织;产生,塑造vi.形成,构成;排列768.exhausted[ig'zɔ:stid]adj.疲惫的;耗尽的v.耗尽;用尽;使…精疲力尽(exhaust的过去式)769.phonic['fəunik,'fɔ-]adj.有声的,浊音的;声音的,语音的;声学的770.interaction[,intər'ækʃən]n.相互作用;[数]交互作用771.concrete[kən'kri:t,'kɔnkri:t]adj.混凝土的;实在的,具体的;有形的vi.凝结vt.使凝固;用混凝土修筑n.具体物;凝结物772.violate['vaiəleit]vt.违反;侵犯,妨碍;亵渎773.causation[kɔ:'zeiʃən]n.原因;因果关系;出现774.obtain[əb'tein,ɔb-]vi.获得;流行vt.获得775.controversies[]n.争论;辩论(controversy的复数)776.objectivity[,ɔbdʒek'tivəti]n.客观;客观性777.correspond[,kɔ:ri'spɔnd]vi.符合,一致;相应;通信778.deprivation[,depri'veiʃən]n.剥夺;损失;免职779.contact['kɔntækt,kən'tækt]n.接触,联系vt.使接触vi.联系,接触78\n780.version['və:ʃən]n.版本;译文;倒转术781.probe[prəʊb]n.探针;调查vi.调查;探测vt.探查;用探针探测782.identity[ai'dentəti]n.身份;同一性,一致;特性;恒等式783.typical['tipikəl]adj.典型的;特有的;象征性的784.title['taitl]n.冠军;标题;头衔;权利;字幕vt.加标题于;赋予头衔;把…称为adj.冠军的;标题的;头衔的785.engage[in'geidʒ]vt.吸引,占用;使参加;雇佣;使订婚;预定vi.从事;答应,保证;交战;啮合786.componential[,kɔmpə'nenʃəl]adj.成分的;与成分有关的787.tendency['tendənsi]n.倾向,趋势;癖好788.specialization[,speʃəlai'zeiʃən,-li'z-]n.专门化;特殊化;特化作用789.modesty['mɔdisti]n.谦逊;质朴;稳重790.regardless[ri'gɑ:dlis,ri:-]adj.不管;不顾;不注意791.purely['pjuəli]adv.纯粹地;仅仅,只不过;完全地;贞淑地;清洁地792.trigger['trigə]vt.引发,引起;触发vi.松开扳柄n.扳机;[电子]触发器;制滑机793.progressive[prəu'gresiv]adj.进步的;先进的n.改革论者;进步分子794.monolithic[,mɔnəu'liθik]adj.整体的;巨石的,庞大的;完全统一的n.单块集成电路,单片电路795.establish[i'stæbliʃ]vt.建立;创办;安置vi.植物定植796.slip[slɪp]vi.滑动;滑倒;犯错;失足;减退vt.使滑动;滑过;摆脱;塞入;闪开n.滑,滑倒;片,纸片;错误;下跌;事故adj.滑动的;有活结的;活络的abbr.串行线路接口协议,是旧式的协议(SerialLineInterfaceProtocol)797.restricted[ri'striktid]adj.受限制的;保密的v.限制(restrict的过去式和过去分词)798.access['ækses,'æksəs,æk'ses]vt.使用;存取;接近n.进入;使用权;通路799.triggers['trigəz]n.触发器;触发物(trigger的复数)v.引起(trigger的单三形式);引爆78\n800.orthographic[,ɔ:θəu'græfik]adj.正字法的;拼字正确的;直角的801.cortex['kɔ:teks]n.[解剖]皮质;树皮;果皮802.spontaneous[spɔn'teiniəs]adj.自发的;自然的;无意识的803.impact['impækt,im'pækt]vt.影响;撞击;冲突;压紧vi.冲击;产生影响n.影响;效果;碰撞;冲击力804.inextricably[,inik'strikəbli]adv.逃不掉地;解不开地;解决不了地805.integrative['intigreitiv]adj.综合的806.notoriously[nəu'tɔ:riəsli]adv.众所周知地;声名狼藉地;恶名昭彰地807.proper['prɔpə]adj.适当的;本身的;特有的;正派的adv.完全地808.positive['pɔzətiv,-zi-]adj.积极的;[数]正的,[化学][医]阳性的;确定的,肯定的;实际的,真实的;绝对的n.正数;[摄]正片809.neurolinguistics[,nʊrolɪŋ'gwɪstɪks]n.神经语言学810.aspirate['æspəreit,'æspərət]vt.送气发音;吸入adj.送气音的n.送气音;抽出物811.complicate['kɔmplikeit]vt.使复杂化;使恶化;使卷入812.encode[en'kəud]vt.[计]编码,译码813.implication[,impli'keiʃən]n.含义;暗示;牵连,卷入814.perpetuate[pə'petʃueit,-tju-]vt.使不朽;保持adj.长存的815.dialect['daiəlekt]n.方言,土话;同源语;行话;个人用语特征adj.方言的816.discover[dis'kʌvə]vt.发现;发觉vi.发现817.prevalent['prevələnt]adj.流行的;普遍的,广传的818.outperform[,autpə'fɔ:m]vt.胜过;做得比……好819.property['prɔpəti]n.性质,性能;财产;所有权820.marginal['mɑ:dʒinəl]adj.边缘的;临界的;末端的78\n821.properties[]n.性能;道具,内容(property的复数形式)822.withheld['wið'held]v.保留;扣留;抑制(withhold的过去式)823.mediate['mi:dieit]vi.调解;斡旋;居中vt.调停;传达adj.间接的;居间的824.program['prəugræm,-grəm]n.程序;计划;大纲vt.用程序指令;为…制订计划;为…安排节目vi.编程序;安排节目;设计电脑程式825.identical[ai'dentikəl]adj.同一的;完全相同的n.完全相同的事物826.verbalize['və:bəlaiz]vi.累赘;唠叨;以言语表述vt.使…变成动词;用言语表达827.evolved[]n.进化了的v.使逐步形成(evolve的过去分词)828.filter[filtə]vi.滤过;渗入;慢慢传开n.滤波器;[化工]过滤器;筛选;滤光器vt.过滤;渗透;用过滤法除去829.longitudinal[,lɒn(d)ʒɪ'tjuːdɪn(ə)l;,lɒŋgɪ-]adj.长度的,纵向的;经线的830.cohort['kəʊhɔːt]n.一群;步兵大队;支持者;同生群831.intention[in'tenʃən]n.意图;目的;意向;愈合832.specific[spi'sifik]adj.特殊的,特定的;明确的;详细的;[药]具有特效的n.特性;细节;特效药833.lobe[ləʊb]n.(脑、肺等的)叶;裂片;耳垂;波瓣834.bony['bəuni]adj.骨的;多骨的;瘦骨嶙峋的;似骨的835.isolation['aisə'leiʃən]n.隔离;孤立;[电]绝缘;[化学]离析836.rhythm['riðəm,'riθəm]n.节奏;韵律837.monument['mɔnjumənt]n.纪念碑;历史遗迹;不朽的作品vt.为…树碑838.requisite['rekwizit]adj.必备的,必不可少的;需要的n.必需品839.desire[di'zaiə]n.欲望;要求,心愿;性欲vt.想要;要求;希望得到…vi.渴望840.tumour['tju:mə]n.[肿瘤]瘤;肿瘤;肿块841.separation[,sepə'reiʃən]78\nn.分离,分开;间隔,距离;[法]分居;缺口842.origin['ɔridʒin,'ɔ:-]n.起源;原点;出身;开端843.strategy['strætidʒi]n.战略,策略844.domestic[dəu'mestik]adj.国内的;家庭的;驯养的;一心只管家务的n.国货;佣人845.term[tə:m]n.术语;学期;期限;条款vt.把…叫做846.mental['mentəl]adj.精神的;脑力的;疯的n.精神病患者847.regains[]vt.恢复;重新获得;收回vi.上涨n.收复;取回848.cluster['klʌstə]n.群;簇;丛;串vi.群聚;丛生vt.使聚集;聚集在某人的周围849.embodied[]v.呈现(embody的过去式及过去分词形式);具体表达850.realization[,riəlai'zeiʃən,,ri:-,-li'z-]n.实现;领悟851.negative['negətiv]adj.[数]负的;消极的;否定的;阴性的n.否定;负数;[摄]底片vt.否定;拒绝852.literal['litərəl]adj.文字的;逐字的;无夸张的自考“英语语言学”资料(1)1.1.Whatislanguage? Languageissystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisasystem,sincelinguisticelementsarearrangedsystematically,ratherthanrandomly.Arbitrary,inthesensethatthereisusuallynointrinsicconnectionbetweenawork(likebook)andtheobjectitrefersto.Thisexplainsandisexplainedbythefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentbooks:bookinEnglish,livreinFrench,inJapanese,inChinese,checkinKorean.Itissymbolic,becausewordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasetc.bynothingbutconvention.Namely,peopleusethesoundsorvocalformstosymbolizewhattheywishtoreferto.Itisvocal,becausesoundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages,developedornew。Writingsystemscamemuchlaterthanthespokenforms.Thefactthatsmallchildrenlearnandcanonlylearntospeak(andlisten)beforetheywrite(andread)alsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal,ratherthanwritten.Thetermhumaninthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishumanspecific. 1.2.Whataredesignfeaturesoflanguage? Designfeatureshererefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethat78\ntellthedifferencebetweenhumanlanguageandanysystemofanimalcommunication.Theyarearbitrariness,duality,productivity,displacement,culturaltransmissionandinterchangeability 1.3.Whatisarbitrariness? By“arbitrariness”,wemeanthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds(seeI.1)Adogmightbeapigifonlythefirstpersonorgroupofpersonshaduseditforapig.Languageisthereforelargelyarbitrary.Butlanguageisnotabsolutelyseemtobesomesound-meaningassociation,ifwethinkofechowords,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,whicharemotivatedinacertainsense.Secondly,somecompounds(wordscompoundedtobeoneword)arenotentirelyarbitraryeither.“Type”and“write”areopaqueorunmotivatedwords,while“type-writer”islessso,ormoretransparentormotivatedthanthewordsthatmakeit.Sowecansay“arbitrariness”isamatterofdegree. 1.4.Whatisduality? Linguistsrefer“duality”(ofstructure)tothefactthatinalllanguagessofarinvestigated,onefindstwolevelsofstructureorpatterning.Atthefirst,higherlevel,languageisanalyzedintermsofcombinationsofmeaningfulunits(suchasmorphemes,wordsetc.);atthesecond,lowerlevel,itisseenasasequenceofsegmentswhichlackanymeaninginthemselves,butwhichcombinetoformunitsofmeaning.AccordingtoHuZhanglinetal.(p.6),languageisasystemoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeaning.Thisisimportantfortheworkingsoflanguage.Asmallnumberofsemanticunits(words),andtheseunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences(notethatwehavedictionariesofwords,butnodictionaryofsentences!)Dualitymakesitpossibleforapersontotalkaboutanythingwithinhisknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemenjoysthisduality,orevenapproachesthishonour. 1.5.Whatisproductivity? Productivityreferstotheabilitytotheabilitytoconstructandunderstandanindefinitelylargenumberofsentencesinone'snativelanguage,includingthosethathasneverheardbefore,butthatareappropriatetothespeakingsituation.Noonehaseversaidorheard“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthesmallhotelbedwithanAfricangibbon”,buthecansayitwhennecessary,andhecanunderstanditinrightregister.Differentfromartisticcreativity,though,productivitynevergoesoutsidethelanguage,thusalsocalled“rule-boundcreativity”(byN.Chomsky)。 1.6.Whatisdisplacement? “Displacement”,asoneofthedesignfeaturesofthehumanlanguage,referstothefactthatonecantalkaboutthingsthatarenotpresent,aseasilyashedoesthingspresent.Inotherwords,onecanrefertorealandunrealthings,thingsofthepast,ofthepresent,ofthefuture.Languageitselfcanbetalkedabouttoo.Whenaman,forexample,iscryingtoawoman,aboutsomething,itmightbesomethingthathadoccurred,orsomethingthatisoccurring,orsomethingthatisto78\noccur.Whenadogisbarking,however,youcandecideitisbarkingforsomethingoratsomeonethatexistsnowandthere.Itcouldn'tbebow-wowingsorrowfullyfordomelostloveorabonetobelost.Thebee’ssystem,nonetheless,hasasmallshareof“displacement”,butitisanunspeakabletinyshare. 1.7.Whatisculturaltransmission? Thismeansthatlanguageisnotbiologicallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,butthatthedetailsofthelinguisticsystemmustbelearnedanewbyeachspeaker.Itistruethatthecapacityforlanguageinhumanbeings(N.Chomskycalledit“languageacquisitiondevice”,orLAD)hasageneticbasis,buttheparticularlanguageapersonlearnstospeakisaculturaloneotherthanageneticonelikethedog‘sbarkingsystem.Ifahumanbeingisbroughtupinisolationhecannotacquirelanguage.TheWolfChildrearedbythepackofwolvesturnedouttospeakthewolf'sroaring“tongue”whenhewassaved.Helearnedthereafter,withnosmalldifficulty,theABCofacertainhumanlanguage. 1.8.Whatisinterchangeability? (1)Interchangeabilitymeansthatanyhumanbeingcanbebothaproducerandareceiverofmessages.Wecansay,andonotheroccasionscanreceiveandunderstand,forexample,“Pleasedosomethingtomakemehappy.”Thoughsomepeople(includingme)suggestthatthereissexdifferentiationintheactuallanguageuse,inotherwords,menandwomenmaysaydifferentthings,yetinprinciplethereisnosound,orwordorsentencethatamancanutterandawomancannot,orviceversa.Ontheotherhand,apersoncanbethespeakerwhiletheotherpersonisthelistenerandastheturnmovesontothelistener,hecanbethespeakerandthefirstspeakeristolisten.Itisturn-takingthatmakessocialcommunicationpossibleandacceptable. (2)Somemalebirds,however,uttersomecallswhichfemalesdonot(orcannot?),andcertainkindsoffishhavesimilarhapsmentionable.Whenadogbarks,alltheneighbouringdogsbark.Thenpeoplearoundcanhardlytellwhichdog(dogs)isare“speaking”andwhichlistening. 1.9.Whydolinguistssaylanguageishumanspecific? Firstofall,humanlanguagehassix“designfeatures”whichanimalcommunicationsystemsdonothave,atleastnotinthetruesenseofthem(seeI.2-8)Let'sborrowC.F.Hocket'sChartthatcompareshumanlanguagewithsomeanimals'systems,fromWangGang(1998,p.8)。 Secondly,linguistshavedonealottryingtoteachanimalssuchaschimpanzeestospeakahumanlanguagebuthaveachievednothinginspiring.Washoe,afemalechimpanzee,wasbroughtuplikeahumanchildbyBeatniceandAlanGardner.Shewastaught“AmericansignLanguage”,andlearnedalittlethatmadetheteachershappybutdidmotmakethelinguisticscirclehappy,forfewbelievedinteachingchimpanzees. Thirdly,ahumanchildrearedamonganimalscannotspeakahumanlanguage,notevenwhenheistakenbackandtaughttolotoso(seethe“WolfChild”inI.7) 1.10.Whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave?78\n Languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive,evocativeandperformative.AccordingtoWangGang(1988,p.11),languagehasthreemainfunctions:atoolofcommunication,atoolwherebypeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplelearnabouttheworld,andatoolbywhichpeoplecreateart.M.A.K.Halliday,representativeoftheLondonschool,recognizesthree“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersonalandtextual(see!11-17;seeHUZhuanglinetal.,pp10-13,pp394-396)。自考“英语语言学”资料(2)1.11Whatisthephaticfunction? The“phaticfunction”referstolanguagebeingusedforsettingupacertainatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontacts(ratherthanforexchanginginformationorideas)Greetings,farewells,andcommentsontheweatherinEnglishandonclothinginChineseallservethisfunction.Muchofthephaticlanguage(e.g“Howareyou?”“Fine,thanks.”)isinsincereiftakenliterally,butitisimportant.Ifyoudon'tsay“Hello”toafriendyoumeet,orifyoudon'tanswerhis“Hi”,youruinyourfriendship. 1.12.Whatisthedirectivefunction? The“directivefunction”meansthatlanguagemaybeusedtogetthehearertodosomething.Mostimperativesentencesperformthisfunction,e.g“Tellmetheresultwhenyoufinish.”Othersyntacticstructuresorsentencesofothersortscan,accordingtoJ.AustinandJ.Searle's“indrectspeechacttheory”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp271-278)atleast,servethepurposeofdirectiontoo,e.g.“IfIwereyou,Iwouldhaveblushedtothebottomofmyears!” 1.13.Whatistheinformativefunction? Languageservesan“informationalfunction”whenusedtotellsomething,characterizedbytheuseofdeclarativesentences.Informativestatementsareoftenlabelledastrueorfalse(falsehood)AccordingtoP.Grice's“CooperativePrinciple”(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp282-283),oneoughtnottoviolatethe“MaximofQuality”,whenheisinformingatall. 1.14.Whatistheinterrogative[ˌɪntəˈrɔɡətiv]function?Whenlanguageisusedtoobtaininformation,itservesan“interrogativefunction”Thisincludesallquestionsthatexpectreplies,statements,imperativesetc,accordingtothe“indirectspeechacttheory”,mayhavethisfunctionaswell,e.g.“I'dliketoknowyoubetter.”Thismaybringforthalotofpersonalinformation.Notethatrhetoricalquestionsmakeanexception,sincetheydemandnoanswer,atleastnotthereader's/listener'sanswer 1.15.Whatistheexpressivefunction? The“expressivefunction”istheuseoflanguagetorevealsomethingaboutthefeelingsorattitudesofthespeaker.Subconsciousemotionalejaculationsaregoodexamples,like“Goodheavens”“MyGod”Sentenceslike“I'msorryaboutthedelay”canserveasgoodexamplestoo,thoughinasubtleway.Whilelanguageisusedfortheinformativefunctiontopassjudgementonthetruthorfalsehoodof78\nstatements,languageusedfortheexpressivefunctionevaluates,appraisesorassertsthespeaker'sownattitudes. 1.16.Whatistheevocative[iˈvɔkətiv]function?adj.引起…记忆的,唤起…感情的The“evocativefunction”istheuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.Itsaimis,forexample,toamuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worryorplease.Jokes(notpracticaljokes,though)aresupposedtoamuseorentertainthelistener;advertisingtourgecustomerstopurchasecertaincommodities;propagandatoinfluencepublicopinion.Obviously,theexpressiveandtheevocativefunctionsoftengotogether,i.e.youmayexpress,forexample,yourpersonalfeelingsaboutapoliticalissuebutendupbyevokingthesamefeelingin,orimposingiton,yourlistener.That'salsothecasewiththeotherwayround. 1.17.Whatistheperformativefunction? Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions.Oncertainoccasionstheutteranceitselfasanactionismoreimportantthanwhatwordsorsoundsconstitutetheutteredsentence.WhenaskedifathirdYangtzebridgeoughttobebuiltinWuhan,themayormaysay“OK”,whichmeansmorethanspeech,andmorethananaveragesocialindividualmaydofortheconstruction.Thejudge'simprisonmentsentence,thepresident'swarorindependencedeclaration,etc,areperformativesaswell(seeJ.Austin'sspeechActTheory,HuZhuanglin,ecal.,pp271-278)。 1.18.Whatislinguistics? “Linguistics”isthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonesociety,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Alinguist,though,doesnothavetoknowandusealargenumberoflanguages,buttoinvestigatehoweachlanguageisconstructed.Heisalsoconcernedwithhowalanguagevariesfromdialecttodialect,fromclasstoclass,howitchangesfromcenturytocentury,howchildrenacquiretheirmothertongue,andperhapshowapersonlearnsorshouldlearnaforeignlanguage.Inshort,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprincipleswhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp20-22) 1.19.Whatmakeslinguisticsascience? Sincelinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage,itoughttobaseitselfuponthesystematic,investigationoflanguagedatawhichaimsatdiscoveringthetruenatureoflanguageanditsunderlyingsystem.Tomakesenseofthedata,alinguistusuallyhasconceivedsomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure,tobecheckedagainsttheobservedorobservablefacts.Inordertomakehisanalysisscientific,alinguistisusuallyguidedbyfourprinciples:exhaustiveness,consistency,andobjectivity.Exhaustivenessmeansheshouldgatherallthematerialsrelevanttothestudyandgivethemanadequateexplanation,inspiteofthecomplicatedness.Heistoleavenolinguistic“stone”unturned.Consistencymeansthereshouldbenocontradictionbetweendifferentpartsofthetotalstatement.Economymeansalinguistshouldpursuebrevityintheanalysiswhenitispossible.Objectivityimpliesthatsincesomepeoplemaybesubjectiveinthe78\nstudy,alinguistshouldbe(orsoundatleast)objective,matter-of-face,faithfultoreality,sothathisworkconstitutespartofthelinguisticsresearch. 1.20.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics? Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguisticse.g.HuZhuanglinetal.,1988;WangGang,1988Butalinguistsometimesisabletodealwithonlyoneaspectoflanguageatatime,thustheariseofvariousbranches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,sociolinguistics,appliedlinguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography,etymology,etc.自考“英语语言学”资料(3)1.21.Whataresynchronicanddiachronicstudies? Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(asifitstoppeddeveloping)isasynchronystudysynchrony.Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy(diachronic).Anessayentitled“OntheUseofTHE”,forexample,maybesynchronic,iftheauthordoesnotrecallthepastofTHE,anditmayalsobediachronicifheclaimstocoveralargerangeorperiodoftimewhereinTHEhasundergonetremendousalteration(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp25-27)。 1.22.Whatisspeechandwhatiswriting? (1)Nooneneedstherepetitionofthegeneralprincipleoflinguisticanalysis,namely,theprimacyofspeechoverwriting.Speechisprimary,becauseitexistedlonglongbeforewritingsystemscameintobeing.Geneticallychildrenlearntospeakbeforelearningtowrite.Secondly,writtenformsjustrepresentinthiswayorthatthespeechsounds:individualsounds,asinEnglishandFrenchasinJapanese. (2)Incontrasttospeech,spokenformoflanguage,writingaswrittencodes,giveslanguagenewscopeandusethatspeechdoesnothave.Firstly,messagescanbecarriedthroughspacesothatpeoplecanwritetoeachother.Secondly,messagescanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanbecarriedthroughtimethereby,sothatpeopleofourtimecanreadBeowulf,SamuelJohnson,andEdgarA.Poe.Thirdly,oralmessagesarereadilysubjecttodistortion,eitherintentionalorunintentional(causingmisunderstandingormalentendu),whilewrittenmessagesallowandencouragerepeatedunalterablereading. (3)Mostmodernlinguisticanalysisisfocusedonspeech,differentfromgrammariansofthelastcenturyandtheretofore. 1.23.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenthedescriptiveandtheprescriptiveapproaches? Alinguisticstudyis“descriptive”ifitonlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage,and“prescriptive”ifittriestolaydownrulesfor“correct”languagebehavior.Linguisticstudiesbeforethiscenturywerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerelargelyprescriptivebecausemanyearlygrammarswerebasedon“high”(literaryorreligious)writtenrecords.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive,however.thelatterbelievesthatwhateveroccursinnaturalspeech(hesitation,incompleteutterance,misunderstanding,etc.)shouldbe78\ndescribedintheanalysis,andnotbemarkedasincorrect,abnormal,corrupt,orlousy.These,withchangesinvocabularyandstructures,needtobeexplainedalso. 1.24.Whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole? F.deSaussurerefers“langue”totheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandrefers“parole”totheactualoractualizedlanguage,ortherealizationoflangue.Langueisabstract,parolespecifictothespeakingsituation;languenotactuallyspokenbyanindividual,parolealwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;languerelativelystableandsystematic,paroleisamassofconfusedfacts,thusnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatalinguistoughttodo,accordingtoSaussure,istoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethanthesubjectoflinguistics.Thelangue-paroledistinctionisofgreatimportance,whichcastsgreatinfluenceonlaterlinguists. 1.25.Whatisthedifferencebetweencompetenceandperformance? (1)AccordingtoN.Chomsky,“competence”istheideallanguageuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,and“performance”istheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinutterances.Theformerenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandanindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker'scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker'sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchorequalhissupposedcompetence. (2)Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Inotherwords,theyshoulddiscoverwhatanidealspeakerknowsofhisnativelanguage. (3)Chomsky'scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,F.deSaussure'slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofconventionsforacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.SussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanN.Chomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically. 1.26.Whatislinguisticpotential?Whatisactuallinguisticbehaviour? Thesetwoterms,orthepotential-behaviordistinction,weremadebyM.A.K.Hallidayinthe1960s,fromafunctionalpointofview.Thereisawiderangeofthingsaspeakercandoinhisculture,andsimilarlytherearemanythingshecansay,forexample,tomanypeople,onmanytopics.Whatheactuallysays(i.e.his“actuallinguisticbehavior”)onacertainoccasiontoacertainpersoniswhathehaschosenfrommanypossibleinjusticeitems,eachofwhichhecouldhavesaid(linguisticpotential)。 1.27.Inwhatwaydolanguage,competenceandlinguisticpotentialagree?Inwhatwaydotheydiffer?Andtheircounterparts? Langue,competenceandlinguisticpotentialhavesomesimilarfeatures,buttheyareinnatelydifferent(see1.25)Langueisasocialproduct,andasetofspeakingconventions;competenceisapropertyorattributeofeachidealspeaker'smind;linguisticpotentialisallthelinguisticcorpusorrepertoireavailablefrom78\nwhichthespeakerchoosesitemsfortheactualutterancesituation.Inotherwords,langueisinvisiblebutreliableabstractsystem.Competencemeans“knowing”,andlinguisticpotentialasetofpossibilitiesfor“doing”or“performingactions”.TheyaresimilarinthattheyallrefertotheconstantunderlyingtheutterancesthatconstitutewhatSaussure,ChomskyandHallidayrespectivelycalledparole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehavior.Paole,performanceandactuallinguisticbehaviorenjoymoresimilaritiesthandifferences. 1.28.Whatisphonetics? “Phonetics”isthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeech,andprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription(seeHuZhuanglinetal,pp39-40),speechsoundsmaybestudiedindifferentways,thusbythreedifferentbranchesofphonetics.(1)Articulatoryphonetics;thebranchofphoneticsthatexaminesthewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedtodiscoverwhichvocalorgansareinvolvedandhowtheycoordinateintheprocess.(2)Auditoryphonetics,thebranchofphoneticresearchfromthehearer'spointofview,lookingintotheimpressionwhichaspeechsoundmakesonthehearerasmediatedbytheear,theauditorynerveandthebrain.(3)Acousticphonetics:thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,astransmittedbetweenmouthandear. Mostphoneticians,however,areinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics. 1.29.Howarethevocalorgansformed? Thevocalorgans(seeFigure1,HuZhuanglinetal.,p41),orspeechorgans,areorgansofthehumanbodywhosesecondaryuseisintheproductionofspeechsounds.Thevocalorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts;theinitiatoroftheair-stream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities. 1.30.Whatisplaceofarticulation? Itreferstotheplaceinthemouthwhere,forexample,theobstructionoccurs,resultingintheutteranceofaconsonant.Whateversoundispronounced,atleastsomevocalorganswillgetinvolved,e.g.lips,hardpalateetc.,soaconsonantmaybeoneofthefollowing(1)bilabial:[p,b,m](2)labiodental:[f,v](3)dental:[,](4)alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z](5)retroflex(6)palato-alveolar:[,](7)palatal:[j](8)velar[k,g,](9)uvular(10)glottal:[h]. Somesoundsinvolvethesimultaneoususeoftwoplacesofarticulation.Forexample,theEnglish[w]hasbothanapproximationofthetwolipsandthattwolipsandthatofthetongueandthesoftpalate,andmaybetermed“labial-velar”。自考“英语语言学”资料(4)1.31.Whatisthemannerofarticulation? The“mannerofarticulation”literallymeansthewayasoundisarticulated.Atagivenplaceofarticulation,theairstreammaybeobstructedinvariousways,resultinginvariousmannersofarticulation,arethefollowing:(1)plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g](2)nasal:[m,n](3)trill(4)taporflap(5)lateral:[l](6)fricative:[f,v,s,z](7)approximant:[w,j](8)affricate 1.32.Howdophoneticiansclassifyvowels?78\n Phoneticians,inspiteofthedifficulty,groupvowelsin5types:(1)longandshortvowels,e.g.[i](4)roundedandunroundvowels,e.g.[i](5)pureandglidingvowels,e.g.[I]. 1.33.WhatisIPA?Whendiditcomeintobeing? TheIPA,abbreviationof“InternationalPhoneticAlphabet”,isacompromisesystemmakinguseofsymbolsofallsources,includingdiacriticsindicatinglength,stressandintonation,indicatingphoneticvariation.Eversinceitwasdevelopedin1888,IPAhasundergoneanumberofrevisions. 1.34.Whatisnarrowtranscriptionandwhatisbroadtranscription?Inhandbookofphonetics,HenrySweetmadeadistinctionbetween“narrow”and“broad”transcriptions,whichhecalled“NarrowRomic”.Theformerwasmeanttosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingeventhemostminuteshadesofpronunciationwhileBroadRomicortranscriptionwasintendedtoindicateonlythosesoundscapableofdistinguishingonewordfromanotherinagivenlanguage. 1.35.Whatisphonology?Whatisdifferencebetweenphoneticsandphonology? (1)“Phonology”isthestudyofsoundsystems-theinventionofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.,arealltobeinvestigatedbyaphonologist. (2)Phonetics,asdiscussedinI.28,isthebranchoflinguisticsstudyingthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription.Aphonetistismainlyinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,whereasaphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedwiththeirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures,andthewaytheyareconceivedandprintedinthedepthofthemindphonologicalknowledgepermitsaspeakertoproducesoundswhichfrommeaningfulutterances,torecognizeaforeign“accent”,tomakeupnewwords,toaddtheappropriatephoneticsegmentstofrompluralsandpasttenses,toknowwhatisandwhatisnotasoundinone'slanguage. 1.36.Whatisaphone?Whatisaphoneme?Whatisanallophone? (1)A“phone”isaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:[pit],[tip],[spit],etc.,thesimilarphoneswehaveheardare[p]foronething,andthreedifferent[p]'s,readilymakingpossiblethe“narrowtranscriptionordiacritics”.Phonesmayandmaynotdistinguishmeaning.A“phoneme”isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Asanabstractunit,aphonemeisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,thephoneme[p]isrepresenteddifferentlyin[pit],[tip]and[spit]. (2)Thephonesrepresentingaphonemearecalledits“allophones”,i.e.thedifferent(i.e.phones)butdonotmakeonewordsophoneticallydifferentastocreateanewwordoranewmeaningthereof.Sothedifferent[p]'sintheabove78\nwordsaretheallophonesofthesamephoneme[p].Howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandom.Inmostcasesitisrule-governed;theserulesaretobefoundoutbyaphonologist. 1.37.Whatareminimalpairs? Whentwodifferentphoneticformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwoforms(i.e.,word)aresupposedtoforma“minimalpair”,e.g.“pill”and“bill”,“pill”and“till”,“till”and“dill”,“till”and“kill”,etc.Allthesewordstogetherconstituteaminimalset.Theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonants.TherearemanyminimalpairsinEnglish,whichmakesitrelativelyeasytoknowwhatareEnglishphonemes.Itisofgreatimportancetofindtheminimalpairswhenaphonologistisdealingwiththesoundsystemofanunknownlanguage(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp65-66)。 1.38.Whatisfreevariation? Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast;namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwordformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsthenaresaidtobein“freevariation”.Theplosives,forexample,maynotbeexplodedwhentheyoccurbeforeanotherplosiveoranasal(e.g,act,apt,goodmorning).Theminutedistinctionsmay,ifnecessary,betranscribedindiacritics.Theseunexplodedandexplodedplosivesareinfreevariation.Soundsinfreevariationshouldbeassignedtothesamephoneme. 1.39.Whatiscomplementarydistribution? Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyarein“complementarydistribution”.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishplosivesneveroccurafter[s],andtheunsaturatedonesneveroccurinitially.Soundsincomplementarydistributionmaybeassignedtothesamephoneme.Theallophonesof[l],forexample,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theclear[l]occursonlybeforeavowel,thevoicelessequivalentof[l]occursonlyafteravoicelessconsonant,suchasinthewords“please”,“butler”,“clear”,etc.,andthedark[l]occursonlyafteravowelorasasyllabicsoundafteraconsonant,suchasinthewords“feel”,“help”,“middle”,etc. 1.40.Whatistheassimilationrule?Whatisthedeletionrule? (1)The“assimilationrule”assimilatesonesegmenttoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonesmoresimilar.Thisruleaccountsfortheraringpronunciationofthenasal[n]thatoccurswithinaword.Theruleisthatwithinawordthenasalconsonant[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationasthefollowingconsonant.Thenegativeprefix“in-”servesasagoodexample.Itmaybepronouncedas[in],[i]or[im]whenoccurringindifferentphoneticcontexts:e.g.,indiscrete-[](alveolar)inconceivable-[](velar)input-['imput](bilabial) (2)The“deletionrule”tellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughisorthographicallyrepresented.Whiletheletter“g”ismutein“sign”,“design”and78\n“paradigm”itispronouncedintheircorrespondingderivatives:“signature”,“designation”and“paradigmatic”.Therulethencanbestatedas:deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.ThisaccountsforsomeoftheseemingirregularitiesoftheEnglishspelling(seeDaiWeidong,pp22-23)。自考“英语语言学”资料(5)1.41.Whatissuprasegmentalphonology?Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures? “Suprasegmentalphonology”referstothestudyofphonologicalpropertiesoflinguisticunitslargerthanthesegmentcalledphoneme,suchassyllable,wordandsentence. HuZhuanglinetal.,(p,73)includesstress,lengthandpitchaswhattheysupposetobe“principalsuprasegmentalfeatures”,callingtheconcurrentpatterningofthree“intonation”.DaiWeidong(pp23-25)liststhreealso,buttheyarestress,toneandintonation. 1.42.Whatismorphology? “Morphology”isthebranchofgrammarthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisgenerallydividedintotwofields:inflectionalmorphologyandlexical/derivationalmorphology. 1.43.Whatisinflection/inflexion? “Inflection”isthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspect,andcase,whichdoesnotchangethegrammaticalclassoftheitemstowhichtheyareattached. 1.44.Whatisamorpheme?Whatisanallomorph? (1)The“morpheme”isthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Theword“boxes”,forexample,hastwomorphemes:“box”and“-es”,neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisifwedon'twishtosacrificemeaning.Thereforeamorphemeisconsideredtheminimalunitofmeaning. (2)Allomorphs,likeallophonesvs.phones,arethealternateshapes(andthusphoneticforms)ofthesamemorphemes.Somemorphemes,though,havenomorethanoneinvariableforminallcontexts,suchas“dog”,“cat”,etc.Thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”maketheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map-maps,mouse-mice,sheep-sheepetc. 1.45.Whatisafreemorpheme?Whatisaboundmorpheme? A“freemorpheme”isamorphemethatconstitutesawordbyitself,suchas'bed“,”tree“,etc.A”boundmorpheme“isonethatappearswithatleastanothermorpheme,suchas”-s“in”beds“,”-al“in”national“andsoon.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordsareeithercompounds(combinationoftwoormorefreemorphemes)orderivatives(wordderivedfromfreemorphemes)。 1.46.Whatisaroot?Whatisastem?Whatisanaffix? A“root”isthebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Inotherwords,a“root”isthatpartofthewordleftwhenall78\ntheaffixesareremoved.“Internationalism”isafour-morphemederivativewhichkeepsitsfreemorpheme“nation”asitsrootwhen“inter-”,“-al”and“-ism”aretakenaway. A“stem”isanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Itmaybethesameas,andinothercases,differentfrom,aroot.Forexample,intheword“friends”,“friend”isboththerootandthestem,butintheword“friendships”,“friendships”isitsstem,“friend”isitsroot.Somewords(i.e.,compounds)havemorethanoneroot,e.g.,“mailman”,“girlfriend”,ect. An“affix”isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeused,onlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes:prefix,suffixandinfix,e.g.,“mini-”,“un-”,ect.(prefix);“-ise”,“-tion”,ect.(suffix)。 1.47.Whatareopenclasses?Whatareclosedclasses? InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyare“open–classwords”,sincewecanregularlyaddnewlexicalentriestotheseclasses.Theothersyntacticcategoriesare,forthemostpart,closedclasses,orclosed-classwords.Thenumberofthemishardlyalterable,iftheyarechangeableatall. 1.48.Whatislexicon?Whatisword?Whatislexeme?Whatisvocabulary?Lexicon?Word?Lexeme?Vocabulary? “Lexicon”,initsmostgeneralsense,issynonymouswithvocabulary.Initstechnicalsense,however,lexicondealswiththeanalysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocations.“Word”isaunitofexpressionwhichhasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynative-speakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.Thisdefinitionisperhapsalittlevagueastherearedifferentcriteriawithregardtoitsidentificationanddefinition.Itseemsthatitishard,evenimpossible,todefine“word”linguistically.Nonethelessitisuniversallyagreedthatthefollowingthreesensesareinvolvedinthedefinitionof“word”,noneofwhich,though,isexpectedtocopewithallthesituations:(1)aphysicallydefinableunit,e.g.,[itiz'w](phonological),“Itiswonder”(orthographic)(2)thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms(seewhatisthecommonfactorof“checks”,“checked”,“checking”etc.)(3)agrammaticalunit(lookat(1)again;everywordplaysagrammaticalpartinthesentence)。 AccordingtoLeonardBloomfield,awordisaminimumfreeform(compare:asentenceisamaximumfreeform,accordingtoBloomfield).Thereareotherfactorsthatmayhelpusidentifywords:(1)stability(nogreatchangeoforthographicfeatures);(2)relativeuninterruptibility(wecanhardlyinsertanythingbetweentwopartsofawordorbetweentheletters).Tomakethecategoryclearerwecansubclassifywordsintoafewtypes:(1)variableandinvariablewords(e.g.,-mats,seldom-?);(2)grammaticalandlexicalwords(e.g.to,in,etc.,andtable,chair,ect.By“lexicalwords”wemeanthewordsthatcarryasemanticcontent,e.g.,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbs78\n;(3)closed-classandopen-classwords(seeI.47)。 Inordertoreducetheambiguityoftheterm“word”,theterm“lexeme”ispostulatedastheabtractunitwhichreferstothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits.Alexemecanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentexts.Forexample,“write”isthelexemeofthefollowingwords:“write”,“write”,“wrote”,“writing”,and“written.” “Vocabulary”usuallyreferstoallwordsorlexicalitemsapersonhasacquiredabouttechnicalor/anduntechnicalthings.Soweencourageourstudentstoenlargetheirvocabulary.“vocabulary”isalsousedtomeanwordlistorglossary. 1.49.Whatiscollocation? “Collocation”isatermusedinlexicologybysomelinguiststorefertothehabitualco-occurrencesofindividuallexicalitems.Forexample,wecan“read”a“book”;“correct”cannarrowlyoccurwith“book”whichissupposedtohavefaults,butnoonecan“read”a“mistake”becausewithregardtoco-occurrencethesetwowordsarenotcollocates. 1.50.Whatissyntax? “Syntax”isthestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsandphrasesarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweensententialelements.自考“英语语言学”资料(6)1.51.Whatisasentence? L.Bloomfielddefines“sentence”asanindependentlinguisticformnotincludedbysomegrammaticalmarksinanyotherlinguisticfrom,i.e.,itisnotsubordinatedtoalargerlinguisticform,itisastructurallyindependentlinguisticform.Itisalsocalledamaximumfreeform. 1.52.Whataresyntacticrelations? “Syntacticrelations”refertothewaysinwhichwords,wordgroupsorphrasesformsentences;hencethreekindsofsyntacticrelations:positionalrelations,relationsofsubstitutabilityandrelationsofco-occurrence. (1)“Positionalrelation”,or“wordorder”,referstothesequentialarrangementtowordsinalanguage.ItisamanifestationofacertainaspectofwhatF.deSaussurecalled“syntagmaticrelations”,orofwhatotherlinguistscall“horizontalrelations”or“chainrelations”。 (2)“Relationsofsubstitutability”refertoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsamesentencestructures.Saussurecalledthem“associativerelations”.Otherpeoplecallthem“paradigmatic/vertical/choicerelations”。 (3)By“relationsofco-occurrence”,onemeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermitorrequiretheoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentence.Thusrelationsofco-occurrencepartlybelongtosyntagmaticrelationsandpartlytoparadigmaticrelations. 1.53.WhatisICanalysis?Whatareimmediateconstituents(andultimate78\nconstituents)? “ICanalysis”isanewapproachofsentencestudythatcutsasentenceintotwo(ormore)segments.Thiskindofpuresegmentationissimplydividingasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutevenknowingwhattheyreallyare.Whatremainofthefirstcutarecalled“immediateconstituents”,andwhatareleftatthefinalcutarecalled“ultimateconstituents”.Forexample,“Johnleftyesterday”canbethussegmented:“John|left||yesterday”.Wegettwoimmediateconstituentsforthefirstcut(|),andtheyare“John”and“leftyesterday”.Furthersplit(||)thissentencegeneratesthree“ultimateconstituents”:“John”,“left”and“yesterday”。 1.54.Whatareendocentricandexocentricconstructons? “Endocentricconstruction”isonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinable“centre”or“head”.Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetothehead.“Exocentricconstruction”,oppositeofendocentricconstruction,referstoagroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupaswhole;thatistosay,thereisnodefinablecentreorheadinsidethegroup.Exocentricconstructionusuallyincludesbasicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction. 1.55.Whatisasubject?Apredicate?Anobject? (1)Insomelanguage,an“subject”referstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase,suchas“pater”inthefollowingexample:"paterfiliumamat"(putliterallyinEnglish:thefatherthesonloves).InEnglish,a“grammaticalsubject”referstoanounwhichcanestablishcorrespondencewiththeverbandwhichcanbecheckedbyatag-questiontest,e.g.,“Heisagoodcook(isn'the?)。” (2)A“predicate”referstoamajorconstituentofsentencestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectareconsideredtogether.e.g.,inthesentenceThemonkeyisjumping,isjumpingisthepredicate. (3)Traditionally“object”referstothereceiverorgoalofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintotwokinds:directobjectandindirectobject.Insomeinflectinglanguages,anobjectismarkedbycaselabels:the“accusativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”fordirectobject,andthe“dativecase”forindirecttowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpronouns).E.g.,inthesentence“Johnkissedme”,“me”istheobject.Modernlinguistssuggestthatanobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomeasubjectinpassivetransformation. 1.56.Whatiscategory? Theterm“category”insomeapproachesreferstoclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,e.g.,noun,verb,subject,predicate,nounphrase,verbphrase,etc.Morespecificallyitreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneral78\nunits:thecategoriesofthenoun,forexample,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability;andoftheverb,forexample,tense,aspect,voice,etc. 1.57.Whatisnumber?Whatisgender?Whatiscase? (1)“Number”isagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc.InEnglish,numberismainlyobservedinnouns,andthereareonlytwoforms:singularandplural.Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs. (2)“Gender”displayssuchcontrastsas"masculine","feminine","neuter"or"animate"and"inanimate",etc.fortheanalysisofwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofthereal-worldentities,wenaturalgender(theoppositeisgrammaticalgender)。 (3)“Case”identifiesthesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.InLatingrammar,casesarebasedonvariationsinthemorphologicalformsoftheword,andaregiventheterms"accusative","nominative","dative",etc.InEnglish,thecasecategoryisrealizedinthreeways:byfollowingaprepositionandbywordorder. 1.58.Whatisconcord?Whatisgovernment? “Concord”maybedefinedasrequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsofspecificwordclassesthatstandinspecificsyntacticrelationshipwithoneanothershallbecharacterizedbythesameparadigmaticallymarkedcategoryorcategories,e.g.“manruns”,“menrun”.“Government”requiresthatonewordofaparticularclassinagivensyntacticclassshallexhibittheformofaspecificcategory.InEnglish,governmentappliesonlytopronounsamongthevariablewords,thatis,prepositionsandverbsgovernparticularformsoftheparadigmsofpronounsaccordingtotheirsyntacticrelationwiththem,e.g.“Ihelpedhim;hehelpedme.” 1.59.Whatisaphrase?Whatisaclause? (1)A“phrase”isasingleelementofstructurecontainingmorethanoneword,andlackingthesubject-predicatestructuretypicalof“clauses”Traditionally,itisseenaspartofastructuralhierachy,fallingbetweenaclauseandword,e.g.“thethreetallestgirls”(nominalphrase).Thereisnowatendencytomakeadistinctionbetweenwordgroupsandphrases.A“wordgroup”isanextensionofawordofaparticularclassbywayofmodificationwithitsmainfeaturesoftheclassunchanged.Thuswehavenominalgroup,verbalgroup,adverbialgroup,conjunctiongroupandprepositiongroup. (2)A“clause”isgroupofwordswithitsownsubjectandpredicateincludedinalargersubject-verbconstruction,namely,inasentence.Clausescanalsobeclassifiedintotwokinds:finiteandnon-finiteclauses,thelatterreferringtowhataretraditionallycalledinfinitivephrase,participlephraseandgerundialphrase.(For“sentence”,seeI.51.) 1.60.Whatisconjoining?Whatisembedding?Whatisrecursiveness? “Conjoining”referstoaconstructionwhereoneclauseisco-ordinatedorconjoinedwithanother,e.g.“Johnboughtacatandhiswifekilledher.”“Embedding”referstotheprocessofconstructionwhereoneclauseisincludedin78\nthesentence(ormainclause)insyntacticsubordination,e.g.“Isawthemanwhohadkilledachimpanzee.”By“recursiveness”wemeanthatthereistheoreticallynolimittothenumberoftheembeddedclausesinacomplexsentence.Thisistruealsowithnominalandadverbialclauses,e.g.“Isawthemanwhokilledacatwho…aratwhich…that…”自考“英语语言学”资料(7) 1.61.Whatishypotacticrelation?Whatisparatacticrelation? “Hypotacticrelation”referstoaconstructionwhereconstituentsarelinkedbymeansofconjunction,e.g.“Heboughteggsandmilk.”“Paratacticrelation”referstoconstructionswhichareconnectedbyjuxtaposition,punctuationorintonation,e.g.,“Heboughttea,coffee,eggsandmilk”(payattentiontothefirstthreenounsconnectedwithout“and”)。 1.62.Whatissemantics? “Semantics”referstothestudyofthecommunicationofmeaningthroughlanguage.Orsimply,itisthestudyofmeaning. 1.63.Whatismeaning? Thoughitisdifficulttodefine,“meaning”hasthefollowingmeaning:(1)anintrinsicproperty;(2)theconnotationofaword;(3)thewordsputafteradictionaryentry;(4)thepositionanobjectoccupiesinasystem;(5)whatthesymboluseractuallyrefersto;(6)whatthesymbolusershouldreferto;(7)whatthesymboluserbelievesheisreferringto;(8)whatthesymbolinterpreterrefersto;(9)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievesitrefersto;(10)whatthesymbolinterpreterbelievestheuserrefersto…linguistsarguedabout“meaningofmeaning”fiercelyintheresultof“realism”,“conceptualism/mentalism”,“mechanism”,“contextualism”,“behaviorism”,“functionalism”,etc.(seeHuZhuanglinetal.,pp140-142).Mentionoughttobemadeofthe“SemanticTriangleTheory”ofOgden&Richards.Weuseawordandthelistenerknowswhatitreferstobecause,accordingtothetheory,theyhaveacquiredthesameconcept/referenceofthewordusedandoftheobject/referent. 1.64.Whatisthedifference¬;¬;¬;¬;¬;¬;¬;betweenmeaning,concept,connotation,sense,implication,denotation,notation,reference,implicatureandsignification? (1)“Meaning”referstotheassociationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealword.(2)“Concept”or“notion”istheimpressionofobjectsinpeople'smind.(3)“connotation”istheimpliedmeaning,similarto“implication”and“implicature”.(4)“Sense”isthelexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.(5)“Denotation”,like“sense”,isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjects,butmakestheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.(6)“Reference”istheword-objectrelationship.(7)“Implicature”,initsnarrowsense,referstoconversationalimplicatureachievedbyintentionallyviolatingoneofthefourCPmaxims(seeI.122-123).(8)“Signification”,incontrastwith“value”,meanthemeaningofsituationmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue,like“What'sthis?” 1.65.WhatistheSemantic/SemioticTriangle? OgdenandRichardspresentedtheclassic“SemanticTriangle”asmanifested78\ninthefollowingdiagram,inwhichthe“symbol”or“form”referstothelinguisticelements(word,sentence,etc.),the“referent”referstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,and“thought”or“reference”referstoconceptornotion.Thus,thesymbolawordsignifies“things”byvirtueofthe“concept”,associatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindofthespeakerofthelanguage.The“concept”thusconsideredismeaningoftheword. 1.66.Whatiscontextualism? “Contextualism”isbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfrom,orreduceitto,observablecontext:the“situationalcontext”andthe“linguisticcontext”.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatio-temporalsituation,asthefollowingfactorsarerelatedtothesituationalcontext:(1)thespeakerandthehearer;(2)theactionstheyareperformingatthetime;(3)variousexternalobjectsandevents;(4)deicticfeatures. The“linguisticcontext”isanotheraspectofcontextualism.Itconsiderstheprobabilityofoneword'sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanother,whichformspartofthemeaning,andanimportantfactorincommunication. 1.67.Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy? (1)C.C.Fries(1952)makesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning.Theformerisexpressedbythose“meaningful”partsofspeech,suchasnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs,andisgiveninthedictionaryassociatedwithgrammar.Thelatterexpressesthedistinctionbetweenthesubjectandtheobjectofasentence,oppositionsofdefiniteness,tensethenumber,andthedifferencebetweenstatements,questionsandrequests.Inaword,“thetotallinguisticmeaningofanyutteranceconsistsofthelexicalmeaningoftheseparatewordsplussuchstructuralmeaning…” (2)G.Leech(1981)categorizessevenkindsofmeaning,fiveofwhicharebroughtunderthe“associativemeaning”(seethefollowingchart)。 (3)Differentfromthetraditionalandthefunctionalapproach,F.R.Palmer(1981)andJ.Lyons(1977)suggestwedrawadistinctionbetweensentencemeaningandutterancemeaning,theformerbeingdirectlypredictablefromthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofthesentence,whilethelatterincludesallthevarioustypesofmeaningnotnecessarilyassociatedthereto. 1.68.Whatissynonymy? “Synonymy”isusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakers(lexicographers)relyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdefinitions.Somesemanticiansmaintain,however,thattherearenorealsynonyms,becausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects: (1)Inshadesofmeaning(e.g.,finish,complete,close,conclude,terminate,finalize,end,etc.); (2)Instylisticmeaning(see1.67); (3)Inemotivemeaning(oraffectivemeaning,see1.67); (4)Inrangeofuse(orcollocativemeaning,see1.67); (5)InBritishandAmericanEnglishusages[e.g.,autumn(BrE),fall78\n(AmE)]. SimeonPottersaid,“Languageislikedress.Wevaryourdresstosuittheoccasion.Wedonotappearatafriend'ssilver-weddinganniversaryingardeningclothes,nordowegopuntingontheriverinadinner-jacket.”Thismeansthelearninglfsynonymsisimportanttoanyonethatwishestousehislanguagefreelyandwell. 1.69.WhatisAntonymy?Howmanykindsofantonymsarethere? Theterm“antonymy”isusedforoppositionsofmeaning;wordsthatstandoppositeinmeaningarecalled“antonyms”,oropposites,whichfallintherecategories1)gradableantonyms(e.g,good-bad);(2)complementaryantonyms(e.g.,single-mar-ried);(3)relationalantonyms(e.g.,buy-sell)。 1.70.Whatishyponymy?Whatisahyponym?Whatissuperordinate? “Hyponymy”involvesusinthenotionofmeaninginclusion.Itisamatterofclassmembership.Thatistosay,whenXidakindofY,thelowertermXisthe“hyponym”,andtheuppertermYisthe“superordinate”.Twoormorehyponymssharingthesameonesuperordinatearecalled“co-hyponyms”.Forexample,“flower”isthesuperordinateof“tulip”,“violet”and“rose”,whicharetheco-hyponymsof“flower”。自考“英语语言学”资料(8) 1.71.Whatispolysemy?Whatishomonymy? “Polysemy”referstothesemanticphenomenonthatawordmayhavethanonemeaning.Forexample,“negative”,means(1)astatementsayingormeaning“no”,(2)arefusalordenial,(3)oneofthefollowingwordsandexpressions:no,not,nothing,never,notatall,etc.,(4)anegativephotographorfilm.Butwecansometimeshardlytellifaformhasseveralmeaningsoritisadifferentwordtakingthisform;hencethedifferencebetweenpolysemyandhomonymy. 1.72.Whatisentailment? “Entailment”canbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentences,withSentenceAentailingSentenceB: A:Hemarriedablondeheiress. B:Hemarriedablonde. Intermsoftruthvalue,thefollowingrelationshipsexistbetweenthesetwosentences(1)WhenAistrue,Bisnecessarilytrue;(2)WhenBisfalse,too;(3)whenAisfalse,Bmaybetrueorfalse;(4)WhenBistrue,Amaybetrueorfalse.Entailmentisbasicallyasemanticrelationorlogicalimplication,butwehavetoassumeco-referenceof“He”insentenceAandsentenceB,beforewehaveAentailB. 1.73.Whatispresupposition? Similartoentailment,“presupposition”isasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.Theabove-mentioned“WhenphraseNo.1”isalsotruewithpresupposition.Forexample: A:Thegirlhemarriedwasanheiress. B:Hemarriedagirl. Butthereisanimportantdifference:Presuppositionisnotsubjectto78\nnegation,i.e.,whenAisfalse,Bisstilltrue.Otherstatementsaboutthetruthvalueinpresuppositionare(1)WhenBistrue,Acaneitherbetrueorfalse;(2)WhenBisfalse,Ahasnotruthvalueatall.Presuppositiondoesnothavetobefoundbetweentwopropositions.Anexampleinpointis:“Whendidyoustopbeatingyourwife?”Thispresupposesthathehasbeenbeatinghiswife. 1.74.Whatiscomponentialanalysis? “Componentialanalysis”definesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,wemay“clip”thefollowingwords“Man”,“Woman”,“Boy”and“Girl”sothatwehaveonlyseparatepartsofthem. Man:+Human+Adult+Male Woman:+Human+Adult-Male Boy:+Human-Adult+Male Girl:+Huamn-Adult-Male 1.75.Whatispredicationanalysis?Whatisaone-placepredicate?Whatisatwo-placepredicate?Whatisano-placepredicate?Whataredown-gradedpredications? “Predicationanalysis”isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.“Predication”isusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commands,etc.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).The“predicate”isthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.Wemaynowdistinguisha“two-placepredicate”(whichgovernstwoarguments,e.g.subjectandobject),a“one-placepredicate”(whichgovernsoneargument,i.e.,subject)anda“no-placepredicate”thathassimplynoargument(norealsubjectorobject)。 1.76.Whatisalogicaloperator? (1)“Logicaloperator”makeonlyonekindofthe“logicalfactors”or“logicalmeans”,othersbeing“definiteness”,“coreference”,“tense”and“time”,sincepredicationisnotthewholeofasentenceorproposition.Allthesefactorsplayapartinprepositionalactualizationofthepredication——thepiningofapredicationdownaclaimaboutreality. (2)Exampleoflogicaloperatorsare“not”,“and”,“or”,“some”,“if”,“false”,etc.Theterm“logicaloperation”reflectsthefactthatthesemeaningelementsareoftenthoughtofasperformingoperations,controllingelementsofthesemanticsystem,sotospeak. 1.77.Whyiswritingimportant?Whyisspeechconsideredpriortowriting? (1)Languagecantaketheformofspeechorwriting,theformerusingsoundasmediumandthelatteremployingvisualsymbols.Noonecouldtellwhenmankindfirstspoke;norcouldpeopletellwhenmankinddevelopedthefirstwriting.Awritingsystemconsistsofagraphemespluscharacteristicfeaturesoftheiruse,resultinginthediversionofthewritingforms;wordwriting,syllabicwritingandsoundwriting. (2)Itiswidelyconsideredthatspeechistheprimarymedium,andwritingthesecondarymedium.Butthiscomparativediminutiondoesnotmeanthat78\nwritingisunimportant.Withtheshot-livedmemoryandthefinitecapacityofinformationstoring,writingisused,partlyforcompensationandpartlyforbettercommunication.Wecannottrustthenegotiationcounterpartsoweturntothewritingandsigningofanagreement.Writingleadspeopletotheacmeofscience,studyandresearch,andtotheultimatejoyofliterature 1.78.Whatisapictogram?Whatisanideogram? (1)A“pictogram”referstoaninscriptionrepresentingthefeaturesofaphysicalobject.TheHebrewandtheChineseorthographystillreflectstracesoftheirpictorialorigin.Forinstance,theletter“a”(aleph)imitatestheheadofanoxandtheletter“b”(beth)imitatesahorse.And“niú”,“mǎ”,“hǔ”andhundredsmoreofChinesewordsderivedfrom,andstillkeepthepictorialresemblanceto,theshapesofthethingsorobjects. (2)Theadvantageofpictogramsisthattheycanbeeasilyunderstoodbyanyone.Thatexplainswhyinternationalroadsignsandpublic-toiletsignsmakeawideuseofthem. (3)An“ideogram”meansanideapictureorideawriting.Inordertoexpresstheattributeofanobjectorconceptsassociatedwithit,thepictogram'smeaninghadtobeextended.Forinstance,apictureofthesundoesnotnecessarilyrepresenttheobjectitself,butconnotes“warmth”,“heat”,“light”,“daytime”,etc.Inspiteofitsdisadvantages,thelaterformofideogramsturnedouttobelinguisticsymbols,symbolsforthesoundsoftheseobjects.Theprocessiscalledthe“RebusPrinciple”indicatingthatwritingislikeariddlecomposedofwordsorsyllablesdepictedbysymbolsorpicturesthatsuggestthesoundofthewordsorsyllablestheyrepresent. 1.79.Whatiswordwriting?Whatissoundwriting?Whatissyllabicwriting? (1)Wordwritingreferstothewritingsystembasedonideogramsand/orpictograms,likeChinese(see1.78)。“Soundwriting”or“alphabeticwriting”,whichdominatestheworld,derivedformtheLatinalphabetwithmildadjustments.MostoftheEuropeanalphabetsbelongtothesoundwritingsystem,e.g.,Spanish,German,French,English,etc. (2)“Syllabicwriting”isaword-syllabuswriting,developedbytheEgyptians.Japaneseisatypicalsyllabic-writinglanguage,thoughderivedfromChinese,aSino-Tibetanlanguage.TheJapanesemodifiedtheChinesecharacterstheyhadborrowedfromancientChinasothattheJapanesesyllables(tothenumberoffifty)wereeachrepresented,eitherbywhatiscalled“hiragana”orbywhatisname“katakana”。 1.80.Whatisanalphabet?Whatisasyllabary? An“alphabet”referstothelettersorsignsrepresentingspeechsoundsusedinwritingalanguage,arrangedinaconventionalorder.A“syllabary”referstoasetortableorsystemofwrittencharactersrepresentingsyllablesratherthanindividualsounds.自考“英语语言学”资料(9)1.81.Whatisagrapheme?Whatisorthography? (1)A“grapheme”istheminimalconstructiveunitinthewritingsystemofa78\nlanguage.TheEnglishgraphemeAisrepresentedbyA,α,aetc. (2)Orthographymeanscorrectspelling,spellingrulesorattemptstoimprovespelling. 1.82.Whatisreference? “Reference”,asfaraswritingisconcerned,meansthatinasoundwritingsystemthegraphemesandthephonemesareexpectedtobuildupandtokeepupco-reference.Forinstance,theReferenceoftheEnglishgraphemeBgenerallyis“b”andthatofthegraphemeXis“ks”.Theproblemwithreferenceisthatmorethanonephonemecanberepresentedbyonesingleletterorgrapheme.ThegraphemeO,forexample,canrepresentitsitsdifferentcorrespondingphonemesasin:so[],money[],together[],sob[]. Forreferenceusedinthesenseof“sense”or“meaning”,placereferbackto1.64. 1.83.Whatisaffixation,conversionandcompounding? (1)“Affixation”isthemorphologicalprocesswherebygrammaticaloflexicalinformationisaddedtothebase(rootorstem).Ithasbeentheoldestandthemostproductiveword-formationmethodintheEnglishlanguageandsomeotherEuropeanlanguages.“Prefixation”meansadditionofaprefixtomakeanewword,while“suffixation”meansaddingasuffixtoaword.Theword“unfaithful”isresultofbothprefixationandsuffixation. (2)“Conversion”(calledsometimes“fullconversion”)isaword-formationprocessbywhichawordisalteredfromonepartofspeechintoanotherwithouttheaddition(ordeletion)ofanymorpheme.“Partialconversion”isalsoalterationwhenawordofoneword-classappearsinafunctionwhichischaracteristicofanotherword-class,e.g.,“thewealthy”(=wealthypeople)。 (3)“Compounding”issocomplexaword-formationprocessasfarasEnglishisconcernedthatthereisnoformalcriterionthatcanbeusedforthedefinitionofit,thoughitmaymeansimplythattwowordsormorecometogetherusedasonelexicalitem,like“dustbin”。 1.84.Whatisblending,abbreviationandbackformation? (1)“Blending”isarelativelycomplexformofcompoundinginwhichtworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots,e.g.,smog→smoke+fog,boatel→boat+hotel,etc. (2)“Abbreviation”,alsocalledinsomecases“clipping”,meansthatawordthatseemsunnecessarilylongisshortened,usuallybyclippingeitherthefrontorthebackpartofit,e.g.,telephone→phone,professor→prof.,etc. Broadlyspeaking,abbreviationincludesacronymsthataremadeupfromthefirstlettersofthelongnameofanorganization,e.g.,WorldBank→WB,EuropeanEconomicCommunity→EEC,etc.Otherexamplesofacronymscanbefoundwithterminologies,tobereadlikeoneword,e.g.,radiodetectingandranging→radar[].TestofEnglishasaForeignLanguage→TOEFL[],etc. (3)“Back-formation”referstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhere78\nashorterwordisderivedbydetectinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformalreadypresentinthelanguage.Itisaspecialkindofmetanalyais,combinedwithanalogicalcreation(see1.85),e.g.,editor→edit,enthusiasm→enthuse,etc. 1.85.Whatisanalogicalcreation?Whatisborrowing? Theprocessof“analogicalcreation”,asoneoftheEnglishtendenciesinEnglishword-formation,referstothephenomenonthatanewwordoranewphraseiscoinedbyanalogybetweenanewlycreatedoneandanexistingone.Forexample,“marathon”appearedattheFirstOlympicGamesandbyanalogymodernEnglishcreatedsuchwordsas“telethon”,“talkthon”,etc.Analogymaycreatesinglewords(e.g.,sunrise-moonrise,earthrise,etc.;earthquake-starquake,youthquake,etc.)andphrases(e.g.,environmentalpollution-soundpollution,airpollution,culturalpollution,etc.)。 “Borrowing”meanstheEnglishlanguageborrowedwordsfromforeignlanguages,whichfallinfourcategories:aliens,denizens,translation-loansandsemanticborrowings. “Aliens”areforeignloansthatstillkeeptheiralienshapes,i.e.,morphologicalandphonologicalfeatures,e.g.,“elite”,“coupdétat”,“coupé”,etc.(fromFrench)。“Deniens”,alsoforeignwords,havetransformedtheirforeignappearance,i.e.,theyhavebeenAngolcized(orAmericanized),e.g.,“get”(aScandinavianborrowing),“theater”(aFrenchloan),etc.“Hybrids”arealsodenizens,becausetheyarewordsmadeupoftwopartsbothfromforeignsoil,suchas“sociology”(“socio-”fromFrenchand–logyfromGreek)。 “Translation-loans”arewordsimportedbywayoftranslation,e.g.,“blackhumor”fromFrench(“humornoir”),“foundobject”formFrench,too(“objecttrouve”),etc.Finally,semanticborrowingshaveacquirednewmeaningundertheinfluenceoflanguageorlanguagesotherthanthesourcetongue.Forexample,“gift”mean“thepriceofawife”inOldEnglish(450-1150AD),andafterthesemanticborrowingofthemeaningof“giftorpresent”oftheScandinavianterm“gipt”,itmeantandstillmeans“gift”inthemodernsenseofit. 1.86.Whatisassimilation,dissimilationandmetathesis? (1)“Assimilation”referstochangeofasoundastheresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichiscalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.Theassimitativeprocessesatwordinlanguagecouldbeexplainedbythe“theoryofleasteffort”,i.e.,inspeakingwetendtoexertaslittleeffortaspossiblesothatwedonotwanttovarytoooftenplacesofarticulationinutteringasequenceofsounds.Assimilationtakesplaceinquickspeechveryoften.Inexpressionssuchas“immobile”,“illegal”,etc.,thenegativeprefixesshouldbeorhavebeen“in-”etymologically. (2)“Dissimilation”,oppositeofassimilation,istheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanothersound,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalikethanexpected.Astherearetwo[r]soundsintheLatinword“peregrines”,forinstance,thefirstsegmenthadtodissimilateinto[l],hencetheEnglishword“pilgrim”78\n (3)“Metathesis”isaprocessinvolvinganalterationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadoriginallybeenaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity.Forinstance,theword“bird”was“bird”inOldEnglish.Theword“ask”usedtobepronounced[ask]inOldEnglish,asstilloccursinsomeEnglishdialects.78