语言学教程胡壮麟 54页

注意：若无法显示音标，请将所附ipa-samdsild.TTF拷贝到“控制面板”的“字体”文件夹。AnIntroductiontoLinguistics语言学导论胡壮麟主编《语言学教程》（修订版）北京：北京大学出版社2001年Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.1Whystudylanguage?lLanguagesarethebestmirrorofthehumanmind.--Leibniz(莱布尼兹1646-1716)psychologymind/brainpedagogycognitivesciencelThethreebasicquestionsthatconcernChomskyare:(i)Whatconstitutesknowledgeoflanguage?(ii)Howisknowledgeoflanguageacquired?(iii)Howisknowledgeoflanguageputtouse?Leibniz,GottfriedWilhelm (1646-1716)Germanrationalistphilosopher,mathematician,andlogician.Hespenthislifeinthediplomaticandpoliticalserviceandin1700wasappointedfirstpresidentoftheAcademyofSciencesinBerlin.Leibnizischieflyknownasanexponentofoptimism;hebelievedthattheworldisfundamentallyharmoniousandgood,beingcomposedofsingleunits(monads),eachofwhichisself-containedbutactsinharmonywitheveryother;theseformanascendinghierarchyculminatinginGod.TheirharmonyisordainedbyGod,whoneveractsexceptforareasonthatrequiresit,andsothisworldisthebestofallpossibleworlds(aviewsatirizedinVoltaire'sCandide).Leibnizmadetheimportantdistinctionbetweennecessary(logical)truthsandcontingent(factual)truths,andproposedauniversallogicallanguagethatwouldeliminateambiguity.HealsodevisedamethodofcalculusindependentlyofNewton.Chomsky,(Avram)Noam (1928-–)UStheoreticallinguistandpoliticalactivist.HistheoryoftransformationalgrammarissetoutinSyntacticStructures(1957).Adistinctionismadebetweenaspeaker'slinguisticcompetence,whichisidealized,andactualperformance;thetheorysetsouttoaccountonlyfortheformer.Chomskyhasrevisedthetheorysince1957.1.2Whatislanguage?lLanguageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.–Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939)lLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.--Wardhaugh（沃道）lAlanguageisaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.–Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928-）lAlanguageisasystemformeanings.–Halliday（韩礼德1925-）Weshalldefinelanguageas“meaningpotential”:thatis,assetsofoptions,oralternatives,inmeaning,thatareavailabletothespeaker-hearer.–HallidaySapir,Edward 54\n(1884-1939)German-bornUSlinguisticsscholarandanthropologist.OneofthefoundersofAmericanstructurallinguistics,hecarriedoutimportantworkonAmericanIndianlanguagesandlinguistictheory.HisbookLanguage(1921)presentshisthesisthatlanguageshouldbestudiedwithinitssocialandculturalcontext.AccordingtotheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,inwhichSapircollaboratedwithhispupilBenjaminLeeWhorf(1897-1941),aculture'slanguageembodiesthewayinwhichitunderstandstheworldanddictateshowthosewhousethatlanguagethinkabouttheworld.Thismaybeduetostructuralfactors,suchasthewaytimeisexpressedinverbtenses,aswellastomoresuperficiallyobviousfeaturessuchasvocabulary.1.1DesignfeaturesoflanguagelDesignfeaturesConceptintroducedbyC.F.Hockettinthe1960sofasetofkeypropertiesoflanguagenotsharedornotknowntobeshared,asaset,withsystemsofcommunicationinanyotherspecies.Theirnumberandnamesvaryfromoneaccounttoanother;butallinclude,asamongthemostimportant,thepropertiesofduality,arbitrariness,andproductivity.1.1.1Arbitrariness任意性:Thepropertyoflanguagebywhichthereisingeneralnonatural(i.e.logical)relationbetweentheformofasinglelexicalunitanditsmeaning.书booklivrerosemotivated理据sheepcowmoomooquackoinkbedroomWhat’sinaname?thatwhichwecallaroseByanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.–Shakespeare(莎士比亚1564-1616)名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。--《荀子·正名》1.1.2Duality二重性Languageconsistsoftwolevelsofstructures.Thelower(secondary)levelisadefinitesetofmeaninglesssounds,suchas[h],[i:],[l],[e],[f],[t]whichcombinetoformmeaningfulunits(morphemes,words,suchashe,left)whichconstituteahigher(primary)level.a:pkpa:kparkka:pcarp1.1.3Creativity创造性Languageiscreativeinthesensethatitsuserscanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.1.1.4Displacement移位性Bydisplacementismeantthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingsthatarenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofcommunication.lDai(1989):1.creativity,2.arbitrariness,3.duality,4.displacement,5.culturaltransmissionlHu(1988):1.arbitrabiness2.duality3.productivity4.displacement5.culturaltransmission6.interchangabilitylHu(2001):1.arbitrariness2.duality3.productivity4.displacementWang(1988):1.双层性2.能产性3.任意性4.互易性5.专用性6.不受环境限制7.传授性1.2Originoflanguagespeculativeandcontroversial54\n1.1Functionsoflanguage1.1.1Informative信息功能Languageservesaninformativefunctionwhenitisusedtoexpressthespeaker’sopinion,tostateafact,ortoreasonthingsout.(alternativelytermedideationalfunctioninHallidayanframework)1.1.2Interpersonalfunction人际功能Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.1.1.3Performative行事功能Languagecanbeusedtodothings,toperformaction.e.g.“Isurrender.”“I’lldoittonight.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”“Isentenceyoutothreeyearsinprison.”1.1.4Emotivefunction感情功能Theuseoflanguagetorevealthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.e.g.“Ouch!”,“I’mterriblysorryabout…”(alternativelycalledexpressivefunction)1.1.5Phaticcommunion寒暄交谈Theuseoflanguagetoestablishormaintainacomfortablesocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutinvolvinganyfactualcontent.E.g.greetings,farewells,andtalkingabouttheweather.1.1.6Recreationalfunction娱乐功能Theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit.E.g.singing,poetrywriting.1.1.7Metalingualfunction元语言功能Theuseoflanguagetomakestatementsaboutlanguageitself.Thelanguageaboutwhichtheyaremadeiscalledtheobjectlanguage.E.g.aChinesegrammarofEnglish;tosaythatbookispronounced/bUk/istomakeametalinguisticstatementaboutthatword.LanguageA(obj):EnglishparkcarpLanguageB(tool):Chinese,EnglishQuirketal.1985pa:kka:pMetaphysicsmetaphysicsmetachemistrymetascience科学学science1.1.8Poetic(Functionoflanguage)definedbyJakobsonintermsoforientationtowards,orfocuson,“themessageforitsownsake”.Thus,inordinaryspeech,itisbyvirtueofthepoeticfunctionthate.g.incoordination,onewilltendtoputshorterphrasefirst:Irememberespeciallythewineandtheviewfromtheterrace,ratherthan,althoughintermsofotherfunctionstheyareequivalent,…theviewfromtheterraceandthewine.lHu(1988):1.phatic2.directive3.informative4.interrogative5.expressive6.evocative7.performative(BTW,Dai1989makesnomentionoflanguagefunctions.)lHu(2001:10-16):1.informative2.interpersonal3.performative4.emotive5.phatic6.recreational7.metalinguallHu(2001:151-152):KarlBühler’stripartiteclassification:1.representative2.expressive3.appelative(vocative)RomanJakobson’ssix-functionclassification:1.referential2.emotive3.conative4.metalinguistic5.poetic6.phaticHalliday:p.415sevenfunctionsinchildren’slanguage:1.instrumental2.regulatory3.interactional4.personal5.heuristic6.imaginative7.informativethreemetafunctionsinadult’slanguage:1.ideational54\n2.interpersonal3.textuallWang(1988:11-13):语言是1.交际的工具2.认知世界的工具3.艺术创作的工具lChomsky(1979:88):Languageservesessentiallyfortheexpressionofthought.lChomsky(1980:230):Wemustrejecttheviewthatthepurposeoflanguageiscommunication.(Cdisagreesthatthesolepurposeoflang.iscommunication.)1.1Whatislinguistics?Thescientificstudyoflanguage.parameterwhatandwhyobservatoryadequacy,descriptiveadequacy,explanatoryadequacyMandarin1.2Microlinguistics1.2.1Phonetics语音学Thestudyofthenature,production,andperceptionofsoundsofspeech,inabstractionfromthephonologyofanyspecificlanguage.Variouslydividedintoacousticphonetics,articulatoryphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.(Thebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthephysicalcharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classification,andtranscription.Cf.transcript1.2.2Phonology音系学Thestudyofthesoundsystemsofindividuallanguagesandofthenatureofsuchsystemsgenerally.(Phonologyidentifiesthesetofspeechsoundsforeachlanguage,howtheyarearrangedtoformmeaningfulunits,andthefunctionofeachsound.Phonologyrevealswhatthepossiblecombinationsofsoundsinalanguageareandexplainswhycertainwordstaketheformtheydo.)1.2.3Morphology形态学Morphologyisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses.1.2.4Syntax句法学Thebranchoflinguisticswhichstudiestherulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences.1.2.5Semantics语义学Thestudyofmeaning.SeenbyBréal,inthelate19thcentury,asanemergingscience(Frenchsémantique)opposedtophonetics(phonétique)asascienceofsounds.(Matthews,1997)1.2.6Pragmatics语用学Thestudyofthemeaningsthatsentenceshaveinparticularcontexts.1.3Macrolinguistics1.3.1Psycholinguistics心理语言学Anystudyoflanguageinorfromtheviewpointofpsychology.Appliedsincethe1960stotwomainfields:theempiricalstudyofthedevelopmentoflanguageinchildren(developmentalpsycholinguistics);andtheinvestigationthroughexperimentsofthepsychologicalmechanismsfortheproductionandunderstandingofspeech(experimentalpsycholinguistics).1.3.2Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anystudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety,includingthesocialfunctionsoflanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.Forexample,Labovstudiesthecorrelationsbetweenlinguisticvariables(e.g.theprecisephoneticqualityofavowel,ortheabsenceofacertain54\nelementinaconstruction)andnon-linguisticsvariablessuchasthesocialclassofspeakers,theirage,sex,etc.1.1.1Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学Itusesthetheoriesandmethodsofanthropologytostudylanguagevariationandlanguageuseinrelationtotheculturalpatternsandbeliefsofman.e.g.thestudyoflesser-knownlanguagesthroughfieldwork;emergenceoflanguage;ancestrallanguage1.1.2Computationallinguistics计算语言学Theuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage(alsoknownas“naturallanguage”,todistinguishitfromcomputerlanguages).E.g.machinetranslation,speechsynthesis1.2Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.2.1Descriptivevs.prescriptive描写vs.规定Alinguisticstudyisdescriptiveifitdescribesandanalyzeslinguisticfactsobserved;itisprescriptiveifitlaysdownrulesforgrammaticalcorrectness.It’sme.Whodidyouspeakto?Ihaven’tdonenothing.呆板1.2.2Synchronicvs.diachronic共时vs.历时Thestudyoflanguageasitsexistsataparticularpointintimeissynchronic.E.g.AGrammarofAncientChinese;Thestudyoflanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisdiachronic.E.g.FromOldEnglishtoStandardEnglish.Sarsfigureskatingsynchronizedswimming1.2.3Languevs.parole语言vs.言语AdistinctionmadebytheSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussure(索绪尔1857-1913).Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityandparolereferstotheactualizedlanguage,orrealizationoflangue.Asasocialproduct,langueisasetofconventionthatmembersofaspeechcommunityabideby.Itcanbethoughtofasthegeneralizedrulesofthelanguage.Paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsorapplicationsoftherules.i.Langueisabstract;paroleisspecifictothesituationinwhichitoccurs;ii.Langueisnotactuallyspokenbyanyone;paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent;parlerParlezvousfrancais/anglais?iii.Langueisrelativelystableandsystematic;paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints.FordeSaussure,paroleisamassofconfusedfactsandnotsuitableforsystematicinvestigation.Whatthelinguisthastodoistoabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole–thatis,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics.E.g.thememorizationofmultiplicationtable(乘法表);BA-constructioninChinese(“把”字句)isthehardestforlearnersofChineseasL2.Langueisthesystemofalanguage,“Itisthesocialproductwhoseexistencepermitstheindividualtoexercisehislinguisticfaculty.”Paroleisactualspeech,“executivesideoflanguage”.Itisthedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolethatleadstothedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology.Phoneticsstudiesspeechsoundsfromaphysicalpointofviewandphonologystudiesthefunctionalunitswithinthelinguisticsystem.e.g.book:took.Thesamedistinctionbetweenwhatbelongstoparticularactsandwhatbelongstothesystemleadsusalsotothedistinctionbetweenutteranceandsentence.54\nAnutteranceisaunitofparole;asentenceisaunitoflangue.Twoutterancescanbetherealizationofthesamesentence.E.g.I,he,they,Oncetheyareusedinspecificcontext,theyrefertospecificpersons.ThisleadsSaussuretosuggestthetermsofsignificationandvalue.utteranceanythingspokenonaspecificoccasion.Oftenopposedto“sentence”:e.g.thewords“Comehere!”,spokenbyaspecificspeakerataspecifictime,formanutterancewhichisoneinstanceofasentenceComehere!Henceutterancemeaning,asthemeaningofsomethingasspokenonaspecificoccasion,vs.sentencemeaning,asthemeaningthatasentenceissaidtohaveindependentlyofanysuchoccasion.1.1.1Competencevs.performance语言能力vs.语言运用Competenceisthespeaker-listener’sknowledgeofhislanguageandperformanceistheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Competenceenablesalanguageusertoproduceandunderstandsentences,includingsentencesthathehasneverheardbefore,andtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities(Theshootingofthehunteristerrible.Everyteacherlikessomestudent.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.Visitingauntsisannoying.Johnpaintsnudes.Johnbrokethewindow.Johnloadedtheapplesontothecart.Johnloadedthecartwithapples.Johnsprayedthewallwithpaint.Johnsprayedpaintontothewall.Partitive/holisticeffect).Aperson’scompetenceisstablebuthisperformanceisoftenaffectedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors,suchaspressure,distress,anxiety,embarrassment,memorylimitations,distractions,shiftsofattentionandinterest,anderrors(randomorcharacteristic)inapplyinghisknowledgeofthelanguageinactualperformance.Slipsofthetongue,falsestarts,unnecessarypauses,amongotherthings,allbelongtotheimperfectionofperformance.Aspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhiscompetence.Chomskymaintainsthatthetaskofalinguististodiscovertheunderlyingknowledgeofgrammarfromthedataofperformance.i.Saussure’slangueisasocialproduct,asetofconventionsforaspeechcommunity;Chomskyregardscompetenceasapropertyofthemindofeachindividual;ii.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalpointofviewwhileChomskylooksatitfromapsychologicalpointofview.iii.Saussureregardslangueasasystemicinventoryofitems;Chomsky,influencedbyHumboldt,Wilhelmvon(洪堡特1767-1835),referstocompetenceasasystemofgenerativeprocess.(infiniteuseoffinitemeans)Communicativecompetence:Theabilitynotonlytoformgrammaticallycorrectsentencesbutalsotousethesesentencesappropriately(e.g.knowinghowtobeginandendaconversation;howtothank,apologize,request,invite,etc.;whattopicsaretabooed;howtousedifferentaddressforms称呼语withdifferentpersonsandindifferentsituations.CommunicativecompetenceisproposedbyD.H.Hymes(海姆斯),whotakesintoaccountthesocio-culturalfactorsoflanguageandemphasizesthevariouswaysofspeaking.HecriticizestheChomskyannotionoflinguisticcompetenceas“aGardenofEdenview”,54\narguingthatthereisdifferentialcompetencewithinaheterogeneousspeechcommunity,bothundoubtedlyshapedbyacculturation.ButChomskyinsiststhat:Linguistictheoryisconcernedprimarilywithanidealspeaker-listener,inacompletelyhomogeneousspeech-community,whoknowsitslanguageperfectlyandisunaffectedbysuchgrammaticallyirrelevantconditionsasmemorylimitations,distractions,shiftsofattentionandinterest,anderrors(randomorcharacteristic)inapplyinghisknowledgeofthelanguageinactualperformance.Thenotionof“acceptable”isnottobeconfusedwith“grammatical.”Acceptableisaconceptthatbelongstothestudyofperformance,whereasgrammaticalnessbelongstothestudyofcompetence.Infact,atheoryoflanguageuseandatheoryofgrammaticalknowledgearecomplementary.Chomskyclaimsthatestablishingknowledgeitselflogicallyprecedesstudyinghowpeopleacquireandusethatknowledge,he(1980:225)alsointroducedthetermpragmaticcompetence–knowledgeofhowlanguageisrelatedtothesituationinwhichitisused.e.g.It’sratherhotinhere.(fan,airconditioner)Canyouswim?(Savethedrowningperson!)Hisattentionandresearchonlinguisticcompetenceisasvaluableastheoreticalphysics.MP3=Motionpictureexpertgroup31.1.1Eticvs.emic唯素vs.唯位An–eticaccountofthesoundsoflanguagewoulddescribethemimpressionisticallyassounds(i.e.as“phon-etic”units)inadvanceofananalysisassigningthemtophonemic(i.e.“-emic”)units;Thusananalysisofsoundswhichaimstoestablishphonemesisanemic,asopposedtoeticanalysis.An–eticunitisanyphysicalpropertiesobservablebytheeyes,whereasan–emicunitisaformalunitinaclosedsystem.e.g.Therearesomecommonphoneticpropertiesabout[l]whichispresentinmostlanguages,so[l]isan–eticunitwhichcouldbeobservedanddescribedbymeansofimpression;alternatively,itcouldalsobedescribedasamemberofthesoundsysteminanylanguage,infact,[l]hasallophonesincertainsituations,inthiscase,/l/isan–emicunit.PlaylakeapplegirltopstopChapter2SpeechSounds2.1SpeechproductionandperceptionlSpeechastheprimarymediumoflanguage,writing,secondaryi.Speechhasahistoryofatleast100,000years,writingonlyabout6,000years;ii.Childrenlearntospeakbeforetheylearntowrite;iii.Theblindcanspeakbutthedeafcannot,soundchannelimportantsightchannel;iv.Tensofmillionsofpeopleinthepresentworldspeaklanguagesw/owrittenformsandhaveonlyoralliterature.lTheimportanceofwritingi.Oralmessagesaresubjecttodistortion,writtenmessagesremainexactlythesamewhetherreadathousandyearslaterortenthousandmilesaway;54\ni.Humanmemoryisshort-livedandthebrain’sstoringcapacityisfinite,whichcanbeovercomewiththehelpofwriting;ii.Writingcantranscendtimeandspace,theadventoffilms,radios,recordersandTVcannotsupersedethisfunctionofwriting,e.g.recordingtechnologyisstudiedandcommunicatedthroughwriting.larticulatoryphonetics发音语音学acousticphonetics声学语音学auditoryphonetics听觉语音学2.2Speechorgansarticulators:nasal鼻的;鼻音alveolar齿龈的;齿龈音palate颚(theroofofthemouth)velar软腭的;软腭音uvula小舌vocalfolds=vocalcords声带vocaltract声道2.3Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.1SegmentsanddivergencesSegment音段Segmentsareobtainedbydividingacontinuousspeechintosuccessivediscrete(离散)units,suchasphonemesandmorphemes.E.g.Heleft.canbecutintohe,left,or[h],[i:],[l],[e],[f],[t].GeorgeBernardShaw(萧伯纳，乔治·伯纳德1856-1950)fish--ghoti:enough,women,nationReasonsfordivergencebetweenpronunciationandspellinginEnglish:i.Moresoundsthanletters;ii.Somesounds,esp.vowels,changedbutEnglishorthographyremainshighlyconservative;GreatVowelShift:AseriesofchangesinlateMiddleEnglish(MiddleEnglish1066-1485),bywhichcloselongvowelsbecamediphthongsandotherlongvowelsshiftedonestoploser.Thus,inthefrontseries,[A:]>[E:],[E:]>[e:],[e:]>[i:],[i:]>[aI];inthebackseries,[O:]>[o:],[o:]>[u:],[u:]>[aU].Ofteninterpretedasaunitaryphenomenon;henceasaclassicexampleofachainshift.Itisinconsequenceoftheseandotherchangesthat[eI]inname(formerly[a:])isspelleda,or[aI]inshine(formerly[i:])spelledi.Theyarealsothemainfactorinthedevelopmentofvowelalternationsbetweenlong[eI]andshort[a](insane/sanity),long[aI]andshort[I](divine/divinity),andsoon.Inthe15thcentury,EnglishvowelsunderwentasubstantialshiftknownastheGreatVowelShift,e.g.thecurrentdiphthong[aI]intime,wideanddinewasalmostcertainlyalong[i:],whilethevowelnowpronounced[i:]asingreenandmeetwasalong[e:],butshort(orlax)vowelswerenotaffectedinthesameway.iii.Manyloanwords.stomach[OFrstomaque[p=]/[s]_________[p]elsewhere(2)/l/>[l]/____________V54\n[5]/V___________Freevariants自由变体:cup[kVp][kVp¬];either,direct,tomato,potato.2.9Phonologicalprocess2.9.1Assimilation同化:aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofneighboringsound.Assimilationisoftenusedsynonymouswithcoarticulation.Ifafollowingsoundinfluencesaprecedingsound,itisregressiveassimilation逆同化:e.g.can,tan,tenth,ninth,sink,mink,gooseberry,raspberry,cupboard,fivepence,haveto,usedto,pancake,sunglass.Progressiveassimilation顺同化istheconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundinfluencesafollowingsound,e.g.works,words,pears,writes,rides,eyes,laughed,loved,played.2.9.2PhonologicalprocessesandphonologicalrulesEpenthesis插音;增音:Theinsertionofavowelorconsonantbetweensounds.sixths[sIksTs],anapple,anhour:2>[n]/[@]_______V;Aime-t-ilMarie?2.9.3Ruleorderinge.g.thepronunciationofEnglishnominalpluralformsz>s/[-voice,C]________(Devoicing)2>@/sibilant_________z(Epenthesis)EpenthesiswillalwaysapplybeforeDevoicing.2.10DistinctiveFeaturesDistinctiveFeature区别性特征:Aphoneticfeaturewhichdistinguishonephonologicalunit,especiallyonephoneme,fromanother.E.g.±voiceisadistinctivefeatureinEnglish,sincee.g.bitandpit,butvoiceisnotinAustralia.Theplacefeaturesaredividedinto4values:Labial唇音,Coronal舌面前音；舌尖音,Dorsal舌背音,Guttural颚音,2.11SyllablesSuprasegmentalfeatures超语段特征:Suprasegmental:(inphoneticsandphonology)unitswhichextendovermorethanonesoundinanutterance,theprincipalsuprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllables,stress,tone,andintonation.2.11.1ThesyllablestructureSyllable音节:Aphonologicalunitconsistingofavowelorotherunitthatcanbeproducedinisolation.Asyllablemusthaveanucleus音节核orpeak(节)峰.Wecandivideasyllableintotwoparts,therhyme(orrime韵;韵脚)andtheonset节首辅音.Asthevowelwithintherhymeisthenucleus,theconsonants(s)afteritisthecoda节尾辅音;符尾.Asyllablethathasnocodaisanopensyllable,whileasyllablewithcodaisaclosedsyllable.TheGreekletterσ(sigma)isusedtorepresentasyllable,e.g.claspσORNCo54\nklasp2.11.2Sonorityscale响音阶Whydowehaveclasp,help,lump,pray,quick,butnot*lkaps,*hepl,*lupm,*rpay,*wqick?Sonority:Theinherentloudnessofasound.Thedegreeofsonorityofdifferentclassesofsoundaffectstheirpossiblepositionsinthesyllable:Sonorityscale:Mostsonorous5Vowels4Approximants:[w,r,j,l]3Nasals:[m,n,N]2Fricatives:[f,v,T,D,s,z,S,Z,h]Leastsonorous1stop:[p,b,t,d,k,g]Thesonorityofeachsoundgraduallyrisestoapeakatthenucleusandthenfallsatthecoda.Thephoneme/s/isexceptional,noexplanationisfoundfor[spl-],[spr-],[str-],[skw-].cf.Daietal.1989:25Sequentialrules:1.Ifawordbeginswitha[w,r,j,l],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel;2.Ifthreeconsonantsclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:1)thefirstphonememustbe/s/2)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/3)thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.3.Thenasal/N/neverbeginsawordinEnglish,butitdoesinsomeChinesedialects,e.g.Xiangdialect/Na/伢means“boy”,呀呀叫means“cry”,Cantonese?2.11.3SyllabificationandthemaximalonsetprincipleMaximalonsetprinciple最大节前辅音原则:Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.e.g.[kVn.trI]country.2.12PitchandTonePitch音调:音高:Whenwelistentopeoplespeaking,wecanhearsomesoundsorgroupsofsoundsintheirspeechtoberelativelyhigherorlowerthanothers.Thisrelativeheightofspeechsoundsasperceivedbyalisteniscalled“pitch”.e.g.theEnglishquestionReady?meaning“Areyouready?”Thesecondsyllable–dysoundshigherthanthefirstone.Thefasterthevocalcordsvibrate,thehigherthepitch.Thepitchofasounddependsontherateofvibrationofthevocalcords,whichinturnisdeterminedbythelengthofthevocalcords.Inmaleadultsthevocalcordsaretypicallylonger(about23mm)thaninwomen(about18mm).Thereforethesoundsproducedbymenhavealowerpitchthanthosebywomen.Pitchisasuprasegmentalfeature,whosesmallestdomainofapplicationisthesyllable.Differentvibrationrateofvocalcordsproducewhatisknowninacoustictermsasdifferentfrequencies,andinauditorytermsasdifferentpitches.Tone1声调:Def.1Pitchvariationsmaybedistinctivelikephonemes,thatis,theymaycontributetodistinguishbetweendifferentwords.Inthisfunction,pitchvariationsarecalledTones,andlanguagesusingtonestodistinguishthe54\nmeaningsofwordsarecalledTonelanguages.Def.2Heightofpitchandchangeofpitchwhichisassociatedwiththepronunciationofsyllablesorwordsandwhichaffectsthemeaningoftheword.E.g.MandarinChinese,atonelanguage声调语言,makesadistinctionbetweenfourdifferenttones:mAç(highleveltone阴平)“mother”(Trymothermother)mAæ(highrisingtone阳平)“hemp”mAì(fall-rise上声)“horse”mAè（highfallingtone去声）“scold”TonelanguagesusedinVietnam,Thailand,WestAfrican,andCentralAmerican.Tone2语调:alsopitchmovement.Achangeinpitchwhichaffectsthemeaningandfunctionofutterancesindiscourse.Inatoneunitthesyllableonwhichpitchmovementbeginsiscalledthetonicorthetonicsyllable.Thetonicsyllableisoftenthelastprominentsyllableintheunit.e.g.He’sêDRUNKrisingtonesurprisedexclamation,He’sèDRUNK,afallingtone,expressdisgust.Intonation:Whenpitch,stress,andlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.2.13StressStressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Fixedstress:thefirstsyllableinHungarian;thelastsyllableinTurkish,French;thepenultimate(nexttothelast)syllableinPolish;Freestress:English,Russian.Primarystress,secondarystress;TheSoundPatternofEnglish(ChomskyandHalle,1968)long/tenseandshort/laxvaluesofthefivevowelletters:a,e,i,o,u54insane,prostate,explainobscene,esthete,convenedivine,parasite,divideverbose,telescope,composeprofound,pronounce,denounce.insanity,prostatic,explanatoryobscenity,esthetic,conventiondivinity,parasitic,divisionverbosity,telescopic,compositorprofundity,pronunciation,denunciation.54Notingthepatternsofsuchalternations,C&Hproposevariousrulestoaccountfor“tense”and“lax”vowelsinappropriateenvironments.Thismeansthatawordlikeconvenecanbeassignedanunderlyingformcontainingavowelwhichislaxortenseaccordingtoitsenvironment–lax,e.g.beforetwoconsonants(asinconvention)andtensewhennosuffixispresent(asinconvene).“strong”and“weak”clusters(C&H,1968:29):Aweakclusterisasequenceconsistingofashortvowelfollowedbyatmostoneconsonant;astrongclusterconsistseitherofashortvowelfollowedbyatleasttwoconsonantsorofalongvowelordiphthongfollowedbyanynumberofconsonants.Nowthisstructuraldifferenceisrelevantinastressrulewhichappliedtowordssuchasthefollowing,whichendinaweakclusterandhavestressonthepenultimate（/pI"nVltIm@t/倒数第二的）54\nsyllable:developdeliverinheritinhibitedit;whereasthosethatendinastrongclusterhavestressonthefinalsyllable:elopecompleterevealallowexist.Butmorphologicalfactorsarealsorelevant–inparticularcertainsuffixeshavetheirowneffectonthestresspattern.Thusthesuffix–anceor–ence,althoughitendsinastrongcluster,doesnotattractthestresswhenaddedtotheabovewords,i.e.deliverdeliveranceinheritinheritanceallowallowanceexistexistence.Ontheotherhand,thesuffix–ionrequiresstressontheprecedingsyllable,whichinsomecasescausesashiftofstress:inhibitinhibitionediteditiondedicatededicationFurthermoreifword-stressareintendedtocoverthepatterningofcompoundsandphrases,theymustaccountforttheEnglishtendencytostressthefirstelementofacompoundbutthefinalelementsofaphrase.CompoundswithspecialmeaningOrdinaryphrasen.+n.54"beauty-spot(picturesqueplace)"bookworm(person)"cross-word(typeofpuzzle)"ironmaster(manufacturer)"paper-boy(boysellingnewspaper)"watermark(markinpaper)"waterspout(columnofwater)"beauty"spot(patchontheface)"book%worm(insect)"cross"word(angryword)"iron"master(veryseveremaster)"paper"boy(modelmadeofpaper)"water%mark(levelofwater)"water%spout(spoutforwater)54a.+n.54"blackberry(berrynotnecessarilyblack黑莓)"blackbird(birdsnotnecessarilyblack乌鸫)"blackboard(classroomwritingsurface)"blackshirt(memberofafascistparty黑衫党)"blacksmith(workeriniron)"bluebook(officialpublication)"bluestocking(pedanticwoman)"dark-room(forphotography)"greenhouse(ahothouse)"greenstuff(greenvegetable)"hotdog(sausageinabreadroll)"redcoat(Britishsoldier)"Englishteacher(whoteachesEnglish)"English%book(toteachEnglish)"White%House(president’smansion)"white%paper(Britishgovt.publication)"yellow%book(Frenchgovt.publication)"black"berry"black"bird"black"board"black"shirt"black"smith"blue"book"blue"stocking54\n"dark"room(onethatisdark)"green"house"green"stuff(anythinggreen)"hotdog(anoverheatedanimal)"red"coat"English"teacher(whoisEnglish)"English"book(printedinEnglish)"White"house"white"paper"yellow"book54RPdiffersfromGA(GeneralAmerican);partofspeech(grammaticalfunction);IthasbeensaidthattheEnglishandtheAmericansaretwogreatpeopleseparatedbyonelanguage.–EdwardT.Hall同英、美英语中少量的语法差异相比，发音差异就有规律多了。从这一点上说，我们可以断言两者之间的最大差别在于发音。--P.StrevensI.语音比较1.元音1）在GA中，凡有字母r，就有[r]音：fearhairpoorfireflowerfarfourworkheardworkermurmurbitter2）字母a在-ff,-lf,-m,-n,-ss,-sk,-st,-th等前面，RP读[A:]，GA读[{]:staffhalfexampledanceadvantagepasspasttaskpathlaughclaspcraft3）RP的[O:]在GA中读得较短、较开，接近于[O]：boughtcaughtalllawtalkwalkwatersawpaw4）RP的[O]在GA中读得更开，且不圆唇，读作[A]：gotdoctorjobstoplostnothot5）RP的双元音[eI]，在GA中不一定都是双元音，在清辅音前读作[e]，在音节末或浊辅音前要产生向[I]滑动的过程，可注音为[eI]:RPGAgate[geIt][get]make[meIk][mek]gay[geI][geI]grade[greId][greId]6）RP的[e]，舌位等于[eI]的起始音，GA的[e]，舌位较低，口较开，等于[E@]的起始音，故标作[E]:getbetterwellyesquestion7）R前后都有元音时，RP在前面的元音与r之间加[@]，而GA不加:hero(RP:["hI@r@U];GA:["hIro])periodexperienceMaryvarioustouristpluralcuriousduringtiringflowery8）RP的[ju:]，在[t,d,l,n,T,s,z]之后，GA多读作[u:]，但也有人读作[ju:]:newdutytubelureenthusiasmassumeresumesuitsuperior9）GA中元音的鼻音化，美国干燥多变的气候引起鼻腔变化？元音的鼻音化往往出现在鼻辅音[]之前或之后，发音时，缩短元音，增强鼻音，如answer,me。2.辅音（差别更少）1）wh-在GA中除who，whom，whose,whole等与RP相同，都读[h]，其他都读[hw]，亦有人读[w]，但被认为不标准：54\nwhatwhichwhenwherewhywhitewheelwhisperwhalewhether1）RP中[l]仅在音节末或辅音前读dark[5]，GA中[l]在元音之间和词首时也多读成[5]:follow(RP:["fOl@U],GA:["fA5oU])villagedevelopsillylightwillbelt2）[t]在元音之间时，GA把它发得很弱，近似[]，有轻微声带振动，用[º]表示:better(RP:["bet@],GA:["bEº3`])littlewaterwritingcf.writer/riderlatter/ladderwhiter/wider3）RP中[S]和[Z]的使用不统一，如version，但以S]为主，GA中则以[Z]为主:Version(RP:["v3:Sn],GA:["v3rZn`])coercionAsiaPersiaII.单词发音比较1.元音不同advertisement/RP:@d"v@:tism@nt;GA:%{dv@```taism@nt/ate/RP:et;GA:eit/anti-/RP:"{nti-;GA:"{ntai-/(e.g.antibiotic/RP:"{ntibai"Otik;GA:"{ntaibai"Otik/)address/RP:@"dres;GA:"{dres/been/RP:bi:n;GA:bIn/borough/RP:"bVr@;GA:"bVro/cadre/RP:"kA:d@;GA:"kA:d@r/clerk/RP:klA:k;GA:kl3`k/current/RP:"kVr@nt;GA:"k3r@nt/cf.cut,furrow,hurryego/RP:"eg@U;GA:"igo/either/RP:"aID@;GA:"iD@/epoch/RP:"i:pOk;GA:"Ep@k/idyll/RP:"IdIl;GA:"aIdl/leisure/RP:"leZ@;GA:"liZ@r/lever/RP:"li:v@;GA:"lEv@r/metaphor/RP:"met@f@;GA:"met@%fOr/missile/RP:"misail;GA:"mis@l/mobile/RP:"m@Ubail;GA:"moUb@l,"moUbi:l/patriot/RP:"p{tri@t;GA:"peItrI@t/progress(n)/RP:"pr@Ugres;GA:"prOgrEs/record/RP:"rek3:d;GA:"rEk@rd/shone/RP:SQn;GA:Son/thorough/RP:"TVr@;GA:"TVro/tomato/RP:t@"ma:t@U;GA:t@"meIto/tournament/RP:"tU@n@m@nt;GA:"t3rn@m@nt/vacation/RP:v@"keiS@n;GA:vei"keiS@n/z/RP:zed;GA:zi/zenith/RP:"zenIT;GA:"zinIT/54\n1.辅音不同erase(RP:[I"reIz],GA:[I"reIs])herb(RP:[h3:b],GA:[3rb])grease(RP:[gri:s],GA:[griz])lieutenant(RP:[lef"ten@nt],GA:[lu"tEn@nt]schedule(RP:["Sedju:],GA:["skEdZUl])suggest(RP:[s@"dZest],GA:[s@g"dZEst])thither(RP:["DID@],GA:["TID@r])2.省略弱化元音是RP一大特点，而GA中这些音较少省略，且常不弱化:history/RP:"histri;GA:"hist@ri/library/RP:"laibr@ri;GA:"lai%brEri/dictionary/RP:"dikSnri;GA:"dikS@%nEri/ordinary/RP:"O:dnri;GA:"Ordi%nEri/territory/RP:"terit@ri;GA:"tEr@%tori/nationalize/RP:"n{Sn@laiz;GA:"n{S@n@laiz/natural/RP:"n{tSrl;GA:"n{tS@r@l/literature/RP:"litritS@;GA:"lit@r@tSUr/3.单词重音不同1）主重音的差别许多以-ary和-ory结尾的词中，RP的主重音在第二音节，而GA在第一音节："ancillary(GA)an"cillary(RP)laboratorycorollarycapillarycentenary以-ate结尾的双音节词也有同样的差异："dictate(GA)dic"tate(RP)dilatedonatemigratestagnatevibratetruncate以-arily结尾的词中，GA的主重音从词首移到了词缀-arily的第一个音节上:ex%traordi"narily,%neces"sarily,%arbi"trarily,%volun"tarily,%secon"darily,在RP中，这种移动偶有发生，但多属半开玩笑性质。p.s.laboratory(RP),laboratory(GA)debris(RP),debris(GA)garage(RP)garage(GA)2）次重音的差别GA常把主重音放在词首，RP常把主重音放在后面，故GA的次重音往往在主重音后面，而RP的次重音在主重音前面。Toohairsplitting…5.复合词重音的差异1）主重音的不同RP和GA复合词的主重音很难找出一条规律，一般GA的主重音落在复合词的第一个成分，而RP的主重音落在复合词的第二个成分：%beef"steak(RP)"beef%steak(GA)%apple"sauce(RP)"apple%sauce(GA)campfireelsewherefarmhousefruitcakeicecreaminlandtissuepapermeantimemiddaypotluckslatepencilsweetpotatothreadneedleworkingman相反地，下列复合词中，RP的主重音在复合词的第一个成分，而GA的在第二个成分："back%woods(RP)%back"woods(GA)"base%ball(RP)%base"ball54\n(GA)collarbonedustproof(adj.)fingernailfireproof(adj.)fourfoldgrandauntmidsummersteamengine1）次重音的差别次重音差异有一个很明显的趋势，即GA的次重音往往在主重音后面，而RP的次重音在主重音前面。6.语调差异RP为阶梯型，即句子的音高(pitch)逐渐下降；GA为波浪型，句中的重读音节的音高总是一样的。(RP升调)（RP降调）（GA升调）(GA降调)"Areyoua%student?(RP)Areyouastudent?(GA)Iwanttoseeafriendofmine.(RP)Iwanttoseeafriendofmine.(GA)Wouldyoumindmailingthisletterforme?Wouldyoumindmailingthisletterforme?IhopeIremembertoaskthebarbernottocutmyhairtooshort.IwasborninSpain,butI’macitizenofFrance.(GA)sentencestress:Heboughtanewcar.Ididn’t\telephone||becauseIwas\angry(thespeakerdidnottelephone)Ididn’ttelephonebecauseIwasVangry…(Itelephoned,notbecauseIwasangry,but…)Chapter3Lexiconungracefuldisgraceful;((Chinesefur)coat)(Chinese(furcoat))3.1Whatisword?3.1.1ThreedefinitionsofwordWordasaphysicalunit:Itisfine.It’sfine.铁路公路快速路高速路高速公路鸭蛋鸡蛋鸟蛋蛇蛋鹌鹑蛋鸵鸟蛋大不列颠和北爱尔兰联合王国黑山寨乡54\n黑山寨村开开心《信息处理用现代汉语分词规范》“结合紧密、使用稳定”（宋柔,2000:834汉语词语的几何结构）Wordasameaningunit:book,books;go,goes,going,went,gone;(token,type,lemmaorlexeme词位；词素)Wordasagrammaticalunit:Wordisarankbetweenmorphemeandwordgroup/phrase.blackboard,bookworm(stress,compound/phrase)3.1.2Threecharacteristicsofword(1)Stability(2)Relativeuninterruptibility(3)Aminimalfreeform:LeonardBloomfield:sentence“themaximumfreeform”;word“theminimumfreeform”3.1.3Classificationofwords(1)Variableandinvariablewords可变化词/不变词:apple,make;what,very,in,(2)Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords语法词/词汇词orFunctionalwords/Contentwords功能词/实义词:conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns;nouns,verbs,adverbs,adjectives(3)Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords封闭类/开放类Butpreposition:regarding,withregardto,asregards,inregardto(of),asfor,asto,concerning,involving,throughout,outof,accordingto;auxiliaryverbsarerelativelyclosedinnumber(4)Wordclass:partofspeech词类noun,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition/postposition/adposition,conjunction,interjection,articleNewlyintroducedcategories:i.Particles:小品词；语助词theinfinitivemarker“to”,thenegativemarker“not”,makeup,handinii.Auxiliaries:助词Auxiliariesusedtoberegardedasverbs.Becauseoftheiruniqueproperties,whichonecouldhardlyexpectofaverb,linguiststodaytendtodefinethemasaseparatewordclass.iii.Pro-form代词形式；替代形式:Pro-adjectiveYourappleissweet,Soismine.Pro-verbHespeaksEnglishbetterthanshedoes.Pro-adverbYouhopeyou’llpassandIhopesotoo.Pro-locativeHe’shidingthere,behindthetree.iv.Determiners限定词Predeterminers:all,both,half,double,twice,threetimes,one-third,one-fifthCentraldeterminers:the,a/an,this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,either,neither,my,our,your,his,her,its,theirPostdeterminers:cardinalnumerals,ordinalnumerals,generalordinalslikenext,last,past,(an)other,additional;andotherquantifierslikemany,(a)few,several,much,little,alotof,plentyof,agreatdealof,agreatnumberofe.g.*theiralltrouble,*fivetheallboys,*allbothgirls,*thethisboy,thefirsttwodays,anotherthreeweeks54\n3.2Theformationofword3.2.1MorphemeandMorphologyMorpheme语素;词素;形素:Thesmallestunitofgrammar.e.g.unthinkableiscomposedofmorphemesrealizedbyun,think,able.Thetermhasthreemainsenses.1.Aunitsmallerthanthewordwhichhasgrammaticalasopposedtolexicalmeaning.(Joe:Itequalsinflectionalaffixwhichhasgrammaticalratherthanlexicalmeaning)Theoriginalsense,stillcurrentinFrench:opp.,inFrench,“lexeme”;2.Anyconfigurationofphonologicalunitswithinawordwhichhaseithergrammaticalorlexicalmeaning:thus,inunthinkable,anyofthesequences[Vn],[8INk],and[@bl].cf.morph;3.Aninvariantlexicalorgrammaticalunitrealizedbyoneormoreconfigurationsofphonologicalunits.E.g.[Vn]inunthinkablemightbeseenasonerealizationofamoreabstract“negative”morphemealsorealized,e.g.by[In]inincredible,[dIs]indistasteful.cf.allomorph.SenseoneisvirtuallyobsoleteinEnglish-speakingcountries,whereusagehastendedtohoverbetweensense2andsense3.Morph形素；语素形式Thesmallestsequenceofphonologicalunitsintowhichwordsaredividedinananalysisofmorphemes.Thustheform[Vn"8INk@bl](unthinkable)willbedividedintothemorphs[Vn],realizinganegativemorpheme,[8INk],realizingtherootmorpheme“think”,and[@bl],realizingtheabilitymorpheme.Allomorph词/语素变体Oneofasetofformsthatrealizeamorpheme:cf.morpheme(3).e.g.–[@n]intakenand–[d]inmovedareamongtheallomorphsofthe“pastparticiple”morpheme.Thetextbooksaysonp.94:Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchasdog,cat.Inotherinstances,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.e.g.thevariousformsexpressingthemorphemepluralityinEnglish.(ornegativemorpheme:un-,in-,dis-,a-,butallomorphisnotonlyrestrictedwithinaffix.P.94says:Morpheme,likephoneme,asheldbyAmericanstructuralists,isanabstractunit,butonahigherlevelofabstraction.Itconsistsofasequenceofclassesofphonemesandhaseitherlexicalorgrammaticalmeaning.Inmorphemictranscription,morphemesintheabstractnotionareputbetweenbracketslike{}.Takethepluralmorphemeforexample,itcanbeexpressedintheformof{-s~-z~-Iz~-aI~-i:~-n~-2~}.Butthemorphemedoghasalternativeformotherthandog,e.g.狂犬病caninemadness;hydrophobia狂犬病,恐水症;lyssa狂犬病,恐水病[Greek,rage,madness];rabies狂犬病[Latin:madness](BTWtheconnectionbetween狂犬病and恐水症?)Morphology形态学studiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.3.2.2Typesofmorphemes(1)Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme自由语素/粘着语素(capacityofoccurringalone):cat,nature,cover----s,-al,dis-incats,natural,discover.Allmonomorphemicwordsarefreemorphemes.PolymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemesarecalledCompounds复合词.e.g.untranslatablenesshasfourmorphemes:un-,translate,able,and-ness.antidisestablishmentarianism54\n(反对教会与国家分开学说)has6:anti-,dis-,establish,ment,-arian(…派的(人),…主义的(人)),-ism.史上英文中最恐怖的单词http://www.chunyun.net/testforum2/dispbbs.asp?boardID=21&ID=830(1)Root,affix,andstemARootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Itisthepartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Nakedwithcapandshoestakenoff?e.g.internationalbecomesnation.Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffix(词缀)isthecollectivetermforthetypeofformative(构形成分;构词成分)thatisaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Affixesareclassifiedintoprefix(dis-,re-),suffix(-ism,-ment,),andinfix(foot/feet,goose/geese).Freerootmorphemescanstandbythemselves:blackinblack,blackbird,blackboard,blacksmith;Boundrootmorphemesarefewer,-ceiveinconceive,deceive,perceive,receive;-mitincommit,permit,remit;-tainincontain,maintain,retain;-curinoccur,recur.AfewEnglishrootshavebothfreeandboundvariants.Sleepandchildarefreerootmorphemes,slep-insleptandchild-inchildrenarebound.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Astemmayequalaroot,e.g.friend-infriends,andatermmaycontainarootandaderivationalaffix,e.g.friendshipinfriendshipsarebothstems.(2)InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixAffixescanbedividedintoinflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixes.Inflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixesaredistinguishedinfiveaspects:productiveness;meaningchange;wordclasschange;applicationcondition;position.3.2.3InflectionandWordformationMorphologyisclassifiedintoInflectionalmorphology（屈折形态学）andDerivationalmorphology(派生形态学)(1)Inflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness(finite有定的；有限的/infinite),aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Inflect:1.[生]Tocausetobendinward使（向内）弯曲；使内折；2.[语]Toalter(aword)byinflection.屈折变化，变化字尾，通过词尾变化改变（一词）；Toalter(thevoice)intoneorpitch变音，在音高和音调上变化；转调Eachsetinexample3-14(p.88)constitutesasingleparadigm([语]（名词、动词等的）词形变化（表）；纵聚合关系语言项),thatis,asetofgrammaticallyconditionedformsallderivedfromasinglerootorstem.e.g.Frenchverbarriver,regarder(Jeregardelatélevision.)j’arrivetuarrivesilarriveellearrivenousarrivonsvousarrivezilsarriventellesarrivent(2)WordFormation54\ni.Compound:endocentriccompoundexocentriccompoundendocentric内向的,向心的Bloomfield’stermforaconstructioninwhichatleastoneelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole.e.g.thatofrawmeat,whoseroleinlargerconstructionsislikethatofitssecondelementmeat;alsothatofmeatandfish,whoserolecouldbefilledbyeithermeatorfish.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.blackbirdisendocentricsince,toputitinlaterterminology,itisahyponymofbird,whileblackcap(anotherspeciesofsongbird)isnot,sinceitisnotahyponymofcap.Anendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.EndocentricconstructionsmaybefurtherdividedintoSubordinate(thereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstituentsdependent)andCoordinate(therearemorethanonehead,bothareofequalsyntacticstatus)constructions.exocentric外向的,离心的Bloomfield’stermforaconstructioninwhichnoelementisofthesamesyntacticclassasthewhole.e.g.thoseofinGuangzhouorwroteabook.Alsousedofcompounds:e.g.pickpocketandhardbackareexocentriccompoundssince,toputitinlaterterms,theyarenothyponymsofeitherpickorpocket,oreitherhardorback.Anexocentricconstructionisaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnonoticeablecenter,orhead,init.E.g.ontheshelf,thewholeconstructionhasadifferentgrammaticalfunctionfromeitherofitsconstituentsonortheshelf.Otherexamples:ifheisgoing,Thegirlsmiled.ButLatin,Italian,andSpanishcanleaveoutthesubjectwhenitisapronounandasingleverbcanstandasacompletesentence,sotheverbcanberegardedasthecenter,orhead.visitBill,layinthecorner,readbooks,Heisintheroom.Heisin.(transitivevs.intransitive),Readingbooksisaverygoodpastime.Heenjoysreadingbooks.Butisthereanelementwhichdeterminesthecharacterofthewholeconstruction?ii.Derivation:(a)Wordclasschanged;(b)Wordclassunchanged3.2.4Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphologymorphemeandphonememorphophonology形态音系学ormorphophonemics形态音位学(1)Asinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyarenotidentical.e.g.thephoneme/z/mayrepresentthepluralmorpheme,thethirdpersonsingularpresenttensemorpheme,themorphememeaningpossessivecase,ornothingatall:boys,goes,boy’s,is.(2)Morphemicstructureandphonologicalstructure词素结构/音位结构Morphemesmayalsoberepresentedbyphonologicalstructuresotherthanasinglephoneme.Theymaybemonophonemic,monosyllabic,orpolysyllabic.e.g.boys,lovely,tobacco.Thus,thesyllabic(phonological)structureofawordanditsmorphemic(grammatical)structuredonotnecessarilycorrespond.e.g.tell+er["te+l@],bigg+er["bI+g@](3)Allomorph(seeabove)54\n(4)Morphophonology(Morphonology)orMorphophonemics(Morphonemics)isabranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,andcorrespondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Itstudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenphonologyandmorphology.MorphophonemicsThechangesinpronunciationundergonebyallomorphsofmorphemesastheyaremodifiedbyneighboringsounds,asthepluralallomorphsincat-s,dog-s,box-es,orastheyaremodifiedforgrammaticalreasonsinthecourseofinflectionorderivation,ashouse[haUs]versustohouse[haUz]andhousing["haUzIN].语态音位学读音变化，由词素邻近的词音修饰带来的词素变体而产生，比如cat-s,dog-s,box-es中的复数变体，或者当它们由于语法原因中的词尾变化或派生而受到限制，如house不同于tohouse和housing.MorphophonemeUnitpositedinthe1930stoaccountforalternationsinmorphologywhicharerecurrentbutnotautomatic.e.g.knivesorloaveshasa[v]([naIv],[l@Uv])whereknifeorloafhasan[f].Thealternationisrecurrent,sinceitisfoundinmorethanoneword.Butitisnotautomatic,sinceitisnotfounde.g.inoafandoafs,bothofwhichhave[f],orinhiveandhives,bothofwhichhave[v].Toaccountforit,formssuchasknifeandloafaresaidtoendinamorphophoneme“F”,identicalto[f]exceptthat,whenthepluralendingfollows,itisrealizedby[v].Thus,intermsofprocesses,[naIF]+plural>[naIv]-,but[@Uf](oaf)+pluralisunchanged.Usuallywritten,ashere,withacapitalletter.But,likephonemes,morphophonemescanbeanalyzedintofeatures.E.g.“F”mighthavethesamephoneticfeaturesas[f]plusadiacriticfeaturewhichmaybesaidto“trigger”thealternation.Thesamediacriticfeaturemightalsodistinguishamorphophoneme“S”inhouse(plural)["haUzIz]or“Θ”inwreath(plural)[ri:Dz]).MorphophonologyBranchoflinguisticsconcernedwithrulesoralternationsintermediatebetweenmorphologyandphonology.Called“morphophonemics”bymostlinguistsintheUSA,anddefinedbyC.F.Hockettinthe1950sinasensethatcoveredtheentirerelationbetweenrepresentationsofsentencesintermsofmorphemes(3)andtheirrepresentationsintermsofphonemes.Usualdefinitionsarelesswide:thus,inparticular,amorphophonologicalruleoralternationisonewhich(a)appliestophonologicalelements,but(b)appliesonlyundercertainmorphologicalconditions.E.g.incapaciousvs.capacity,[eI](incap[eI]cious)alternateswith[{](incap[{]city).Thealternationisnotrestrictedtothispairofforms:comparever[eI]ciousandver[{]city,orloqu[eI]ciousandloqu[{]city.Thus(a)itconcernsthevowels[eI]and[{],nottheformcapac-asawhole.But(b)itappliestowordswithacertainmorphologicalstructure,basicallyderivedformthatofLatin.Therefore,inmanyaccounts,itismorphophonological,notsimplyphonological.Othercases:audacious>audacity(alsoaudaciousness);capacious>capacity(alsocapaciousness),efficacious>efficacy=efficacity;fallacious>fallacy(nofallacitybutfallaciousness,fallacy);gracious>graciousness(nogracitybutgraciousness);incapacious>incapacity;sagacious>sagacity(alsosagaciousness);spacious>spaciousness(nospacitybutspaciousness);tenacious>tenacity(alsotenaciousness).Strangely,金山词霸doesnotlistcorrespondingnounsendingin–acity,ifany,only–ness.54\ni.Phonologicallyconditionedinjusticeimperfectinefficientimportantinfirmimpossible(assimilation)Butinpatient住院病人,inpayment付入款项,input输入affectpronunciationnotyetspelling.Dissimilationreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.e.g.grammar(O.E.)glamor(M..E.);peregrinus(Latin)>pilgrim;marbre(French)>marbleii.Morphologicallyconditioned:cat-s,dog-s,box-es;knife,loaf,oaf;audacious/audacity,capacious/capacity,loquacious/loquacity,sagacious/sagacity,tenacious/tenacity,veracious/veracity3.3LexicalchangeAIDS:AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromeSARS:SevereAcuteRespiratorySyndromeFlasher,hacker,cracker,blog,taikonaut,BoBo,布波族:Bourgeois布尔乔亚+Bohemian波西米亚siloviki西拉维克,强力集团，强力部门,政治强人(前面是力量,维克表示一群人者或一个人)3.3.1Lexicalchangeproper(1)Compound复合词blackboard,bookworm,braindrain(2)Derivation衍生；派生teacher,clockwise,uninstall(3)Invention新创词语nylon,condom,boycott,Xerox(4)Blending混成法modem,BoBo,blog,e-book,e-zine,bit(binary+digit)(5)Abbreviation缩写词；略语fax,bus,flu(6)Acronym首字母缩写词CEO，ATM，POS，IT，YAHOOYetAnotherHierarchicalOfficiousOracle，GSMglobalsystemformobilecommunications全球通，CDMAcodedivisionmultipleaccess码分多址，ADSLasymmetricaldigitalsubscriberline非对称数字用户专线.(7)Back-formation逆构词法edit,lase,enthuse(8)Analogicalcreation类推造字work>wrought>worked,beseech>besought>beseeched,slay>slew>slayed(9)Borrowing借用；借词typhoon,mahjong,mortgage,i.Loanwords借词coupd’étatcoup:beat,état:state,sputnik["spUtnIk,"spVt-]artificialsatellite人造地球卫星[Russ:fellowtravelerestudie(O.F.)>estudio(Spanish)>estudo(Portugese)>étude(M.F.).InJapanese,strike>sutoraiki,InEng.rascal>rapscallion(rouge).(3)Metathesis换位作用brid(O.E.)>bird,ox,ax(O.E.)>ask,taxandtaskareetymologicallyrelated(4)Assimilation“theoryofleasteffort”immobile,irrevocable,impolite,illegal;discussingshortly(/s/becomes/S/),andconfoundit{/@/becomes/aU/}.3.3.3Morpho-syntacticalchange形态句法变化(1)Morphologicalchange形态变化do(e)th,goeth,goeth,hath,thou,ye,yee,thy,(2)Syntacticalchangemoregladder,morelower,moostshameful,3.3.4SemanticchangemultisemousTherearethreekindsofsemanticchanges,i..e.broadening,narrowing,andmeaningshift.Classshiftandfolketymologyalsocontributetomeaningchange.(1)Broadening词义扩大holyday>holiday,bird,quarantine(fortydays(isolation))(2)Narrowing狭窄化cattle,girl,liquid;(3)Meaningshift转移bead>prayer(4)Classshift词性变换zero-derivationorconversiondetail,total,evidence(5)Folketymology俗词源学；民间词源asparagus芦笋>sparrowgrass，wiz>wizard3.3.5OrthographicchangeIesus>Jesus,sate>sat,Sunne>sun,vp>upChapter4Syntaxsyntax=syn“together”+tax“arrangement”:thestudyofformationofsentencesMaryleft.JohnsaidthatMaryleft.BillsaidthatJohnsaidthatMaryleft.PaulsaidthatBillsaidthatJohnsaidthatMaryleft.JohnandMaryandafatmanandatallanimalandaninnocentchildand…left.Johnwokeupandgotupanddressedhimselfandbrushedhisteethandwashedhisfaceand…Themanwhopaidthebillwearingastripyscarfofmediumbuildwithagoldtooth…wasJohn.“themaximumfreeform”recursive4.1Linguistictypology4.1.1Phonetictypologysharedphoneticfeatures:thegroupoflanguageslikeFrench,German,Dutch,Swedish,Norwegian,andDanishallhavefrontvowelswithlip-rounding,symbolized54\n/y/,/2/,and/9/asthoseintheFrenchwords“tu”(you)/ty/.“’deux(two)/d2/,and“bœf”(ox)/b9f/,butnotinotherRomancelanguages,suchasItalian,Spanish,andPortugueseandinEnglish.Ithasbeennoticedthatlanguagesthataregeographicallyclosetoeachotheroftensharecommonphoneticfeatureswhethertheyaregeneticallyrelatedornot.E.g.manyIndianlanguagesuseaseriesofretroflexconsonants.4.1.2PhonologicaltypologyOnedimensionisthetypologicalclassificationoflanguagesaccordingtotheirphonologicalsystemsintermsofthenumbersofconsonantsandvowelsandtheirinterrelations.E.g.BothEnglishandChineseplosivesfallintothree-placeandtwo-mannersystem:English:bilabial,alveolar,velarandvoiced,voiceless.Chinese:bilabial,alveolar,velarandaspirated,unaspirated.AnotherdimensionisthetypologicalclassificationoflanguagesintoToneLanguagesandNon-ToneLanguages.InChinesetonesfunctiontodistinguishlexicalmeaning,inFrenchandEnglish,theydonot.Furtherdistinctioncanbemadeaboutthenumberoftonesused.4.1.3GrammaticaltypologyWordorder:Thereare6possiblearrangementsfor3words,24for4words,120for5words:e.g.我爱你：SVOSOVVSOVOSOVSOSVLogicallythereare6,butX-baronlyallows4.(cf.also曹聪孙,1996)张三看见李四.JohnsawMaryJeanvitMarie.John-gaMary-omita“JohnsawMary”CanIsay“Mary-oJohn-gamita”?Mary-gaJohn-omita“MarysawJohn”用“棋、下、有、一、完、没、的、盘”这八个词组成句子，看能组合成多少句子？这些词可以组合成下列句子：一盘没有下完的棋、没有下完的一盘棋、没有一盘下完的棋、没下完的棋有一盘、下完的棋一盘没有、下完的棋没有一盘、有一盘没下完的棋、有没下完的一盘棋、棋没下完的有一盘、棋有一盘没下完……4.1.4StructuraltypologyThebestknowndivisionoflanguagesbasedonwordstructuresintothe“isolating”or“analytic”,“agglutinative”,and“fusional”or“inflectional”typeswasnamedtheStructuralTypology.Isolatinglanguagesrefertothosewhichdependoninvariablerootsorstemsandwordordertoindicatetheirgrammaticalrelation.Vietnamese,Chinese,彝语,壮语,苗语etc.pertaintoisolatinglanguages.AnalternativetermoftheisolatingtypeisAnalytic,seenasopposedtosynthetictypesoflanguage(agglutinativeandinflecting)wherewordscontainmorethanonemorpheme.Agglutinativelanguages黏着语（niánzhuó）arethoseinwhichwordsaretypicallycomposedofasequenceofaffixesaddedtotheroot.InJapanese,一个变词语素表示一种语法意义，要表示几种语法意义，就把有关的变词语素黏附在词根上.e.g.Japanese,Turkish,维吾尔语,朝鲜语,芬兰语etc.InJapanesenai表示否定，darō表示估量，amegafuranai的意思是“不会下雨”，amegafuranaidarō的意思是“不会下雨吧”.InTurkish,theverbroot“sev-“means“love”,morpheme“-dir”meansthethirdperson,“-ler”meansplural,“-miš-”meanspasttense,“-erek”meansfuture54\ntense,then,“sev-miš-dir-ler”means“他们从前爱”,“sev-erek-dir-ler”means“他们将要爱”.Totakeanotherexample,inTurkishthenoun“ev”(房子),“el”（手）:单数复数单数复数主格evevlereleller离格evdenevlerdeneldenellerden处所格evdeevlerdeeldeellerdeFusionallanguages溶合语orInflectingLanguage屈折语arethoseinwhichmorphemesinawordarefusedtogether,makingitdifficulttosegmentthewordintoitscomponentmorphemes.E.g.Arabic,Russian,German,French,andEnglish.内部屈折（Internalinflection？）是通过词根中元音和辅音的交替构成词的语法形式，而外部屈折是通过改变通常位于词末尾的词缀的方式构成词的语法形式。InArabic,whichisofinternalinflection,consonantsdonotchange,vowelsalternatetoformdifferentinflections,e.g.Kataba写好了,kutiba被写好了,katibu写的(人),kitabu写好的(东西),uktub写(命令式)Russianisatypicalexternalinflectinglanguage,e.g.thenounкнига(书):单数复数主格КНИГ-AКНИГ-И生格КНИГ-ИКНИГ与格КНИГ-EКНИГ-AM宾格КНИГ-УКНИГ-И用格КНИГ-ОЙКНИГ-AMИ前置格(o)КНИГ-E(o)КНИГ-AX屈折语的主要特点：词形变化丰富，词与词之间的关系靠词形变化表示，词序不太重要e.g.TheRussiansentence“Ячитаюкнигу”(我读书):Якнигучитаю,Читаюкнигу,Книгучитаю.Ofcoursetheform“Ячитаюкнигу”isusuallyadopted.屈折语的一个语素可以同时表示好几种语法意义，e.g.книгa（书）中的-a就同时表示阴性、单数、主格三种意义。армия（军队），семья（家庭）中的-я同样兼表阴性、单数、主格。AnEnglishverbhasatmost5forms:see,sees,seeing,saw,seen(Beisanexception:8).Anounatmost4:child,child’s,children,children’s.Apronoun4:I,me,my,mine.Anadjective3:tall,taller,tallest.俄语普通名词有单、复数，单、复数各有6个格，一个名词就有12种变化，名词又分阴、阳、中性，不同性的名词有不同的变格规则；形容词有长尾、短尾之别，它们又各有性、数、格的变化，共有48个形式；一个动词的各种变化加在一起不下100种.Number,genderandcasedeclension【语】Incertainlanguages,theinflectionofnouns,pronouns,andadjectivesincategoriessuchascase,number,andgender.词形变化某些语言中，静词（名词，代词和形容词）在格，数和性等方面的词形变化Number:singularandplural.ClassicGreek,Arabic,我国景颇语、佤语的人称代词haveathird:dualandFijianhasafourth:trial.noun(E,F,R),adjective(F,R),pronoun(E,F),verb(E),article(F)lechevalroyal>leschevauxroyauxCherPapa,chèreMaman,mesparentschéris.54\nGender:noun,pronoun,naturalorgrammatical,German,Russian:masculine,feminine,neuter,ThegenderofRussianispredictable:карандаш(铅笔),книга(书),перо(钢笔尖)的词尾辅音、元音-a和-o分别表示阳性、阴性、中性。ZouYancan’trememberthegenderofallFrenchwords.German:“dasWeib”(woman妇女),“dasMädchen”（girl少女）areneuter.ThesunismasculineinFrench,feminineinGerman,andneuterinRussian.French:lepoêle(thestove),lapoêle(thefryingpan);lependule(thependulum),lapendule(theclock).Case:6casesinLatin:nominative,vocative,accusative,genitive,dative,ablative.TheablativecaseisshownbypropositionslikewithasinIopenedthedoorwithakey.Vocative:RelatingtoorbeingagrammaticalcaseusedinLatinandcertainotherlanguagestoindicatethepersonorthingbeingaddressed.呼格的关于或作为一种用于拉丁语和一些其它语言的语法情况，用于指示被称呼的人或物.VocativeFormtraditionallycharacterizedbyuseincallingsomeoneoringettingtheirattention.ThusthearchaicOofWebeseechthee,OLordisavocativeparticle;BillhasavocativeroleinBill,whereareyou?;ine.g.Latin,nounswithasimilarrolewereinthevocativecase.conjugation【语】Theinflectionofaverb.动词的变化［变位］。AfourthclassisknownasPolysynthetic多式综合语orIncorporating合成语.复综语isaspecialagglutinativelanguage:一个词往往由好几个语素编插粘合而成，有的语素不到一个音节。ManyAmericanIndianlanguageslikeEskimobelongtothistype.e.g.Menomini(=Menominee梅诺米尼语,梅诺米尼人原居于美国密执安,现居威斯康星州的一支印第安人)的“akuapiinam”是一个词，意思是“他从水里拿出来”：词根“akua”（挪开），后缀“-epii-”（液体），后缀“-en-”（用手），后缀“-am”（第三人称施事）。4.1.5Semantictypology:e.g.thekinshipfield,maternalside,paternalside,siblingTenseandaspect16tensesinEnglish.ThedifferencebetweentenseandaspectisthattheformerisDeictic,i.e.indicatingtimerelativetothetimeofutterance;whilethelatterisnotdeictic,thetimeindicatedisnotrelativetothetimeofutterance,butrelativetothetimeofanothereventdescribed,orimplied,inthenarrative.Asaresult,thereareonlytwotenses:pastandpresent.TenseInflectionalcategorywhosebasicroleistoindicatethetimeofanevent,etc.inrelationtothemomentofspeaking.Dividednotionallyintopresent(atthemomentofspeaking),past(earlierthanthemomentofspeaking),andfuture(laterthanthemomentofspeaking).Thedivisionbetweentenseandaspectispartlyfluid.E.g.inIhavedoneit.…Theboundarybetweenmoodisalsofluid.E.g.IfIsawhervs.ifIseeher….AspectAspectualcategoriesareveryvaried,andsincebothtenseandaspectaredefinedbyreferencetotime,acleardistinction,whereitexists,willusuallybedrawnbyformalcriteria….Iamreadingthebookmeansthatthereadingisinprogressoveraperiodthatincludesthemomentofspeaking:amreadingisthereforepresentintensebutprogressive(orcontinuing)inaspect.Ihavereadthebookmeansthat,atthe54\nmomentofspeaking,thereadinghasbeencompleted:itisthereforepresentintensebutperfectinaspect.MoodGrammaticalcategorydistinguishingmodality.OriginallyofaninflectionalcategoryofverbsinGreekandLatin,opposinginparticularlyindicativeandsubjunctive.Asetofverbformsorinflectionsusedtoindicatethespeaker'sattitudetowardthefactualityorlikelihoodoftheactionorconditionexpressed.InEnglishtheindicativemoodisusedtomakefactualstatements,thesubjunctivemoodtoindicatedoubtorunlikelihood,andtheimperativemoodtoexpressacommand.语气用来强调说话人对表达的行为或条件的真实性或可能性所持有态度的一系列动词形态或变化形式。在英语中陈述语气用于描绘真实的陈述，虚拟语气则用于强调怀疑或不可能，而祈使语气则用来表达一个命令。VoiceUsedconventionallyfromthelateMiddleAgesforagrammaticalcategorybywhichformsofverbsareactiveorpassiveorasactive,passive,ormiddle.cf.antipassive.MiddleOriginallyofformsofverbsinAncientGreekwhosesensewasbroadlyreflexive:e.g.schematically,Ibought-MIDDLEhouse“Iboughtmyselfahouse”.Called“middle”becauseseenasintermediatebetweenactiveandpassive.Thenceofsimilarreflexiveformsinotherlanguages.Alsoofverbsinintransitiveconstructionsthatareunderstoodreflexively:e.g.shavedinIshaved,meaning“Ishavedmyself”.Alsoofintransitiveswithapassive-likerelationtotheirsubject:e.g.cutsinThisstonecutseasily,meaning“canbecuteasily”.InFrench,raserqn给某人剃掉胡子或头发,seraser自己刮胡子;laverl’enfant给孩子洗,selaver（给自己）洗,laverlafigured’enfant给孩子洗脸,selaverlesmains洗手.Thecardrivesfast.Bureaucratsbribeseasily.ConcordandgovernmentConcordalsoknownasagreement.一个聪明的（男）大学生,一个聪明的女大学生;一些聪明的（男）大学生,一些聪明的女大学生;这个聪明的（男）大学生,这个聪明的女大学生;这些聪明的（男）大学生,这些聪明的女大学生.unétudiantintelligent,uneétudianteintelligente,desétudiantsintelligents,desétudiantesintelligentes,lesétudiatntsintelligents,lesétudiantesintelligentes.InEnglish:somebooks,HespeaksJapanese.Governmentisarelationshipwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.InEnglish,e.g.thepronounafteraverboraprepositionshouldbeintheobjectformasinShegavemeabook.Shegaveabooktome.Inotherwords,theverb,orthepreposition,determines,orgoverns,theformofthepronounafterit.Theformeristhegovernorandthelatterthegoverned.(Thecoursebookhas4.1Thetraditionalapproach:Traditionally,asentenceisseenasasequenceofwords.Partsofspeechandfunctionsaresometimescalledcategories.Thenounisusuallysaidtohavethecategoriesofnumber,gender,case;andtheverbthecategoriesoftense,aspect,voice.4.1.1Number,genderandcase4.1.2Tenseandaspect4.1.3Concordandgovernment)4.2Thestructuralapproach54\nThestructuralapproachtotheanalysisoflanguagewasstartedbyFerdinanddeSaussure.4.2.1SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsInSaussure’sview,languageisasystemofsigns,eachofwhichconsistsoftwoparts:Signified所指(concept)andSignifier能指(soundimage).Saussureidentifysyntagmaticrelation(arelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence.NowadaysalsoHorizontalrelationorChainrelation)andparadigmaticrelation(originallycalledAssociativeisarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent.NowadaysalsoVerticalrelationorChoicerelation).InSaussure’soriginaltheory,thesetworelationsareapplicableateveryleveloflinguisticanalysis.Atthelevelofphonology,…Thesuccessivesignsinasyntagmaticrelationissometimescalledastructure.Theclassofsignsinaparadigmaticrelationaresometimescalledasystem.Syntagmatic(relation)betweenunitspresentinthesamesequence.E.g.betweens,p,andrinaformsuchasspring,orbetweenasubjectandaverbinconstructionssuchasBillhunts.Paradigmatic(relation)betweenanindividualunitandothersthatcanreplaceitinagivensequence:e.g.betweencatandanyotherunit(dog,house,etc.)thatcanreplaceitinthesequenceIsawthecat,orbetween[p]inspear[spI@]and[t]insteer[stI@].(It’salsoadj.ofparadigm)4.2.2ImmediateconstituentanalysisLinearstructurevs.HierarchicalstructurethedegreeofclosenesstoeachotherTherelationbetweenasentenceanditscomponentelementsisgenerallyreferredtoastherelationbetweenaconstruction构建anditsconstituents成分.Immediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction,whichmaybeasentencelikePoorJohnranawayorawordgrouplikepoorJohnorawordaway,lovely,talked.Thelastlevelofconstituents,i.e.morphemes,areknownasultimateconstituents.Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis):Theanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents–wordgroups(orphrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimateconstituentsarereached.Thecriteriontocutaconstructionissubstitutability:whetherasequenceofwordscanbesubstitutedforasinglewordandthestructureremainsthesame.TheadvantagesofICanalysis:revealambiguityanddisambiguate.E.g.(1)Leavethebookonshelf.(leavethebook)(ontheshelf),(Leave)(thebookontheshelf)(2)mysmallchild’scot(3)ThesonofPharaoh’sdaughteristhedaughterofPharaoh’sson.(4)moreexpensiveclothes(addlabelslikeNP,N,AP,adj,Det,Adv,Pron,Auxtothenodes)(5)(Ishereally)thatkind?(Ishereally)thatkind?(6)Theycanfishhere.(7)Weeatwhatwecan.Whatwecan’t,wecan.54\nThreeproblemsofICanalysis:1.binarydivisioncan’taccountforoldmenandwomen2.discontinuousconstituentsposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis:theauxiliaryverbofyes/noquestions,IsJohncoming?;phrasalverbslikemakeitup,turniton,givemeup,JohnsaidMaryisafool.John,saidMary,isafool.Hooksareemployedtosolvetheproblems.3.StructuralambiguitiesnotrevealedbyICanalysis.theloveofGod,theshootingofhehunters4.2.3Endocentricandexocentricconstructionscf.WordFormationofChapter34.3Thegenerativeapproach(DetailedinCh.12)4.4Thefunctionalapproach(TointroducePragueschoolandSystemic-functionalgrammar)Function1.Usedverywidelyofthepartthataunitplaysinalargerstructure.E.g.inImetmybrother,thephrasemybrotherhasthefunctionor“role”ofdirectobject:i.e.itplaysthepartofdirectobjectinalargerconstructionofwhichthatisoneelement.Followingthequestion“Canyoucome?”,theutterance“yes”wouldfunctionasananswer:i.e.itplaysthatpartinalargerquestion–answerinterchange.Theformula“Letuspray”hasafunction,withotherelementssuchaskneeling,inalargerceremonyofworship,andsoon.2.Otherusesreflectamathematician’ssenseoffunctionsasdependenciesbetweenvariables:henceespecially,asinotherdisciplines,(thevalueof)xmanyvary“asafunctionof”(thatof)y.FunctionalGrammarModeloffunctionalsyntaxdevelopedsincethelate1970sbyS.C.Dikandhisfollowers.Basicallyanaccountofclausestructureinwhichfunctionsaredistinguishedseparatelyonthreelevels:e.g.,inBillleftyesterday,Billhasthesyntacticfunctionofsubjectandthesemanticfunctionofagent;itmightalsohavethepragmaticfunctionoftheme.Semanticfunctionsareassociatedwithpredicates(2)inthelexicon(e.g.agentwithleave),andthenucleus(1)ofaclause(e.g.thatrepresentedbyBillleft)mayalsobeextendedbysatellites(e.g.thatrepresentedbyyesterdayinBillleftyesterday);syntacticfunctionsarethenassignedtoitselements;thenpragmaticfunctions.Acleardistinctionisdrawnbetweentherulesbywhichthisfunctionalstructureisestablished,andthe“expressionrules”whichspecifythewaysinwhichitisrealized,byorder,intonation,casesorprepositions,thevoiceoftheverb,andsoon.Ofthese,theorderofelementsinparticularisdetermined,asfarasthestructureofagivenlanguageallows,byauniversalprinciple.(Joe:Toaccountforwordorder,formalismhasrecoursetocategorizationandsub-categorizationoftheverb,syntacticrulessuchasX-bar,government,binding,etc.whereasfunctionalismreliesontheexpressionorcommunicativepurposeofthespeaker,ortoachieverhetoricaleffect.)Functionalsyntax1.Atreatmentofsyntaxinwhichsyntacticfunctions,suchassubjectandobject,areprimitiveoratleastcentral.2.Atreatmentofsyntaxinwhichaspectsoftheconstructionofsentencesareexplainedby,orrelatedto,thefunctionsthattheyplayincommunication.4.4.1Functionalsentenceperspective54\nPragueSchoolFunctionalsentenceperspectivecommunicativedynamism(CD)informationstructurethemerheme(DetailedinCh.12)4.4.2Systemic-functionalgrammarHalliday,M.A.K.SystemicGrammarchoicesranksdelicacyScaleandCategoryGrammarideationalinterpersonaltextualActorclauseprocess(DetailedinCh.12)Chapter12SchoolsofLinguistics12.1Saussure–FatherofmodernlinguisticsFerdinanddeSaussure(索绪尔1857-1913),aSwisslinguist,“Fatherofmodernlinguistics”,“amasterofadisciplinewhichhemademodern”CourseinGeneralLinguistics1916Saussure’sideasweredevelopedalongthreelines:linguistics(AmericanlinguistW.D.Whitney,arbitrariness,languageisaninstitution),sociology(FrenchsociologistE.Durkheim,lang.isoneofthesocialfacts,notindividualpsychologicalfacts),andpsychology(AustrianpsychiatristS.Freud,thecontinuityoftheunconscious,id,ego,superego).lSaussuresawlanguageasacomplexandheterogeneousphenomenon.lNatureoflinguisticssign:Thelinguisticsignunites,notathingandaname,butaconcept(whichhecallssignified,signifié所指)andasoundimage.(whichhecallssignifier,signifiant能指).E.g.Theword“book”isalinguisticsign,itssound-imageisthesignifierandtheobjectitreferstoisthesignified.Alinguisticsignhastwocharacteristics:1.Thebondbetweenthesignifierandsignifiedisarbitrary.2.Thesignifierislinearinnature.lTherelationalnatureoflanguageunitsThesignifiersaremembersofasystemandtheyaredefinedbytheirrelationstotheothermembersofthatsystem.e.g.old:young;old:middleage:young;red:brown:blue:green;the10:00GuangzhoutoBeijingtrain,words:chesspiecesAgameofchessislikethesystemoflanguage.Theyarebothsystemofvalues.Astateofthesetofchessmenislikeastateoflanguage.“Therespectivevalueofthepiecesdependsontheirpositiononthechessboardjustaseachlinguistictermderivesitsvaluefromitsoppositiontoalltheotherterms.”Ontheotherhand,thevalueofeachpiecealsodependsontheconvention–thesetofrulesthatexistsbeforethegamebegins.lLangueandparolelDiachronicandsynchronicstudieslSyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations12.2ThePragueSchoolPragueSchoolUnitedamongstructurallinguistsbyanemphasisonthefunctionofunits:e.g.inphonology,ontheroleofphonemesindistinguishinganddemarcatingwordsinsyntax,ontheroleofsentencestructureincontext.Importantinthe1930saboveallforphonologywhereideasoriginatinginthisperiodarethesourceforlaterworkespeciallybyJakobsonandMartinet.Afunctionalviewofthesentence,fosteredbyMathesius,wastoleadinthe1950stothetheoryofFunctionalSentencePerspective.54\nItsmostimportantcontributiontolinguisticsisthatitseeslanguageintermsoffunction.Languageisconsideredasatoolperforminganumberofessentialfunctionsortasksforthecommunityusingit.ThePragueSchoolisbestknownforitscontributiontophonologyandthedistinctionbetweenphoneticsandphonology.Trubetskoyarguedthatphoneticsbelongedtoparolewhereasphonologylangue.Onthisbasisthenotion“phoneme”isdevelopedasanabstractunitofthesoundsystemasdistinctformthesoundsactuallyproduced.Aphonemeisthesumofthedifferentialfunctions.Soundsbecomephonemeswhentheyservetodistinguishmeaning.Aphonemehasthreecharacteristics:1.ithasdiscriminativepower;2.itcannotbeanalyzedintosmallerdistinctivesegments;3.itcanonlybedeterminedbydistinctivefeatures.Functionalsentenceperspective(FSP)OneofthemainideasofthePragueLinguisticCircleisthatasentencemaybeanalyzedfromthegrammaticalside(intermsofsubjectandpredicate,butsubjectandpredicatearesyntacticfunctions?)aswellasfromthefunctionalside(intermsofThemeandRheme).FSPdescribeshowinformationisdistributedinsentences.FSPdealsespeciallywiththeeffectofthedistributionofknown(orgiven)informationandnewinformationindiscourse.Theprincipleisthattheroleofeachutterancepartisevaluatedforitssemanticcontributiontothewhole.E.g.(a)Sallystandsonthetable(b)OnthetablestandsSallySubjectPredicatePredicateSubjectThemeRhemeThemeRhemeInresearchintotherelationbetweenstructureandfunction,J.FirbasdevelopedthenotionofCDbasedonthefactthatlinguisticscommunicationisnotastaticphenomenon,butadynamicone.CDismeanttomeasuretheamountofinformationanelementcarriesinasentence.E.g.Hewascross.HecarriesthelowestdegreeofCD,crossthehighest.NormallythesubjectcarriesalowerdegreeofCDthantheverband/ortheobjectand/oradverbialprovidedtheverbortheobjectand/ortheadverbialarecontextuallyindependent.(Joe:unpredictable?"Johnleft.)FirbasdefinedFSPas“thedistributionofvariousdegreesofCD”.Thiscanbeexplainedas:theinitialelementsofasequencecarrythelowestdegreeofCD,andwitheachstepforward,thedegreeofCDbecomesincrementaltilltheelementthatcarriesthehighest.However,thereareoftenexceptionstothisrule:theThemeatthebeginning,theTransitioninthemiddle,andtheRhemeattheendofthesentence.Agirlbrokeavase.Thegirlbrokeavase.Anoldmanappearedinthewaitingroomatfiveo’clock.Theoldmanwassittinginthewaitingroom.Inordertoseehisfriend,hewenttoPrague.HewenttoPraguetoseehisfriend.Hegaveaboyanapple.Hegaveanappletotheboy.FunctionalsentenceperspectiveAmodeloftheinformationstructureofsentences,proposedintheearly1960sbyJ.Firbasetal.inthetraditionofthepre-warPragueSchool.Partsofasentencerepresentinggiveninformationaresaidtohavethelowestdegreeofcommunicativedynamism(orCD):i.e.theamountthat,incontext,theycommunicatetoaddresseesistheleast.Theseformthetheme.Partsrepresentingnewinformationhavethehighestdegree:theseformtherheme.Partswhichhavean54\nintermediatedegreearesometimessaidtoformatransitionbetweenthemeandrheme.“Whoboughtit?”“Johnboughtit.”boughtitistheme,andJohnrheme.InCzech,partswiththelowestdegreeofcommunicativedynamismtendtocomefirstinthesentenceandpartswiththehighesttocomelast:bought-3SGit,whichisconsideredthenaturalorder.informationstructureThestructureofasentenceorlargerunitviewedasameansofcommunicatinginformationtoanaddressee.Describedintermsofgivenvs.new,themevs.rheme,topicvs.comment,focus,etc.givenKnownorrecoverablebytheaddressee,etc.“Wherearethechildren?”“Jane’sgonetothehairdresser.”Theinformationstructureis:“givenJane+new(ha)sgonetothehairdresser”.themeApartofasentenceseenascorrespondingtowhatthesentenceasawhole,whenutteredinaparticularcontext,isabout.rhemeApartofasentencecommunicatinginformationrelativetowhateverisindicatedbythetheme.OnSundayIhavetovisitmyuncle.Theproblemisthatitissocold.“onSunday”and“theproblem”mightbethetheme,“Ihavetovisitmyuncle”and“isthatitissocold”wouldbetherheme.(c.f.alsotheexampleonHuetal.,2001:398)12.3TheLondonSchoolB.Malinowski,J.R.Firth,M.A.K.Hallidayallstresstheimportanceofcontextofsituationandthesystemaspectsoflanguage.Thus,LondonSchoolisalsoknownassystemiclinguisticsandfunctionallinguistics.lMalinowski’stheories:Meaningisnotsomethingthatexistsinsounds,butsomethingthatexistsintherelationsofsoundsandtheirenvironment.lFirth’stheories:Languageisasocialprocess.Meaningisuse,themeaningofanysentenceconsistsoffiveparts…Byatypicalcontextofsituation,hemeantthat…Collocation:“Youknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.”Referentialmeaning,collocativemeaning,thesyntagmaticrelationshipofgrammaticalcategories,orColligation,ProsodicanalysiscolligationFirth’stermforthegeneralrelationbetweenelementsinaconstruction,asopposedtoacollocationorarelationbetweenindividualwords.Thusthecollocatione.g.ofheavyandsmokerinShe’saheavysmokerinstancesthecolligationofanadjectivewithanagentnoun,orwithanoungenerally.Alsocf.:blondhair,asdrunkasalord,runriot,Sheblewhertop.lHallidayandSystemic-FunctionalGrammarHalliday’sSFisasociologicalorientedfunctionallinguisticapproachwhichcanbeappliedtolanguageteaching,sociolinguistics,discourseanalysis,stylistics,andmachinetranslation.(1)Systemicgrammaraimstoexplaintheinternalrelationsinlanguageasasystemnetwork,ormeaningpotential.Andthisnetworkconsistsofsubsystemsformwhichlanguageusersmakechoices.Functionalgrammaraimstorevealthatlanguageisameansofsocialinteraction.SFisbasedontwofacts:1.languageusersareactuallymakingchoicesinasystemofsystemsandtryingtorealizedifferentsemantic54\nfunctionsinsocialinteraction;2.languageisinseparablefromsocialactivitiesofman.Thus,ittakesactualusesoflanguageastheobjectofstudy,whereasChomsky’sTGGrammartakestheidealspeaker’slinguisticcompetenceasthesubjectofstudy.Thecentralcomponentofasystemicgrammarisachartofthefullsetofchoicesavailableinconstructingasentence.Thesystemislistofchoicesthatareavailableinthegrammarofalanguage.(Butcanyouexhaustthechoices?infinitelynumerouschoices?Nowlet’sexamineitsmethodology:)Thenotionofasystemicgrammaristhatwetakeageneralareaofmeaningandgraduallybreakitintosmallerandsmallersub-areas.Delicacyreferstothedimensionwhichrecognizesincreasingdepthofdetail….ThisscaleiscalledScaleofDelicacy.systemsofperson(1,2,3person),number(single,plural),gender(masculine,feminine,neuter),tense(past,present,future),mood(declarative,interrogative,imperative),timeexpressingmethod(2)FunctionalGrammarHallidayconcentratesexclusivelyonthefunctionalpartofgrammar.Hebelievesthatlanguageiswhatitisbecauseithastoservecertainfunctions.Inotherwords,socialdemandonlanguagehashelpedtoshapeitsstructure.Thefunctionoflanguageistoencodeourexperienceintheformofanideationalcontent.SFaimstoprovideataxonomyforsentences,ameansofdescriptivelyclassifyingparticularsentences.Halliday,M.A.K.(1925-)Britishlinguist.OriginallyaspecialistinChinese,whoseearliestgeneraltheorywasthemodelofgrammareventuallycalledSystemicGrammar.Inthelate1960sheappliedthisinananalysisofEnglishintonationandinageneralaccountofthedimensionsonwhichsentencesareorganized.Thedimensionof“transitivity”concernstherelationofe.g.actortoactionoractiontogoal;thatof“mood”theirbroadlyinterpersonalfunction(e.g.asinterrogativeordeclarative);thatof“theme”therelationsofthemetorhemeorgiventonew.Halliday’sgeneraltheory…iscenteredon…thethesisthatthenatureoflanguageasasemioticsystem,anditsdevelopmentineachindividual,mustbestudiedinthecontextofthesocialrolesthatindividualsplay,andthewaysinwhichthesedevelop.SystemicGrammarModeloffunctionalsyntaxdevelopedbyHallidayfromthelate1950s.Thebasicideaisthatanyactofcommunicationrealizesasetofchoices:e.g.theutteranceofShewentoutrealizes,amongothers,thechoiceofadeclarativestructure.Eachchoiceisatacertainlevelinahierarchyofranks:e.g.thechoiceofdeclarativeisatclauselevel.Itisalsorelatedtootherchoicesonascaleofdelicacyordetail:e.g.thechoiceofinterrogativeinsteadofdeclarativewouldentailafurtherchoicebetweenpolarinterrogative(i.e.yes-noquestione.g.Didshego?)andwh-interrogative.Eachindividualsetofchoicesformsasystem:thuspolarinterrogativeandwh-interrogativeformonesystem,declarativeandinterrogativeformorarepartofanother.Agrammarwillaccordinglydescribethesystemsofalanguage,thelevelofdetailatwhichallremainingchoicesarebetweenopensetsoflexicalunits.OriginallycalledScaleandCategoryGrammar.The“scale”wasthatofthesuccessiveranksatwhichsystemsoperate:e.g.morpheme,word,phrase,andupwards.Backtothecoursebook,p.152:Hallidayrelatesthefunctionoflanguagetoitsstructures.Heidentifiesthreefunctionsoflanguage:ideational(whichissubdivided54\nintoexperientialandlogical),interpersonalandtextual.Andtheyarerelatedtothreegrammaticalsystems:transitivity,mood,andtheme.Heargues,“Languageservesfortheexpressionof‘content’:thatis,ofthespeaker’sexperienceoftherealworld,includingtheinnerworldofhisownconsciousness.Wemaycallthistheideationalfunction.”“Languageservestoestablishandmaintainsocialrelations:fortheexpressionofsocialroles,whichincludethecommunicationrolescreatedbylanguageitself--…interpersonal…”“Finally,languagehastoprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.Wemaycallthisthetextualfunction,sincethisiswhatenablesthespeakerorwritertoconstruct‘texts’,…”Actor动作者isafunctionintheclause小句asarepresentationofouterexperienceorinnerexperience.Ourmostpowerfulimpressionofexperienceisprocess.6processes,alsocf.p.412Subjectisafunctionofthemoodsystem.subject+finiteverbaloperator+predicator=mood+residueThemeisafunctionintheclauseasamessagetogetherwithrheme.12.4AmericanStructuralismlEarlyperiod:BoasandSapiranthropologist.describedyingindigenouslanguagesoftheAmericanIndians,theSapir-WhorfHypothesis,Sapirdefineslanguageas“apurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols”.Withoutlanguage,thoughtisimpossible.Languageistheoldesthumanlegacy,withoutlanguage,thereisnoculture.lBloomfield’stheory(cf.also石安石,1996)ForBloomfield,linguisticsisabranchofpsychology,andspecificallyofthepositivisticbrandofpsychologyknownasBehaviorism,basedonthebeliefthathumanbeingscannotknowanythingtheyhavenotexperienced.Behaviorisminlinguisticsholdsthatchildrenlearnlanguagethroughachainof“stimulus-responsereinforcement”,andtheadult’suseoflanguageisalsoaprocessofStimulus-Response.Inlanguageteaching,advocatepracticeandrepetitioninrealsituationslPost-BloomfieldianlinguisticsZ.Harris,C.Hockett,G.Trager,usethecomputertocarryoutdiscoveryprocedures,Harris’stheoryiscircular,dependingheavilyonmeaning,K.Pike,Tagmemics,everythingintheworldishierarchical,…thesebasicunitsarecalledgrammaticalunits,orTagmemes.Generalcommentsonstructuralism:1.describenotprescribe,butdonotexplainwhy;2.empirical,butnocompletegrammarscomparabletocomprehensivetraditionalgrammars;3.examinealllanguages,butdonottreatmeaning;4.describeeventhesmallestcontraststhatunderlieanyconstructionoruseoflanguage,notonlythosediscoverableinsomeparticularuse.12.5Transformational-GenerativeGrammarJohnLyons(莱昂斯1932-)remarksthat,“Rightorwrong,Chomsky’stheoryofgrammarisundoubtedlythemostdynamicandinfluential;andnolinguistwhowishestokeepabreastofcurrentdevelopmentsinhissubjectcanaffordtoignoreChomsky’s54\ntheoreticalpronouncements.Everyother‘school’oflinguisticsatthepresenttimetendstodefineitspositioninrelationtoChomsky’sviewsonparticularissues.”Chomskyismoreconcernedwithsyntagmaticthanparadigmaticrelation,andheaimsmoreatlanguagehomogeneitythanheterogeneity.WhileHallidayholdstheideathatlanguageisasocialphenomenon,Chomskyemphasizedthebiologicalaspectsoflanguage,makinglinguisticsabranchofpsychology.Chomsky’stheoryispredictable,vigorous,andfascinating,though,stillimperfectandvulnerabletoanti-examples,whereasHalliday’ssystemicgrammaristaxonomicwhosepredictability,ifany,islimitedtothesentencesalreadyavailable,inthefunctionalparthisattempttoexhaustthefulllistofways,whichseemsinfinite,toexpressthesameideaisfutileinthesensethatsuchalistisfinite.Chomskyfoundtheclassificationofstructuralelementsoflanguagethroughdistributionandsubstitutionhaditslimitations.TGGrammardiffersfromthestructuralgrammarin8ways:1.rationalism2.innateness3.deductivemethodology4.emphasisofinterpretation5.formalization6.emphasisonlinguisticcompetence7.stronggenerativepowers8.emphasisonlinguisticuniversals.(cf.alsoNewmeyer,1998a)lThephilosophicalaspectofChomskyanTheoryChomskydefineslanguageasasetofrulesorprinciples.Hisapproachtolanguageisareactionagainstbehaviorisminpsychologyandempiricisminphilosophy,makinglinguisticsabranchofpsychology.Hefollowsrationalisminphilosophyandmentalisminpsychology.Childrenbecomefluentspeakersoftheirnativelanguagebytheageoffive.Itisnotmorenecessarytoteachbabiestotalkthanitistoteachthemtowalk.Plato’sproblem,thelogicalproblemoflanguageacquisition,thepoverty-of-the-stimulusargument,theinnatenesshypothesis,modular,module,LAD,UG,parameter,Agenerative(formal,explicit,productive)grammarexaminesalllanguages.Observationaladequacy,descriptiveadequacy,explanatoryadequacy,Thereisacomponentofthehumanmind/braindedicatedtolanguage—thelanguagefaculty—interactingwithothersystems.Thelanguagefacultyhasatleasttwocomponents:acognitivesystemthatstoresinformation,andperformancesystemsthataccessthatinformationanduseitinvariousways.Foreachparticularlanguage,thecognitivesystemconsistsofacomputationalsystem(CS)andalexicon.CSselectselementsfromthelexiconandorganizethemintolinguisticexpressions.LexiconshouldprovidejusttheinformationthatisrequiredforCS,withoutredundancyandinsomeoptimalform,excludingwhateverispredictablebyprinciplesofUGorpropertiesofthelanguageinquestion.Theperformancesystemsfallintotwogeneraltypes:articulatory-perceptualandconceptual-intentional.Thelanguagefacultyhasaninitialstate,itpassesthroughaseriesofstatesinearlychildhood,reachingarelativelystablesteadystatethatundergoeslittlesubsequentchange,apartformthelexicon.(cf.alsoChomsky,1968;Hauser&Chomsky;Newmeyer,1998b;程工,2001;于江生)Theapplicationfields:computerscience(cf.刘俐李,2002),Langacquisition(cf.张学斌,2002),disambiguation…lThetechnicalaspectofChomskyanTheory5TGstages:TheClassicalTheory;TheStandardTheory,TheExtendedStandard54\nTheory;TheRevisedExtendedStandardTheory(orGB);TheMinimalistProgram;MinimalistInquiriesTheClassicalTheory:Chomskyputsforward3kindsofgrammar:finitestategrammar,phrasestructuregrammar,andtransformationalgrammar.Grammarshouldbeasystemoffiniterulesgeneratinganinfiniteofsentences.Rewritingrules:S®NP+VPKernelsentences16TransformationalRulesforEnglish,3problems:1.Rrulesaretoopowerful,well-formedandill-formedsentences:Johnboughtabook.AbookboughtJohn.2.Trulesaretoopowerful,e.g.passivevoice,JohnmarriedMary.MarywasmarriedbyJohn.TheStandardTheory:3components:syntactic(i.e.thebasecomponentconsistingofre-writingrulesandthelexicon),phonological,andsemantic(newlyadded),TheExtendedStandardTheory:criticize,criticism,anykindoftransformationchangesthesentencemeaning,Everyonelovessomeone.Beaversbuilddams.Gappedstructure:Johnatesomerice,andMarysomebread.give,donate,Manyarrowshitthetarget.ThemostremarkablechangeisthatChomskyputssemanticinterpretationcompletelyinthesurfacestructure.GBTheory:X-barTheory,θ-Theory,BoundingTheory,GovernmentTheory,CaseTheory,ControlTheory,andBindingTheoryamongwhichθ-Theoryisnew,emptycategory(EC),trace,c-command,anaphor,merger,move,checkingtheory,InGB,phrasestructurerulesareeliminatedthroughrecoursetopropertiesofthelexiconandcertaingeneralprinciples,andthetransformationalrulesarereducedtooneruleMove-α.Thelexiconcontains,foreachlexicalitem,itsabstractphonologicalformandsemanticproperties.Thelexiconpropertiesincludethe“selectionalproperties”ofheadsofconstructions:nouns,verbs,adjectives,andparticles(prepositionsorpostpositions,dependingonhowthehead-complementparametersaresetinthelanguage).Theentryforthewordhit,e.g.specifiesthatittakesacomplementwiththesemanticroleofrecipientofaction(patient),andthatitssubjecthasthesemanticroleofagent(perhapsdeterminedcompositionally).Forthewordpersuade,thelexicalentrywillspecifythatittakestwocomplements,thetargetoftheactionandaproposition,andthatthephraseofwhichpersuadeisheadassignstheroleagenttothesubject.Letuscalltheseproperties“semanticselection”(s-selection),puttingasidetheirfurtherproperties.Thelexiconpropertyofcategoricalselection(c-selection)specifies,e.g.thathittakesanNPcomplement.Thelatterspecificationseemsredundant;ifhits-selectsapatient,then,thiselementwillbeanNP.Ifc-selectionisredundant,ingeneral,thenthelexiconcanberestrictedtos-selection.Letusassumethatifaverbs-selectasemanticcategoryC,thenitc-selectsasyntacticcategorythatisthe“canonicalstructuralrealizationofC”(CSR(C)).TakeCSR(patient)andCSR(goal)tobeNP;thenhitc-selectsNP.Considernowthemorecomplexcaseoftheverbpersuade,whichappearsinthefollowingsyntacticframes:(i)–[John][thatheshouldgotocollege](1)(ii)–[John][togotocollege](iii)–[John][oftheimportanceofgoingtocollege]54\nThelexicalentryofpersuadeindicatesthatits-selectsagoalandaproposition.AchildlearningEnglishmustlearnthemeaningofthewordpersuadeincludingitspropertiesofs-selectionandmustalsolearnthevalueofthehead-complementparameterforEnglish(head-first)andthespecificpropertiesofCaseassignmentinEnglish(thefactthattheCaseadjacencyprincipleisinvoked,presumablyareflexofthepovertyofthemorphologicalCasesystem).Nothingmoremustbelearnedtodeterminetheformsof(1).Inparticular,nopropertiesofc-selectionandnorulesofphrasestructurearerequiredinthiscase.TheprinciplesofUGincludeHeadParameter,X-barTheory,ProjectionPrinciple(Thepropertiesoflexicalentriesprojectontothesyntaxofthesentence.Ifclaimtakesaclausalcomplementasalexicalproperty,itmusthaveaclausalcomplementinsyntacticrepresentations.),CaseTheory(EveryphoneticallyrealizedNPmustbeassigned(abstract)Case.e.g.liketheboy,*fondtheboy,*destructionthecity,destructionofthecity,thecity’sdestruction,criticize).Amajorassumptioninlinguisticssincethe1930shasbeenthatsentencesconsistsofphrases–structuralgroupingsofwords:sentenceshavephrasestructure.E.g.Theboywroteabook.Thesentence(S)breaksupintoaNounPhrase(NP)theboyandaVerbPhrase(VP)wroteabook;theVPinturnbreaksupintoaVerb(V)wroteandafurtherNounPhraseabook.Thattheearthrevolvesisobvious.(宋国明,1997:144)WhowillJohnmarry?(C&N,1996:177)SentenceNounPhraseVerbPhraseDeterminerNounVerbNounPhraseTheboywroteDeterminerNounabook我是中国人IamChineseJesuisChinois私は中国人ごす(headfirstvs.headfinalparameter)X’®X+complementorX’®complement+XXP(X’’)[Hon-o]Kattabuy[abook]complementVVcomplement(bookbought)Spec(ifier)X’Heboughtabook.标志语[Fune]nion[theboat]complementPPcomplementXComp(lement)(boaton)Head补语Ontheboat.(lexicalcategory)[inuo]kowagatteafraid[ofdogs]中心语complementAAcomplement54\n(dogafraid)NPafraidofthedog[Zibungatadashi-to-iu]shichooclaim[thathe’sright]Det(erminer)N’complementNNcomplementselfrightclaimaN(theclaimthathewasright)Adouble-barphrasemayconsistofaheadandpossiblespecifiersbookX’’®X’+specifierorX’’®specifier+X’X-bartheoryclaimsthatallphrasesinalllanguagesharethiscell-likestructurewithtwolevelstoeachphrase:one(X”)consistsoftheheadandpossiblespecifiers;theother(X’)consistsoftheheadandpossiblecomplements.NotethatspecifierandcomplementarenotthemselvessyntacticcategoriesbutfunctionallabelsforpositionsinthestructurethatmaybefilledbyactualsyntacticcategoriessuchasNPsandVPs.Toillustratehowsuchasystemworks,considerthesentence:whowasJohnpersuadedtovisit(2)Tounderstand/generate(2),wemustfirstknowthelexicalpropertiesofthewords:visitisatransitiveverbthats-selectsacategorycanonicallyrealizedasanNPobject.ByX-bartheory,visitmustheadaVPand,bytheprojectionprinciple,itsNPobjectmustappearinthesyntacticrepresentation.Theobjectmustbeanemptycategory(EC),becausenoovertNPispresent.OneofthevaluesoftheX-bartheoryparametersforEnglishisthatEnglishisa“head-first”language,sothattheobjectistotherightofvisit.Furthermore,tobelicensed,thepredicate[visite]musthaveasubject,thetwoformingaclause(S);sincethesubjectisnotovert,itmustbeanotherEC.Turningtopersuade,weknowthatitisaverbthattakesanobjectandaclausalcomplement,theirorderdeterminedbytheCaseadjacencyprinciplesaswehaveseen.Thesystemscalled“languages”incommonsenseusagetolerateexceptions:irregularmorphology,idioms,andsoforth.Theseexceptionsdonotfallnaturallyundertheprinciples-and–parametersconceptionofUG.Supposewedistinguishcorelanguagefromperipheral,whereacorelanguageisasystemdeterminedbyfixingvaluesfortheparametersofUG,andtheperipheraliswhateverisaddedoninthesystemactuallyrepresentedinthemind/brainofaspeaker-hearer.Move-α:NP-MovementandWh-Movement.CaseassigningtakesplaceinthephaseoftransformationinordertoobtainCase.e.g.Abookwaswrittenbytheboy.Thetraditionalwaytoobtainapassiveistomovetheobjectoftheactivesentencetobesubjectofthepassivesentence,andaddwas,andby.InGB,thepassiveisseenashavingaD-structureinwhichtheNPabookoccursaftertheVerbandthemovesintosubjectposition.Anotherex.Whatdidhedo?(ThetreediagramadaptedfromCookandNewson,1996:177)CPNPC’54\nWhatCIPI’IVPdidNPV’heVNPdotThattheboywroteabookatnineistrue.(1sttreeadaptedfrom宋国明,1997:144;2ndtreeCookandNewson,1996:175)IPCPI’C’IVPCIP(Tense,AGR)[Present][singular]ThatNPI’V’theboyIVPVAP(Tense,AGR)[Past][singular]V’isA’-edV’PPAVNPP’truewriteabookPNPatnineIPCPI’C’IVPCIP(Tense,AGR)[Present][singular]ThatI’V’54\nIVPVAP(Tense,AGR)[Past][singular]NPV‘isA’-edtheboyV’PPAVNPP’truewriteabookPNPatnineReferencesChomsky,Noam.1968,LanguageandMind(parts)http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/chomsky.htmHauser,MarcD.andNoamChomsky,TheFacultyofLanguage:WhatIsIt,WhoHasIt,andHowDidItEvolve?http://www.e4in1.com/club5/topic.asp?topic_id=12644&forum_id=125&cat_id=8Newmeyer,F.J.1998a.杨春雷译形式和功能的对立http://justinenglish.nease.net/researcherpages/articles/ff.htmNewmeyer,F.J.1998b柯飞译.乔姆斯基语言哲学述略外语与翻译1998年第4期http://www.lingchina.org/曹聪孙,1996,语言类型学与汉语的SVO和SOV之争天津师大学报:社科版No.2PP.75-80http://chinese.pku.edu.cn(北大中文系语言学论文选)程工,2001,读乔姆斯基《语言与思维研究中的进展》外语教学与研究2001年第3期http://www.hubce.edu.cn/cbb/qwjs/lib/35501.html刘俐李,2002,计算机与乔姆斯基语言学语言与翻译2002年第四期http://www.xjyw.gov.cn/han/lunwen/2002-4-liulili.htm于江生,Chomsky的语言哲学观http://icl.pku.edu.cn/yujs/papers/html/chomsky-phi.htm张学斌,2002,遥望两位学术大师的对话《中华读书报》2002年5月22日http://www.lingchina.orgcf.also20世纪语言学史上一次伟大的辩论http://www.e4in1.com/club5/forum.asp?forum_id=125&cat_id=8石安石,1996,布龙菲尔德语法理论的贡献外语教学与研究No.3pp.1-7http://chinese.pku.edu.cnFurtherReading金立鑫《语言学概论》http://www.kingsky.org/linguistics.htm丘启良、甘甲才《语言学概论》http://210.38.42.1/zhongwen/yuyangxue2.ppt徐通锵《语言学概论网络课件》54\nhttp://202.205.160.49:8080/media_file/2001_11_16/newy/orhttp://www.open.edu.cn/file_post/display/read.php?FileID=5823《语言学概论》语法学习与同步练习http://202.205.160.49:8080/media_file/2002_11_22/yyxweb/index.htmorhttp://www.open.edu.cn/file_post/display/read.php?FileID=12445张祖春《英语语言学概论》重难点提示http://www.yc2000.net/jiaoxue/2001-02/fuxizl/english-language2002.docSilzer,PeterJ.2003.WorkingwithLanguage:Aninteractiveguidetounderstandinglanguageandlinguisticshttp://people.biola.edu/faculty/petes/linguistics/WWL2003.pdf(290pp.)Roach,PeterALittleEncyclopediaofPhoneticshttp://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~llsroach/encyc.pdfMarkIsrael'sAUEFAQ,1997-9-29http://www.english-usage.com/faq.htmlThesci_langFAQ9–14http://zompist.com/lang9.html#TheLinguisticSocietyofAmericahttp://www.lsadc.org/(AboutLinguistics)TheSummerInstituteofLinguisticshttp://www.sil.org/linguistics/DepartmentofPhoneticsandLinguistics,UCLhttp://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/USCChineseLinguistics:http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ealc/chinling/(UniversityofSouthernCalifornia)OhioStateUniv.http://ling.ohio-state.edu/files/files.htmlOxfordUniv.Linguisticshttp://www.ling-phil.ox.ac.uk/Introductiontolinguistics(MITLingCourse)http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Linguistics-and-Philosophy/24-900Introduction-to-LinguisticsSpring2002/CourseHome/index.htm"MITLinguisticsPapers"provides"Otherlinguisticspaperarchives":KaivonFintel'slistofOnlinePapersinSyntax&Semantics:http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/www/fintel.online.htmlRutgersOptimalityArchive:http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/roa.htmlBlackwell'slistofUniversity/departmenthomepages,someofwhichhavepapersavailable:http://www.blackwellpublishers.co.uk/linguist/lingres.htmRochester'slistofLinguistics-RelatedArchives:http://www.ling.rochester.edu/archives.htmlPennLinguistics(Univ.ofPennsylvania)Downloadablepapersbyfacultyandstudents:http://ling.upenn.edu/papers/lingpapers.htmlPennWorkingPapersinLinguistics:http://ling.upenn.edu/papers/pwpl.htmlPennLinguisticscourse:http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/ling001(Somelecturenotesaccessible)http://cogprints.soton.ac.uk/TheCogPrintsproject(FreeOn-lineLingPapers)TheLINGUISTListhttp://linguistlist.org/(It’saListserv,MailingList)清华大学语言文学网络资源http://166.111.107.91/content/wlxt/net_resource.asp北京大学汉语语言学研究中心语言学资料库http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/resource.asp?item=154\n北京大学计算语言学研究所首页＞科研信息>学术成果>论文荟萃http://www.icl.pku.edu.cn/research/achievements/paper.htm北京大学中文论坛http://chinese.pku.edu.cn/bbs/(北大中文系学术论坛:文学、语言)广东外语外贸大学外国语言学及应用语言学研究中心http://www.clal.org.cn/湖南大学语言学系http://www.lingchina.org/中山大学语言理论与实践http://www.languagera.com/新浪论坛http://newbbs4.sina.com.cn/index.shtml?arts:xugou英语语言学论坛http://www.lforums.comNoamChomsky研究专辑http://www.e4in1.com/club5/forum.asp?forum_id=125&cat_id=8湘里妹子学术论坛http://www.xlmz.net/forum/语言学网站导航http://www.lforums.com/link/sort.asp?sortid=2754应用语言学http://www.cal.org/语言学资源http://langue.3322.net/中国语用学在线http://www.pragmaticschina.com/index01.htm华语桥http://www.huayuqiao.org/香港中国语文学会主办《语文建设通讯》选辑AnOnlineGlossaryofSomeLinguisticTermsavailableat:http://www.sil.orgalsolinkedbyhttp://www.pragmaticschina.com/index.htmlhttp://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Resources/汉英语言学术语对照表.ziphttp://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Resources/国际音标字体.ziphttp://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Resources/语言学书目.ziphttp://www.modernchinese.com/现代汉语书刊简介http://chin.nju.edu.cn/oldversion/ddyyxllindex.htm语言学理论导读书目(南京大学中文系)http://www.fiu.edu/~linguist/LinguisticsfromEnglishDepartmentatFloridaInternationalUniv.http://www.emich.edu/~linguist/WWWLinguistics(fromLinguisticsResourcesofFIUEngDept)http://alt.venus.co.uk/VL/AppLingBBK/WWWAppliedLinguistics(ibid:FIUEngDept)Linkstootherinformationresourceshttp://www.data-archive.ac.uk/index.aspLinguisticLinkshttp://www.ling.rochester.edu/TheBritishAssociationforAppliedLinguisticshttp://www.baal.org.uk/baald.htmWebJournalofFormal,Computational&CognitiveLinguisticshttp://fccl.ksu.ruLinguisticsBibliographieshttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/Linguistics%20Linguistics/linguistics_biblioghraphies.htmLinguisticsdepartmentsthroughouttheworldhttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/lingdeptothercountries.htmUsefullinksforlinguistics.htm54\nhttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/useful_links_for_linguistics_forum.htmLinguisticsHomepageshttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/linguistics_homepages.htmOtherLinguisticsJournalshttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/other_linguistics_journals.htmBaghinipour,MajidWhatisLinguisticshttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/whatislinguistics.htmShahheidari,GholamAbbassModernLinguisticshttp://www.kkhec.ac.ir/shahart10.htmChomsky’sBookshttp://www.lforums.com/html/4/41/637.htmQuotationsfromChomsky’sbookshttp://www.lforums.com/html/4/41/652.htmChomskyforPhilosophershttp://www.personal.kent.edu/%7Epbohanbr/Webpage/New/newintro.htmlChomskyALifeofDissenthttp://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/contents.htmlFerdinanddeSaussurehttp://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm语言学的魅力(周家發'sWebsite)http://www.geocities.com/kfzhouy/Lingh.html学点语言学http://epizza.nease.net/sbpage/lngt.htm赵宝斌编辑整理(Joe:Notsoprofessional)世界上的语言http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Miscellaneous/languages_in_the_world.htm世界语言的多样性http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Miscellaneous/diversity_of_languages.htm人類語言發展史http://bryanching.com:2003/eddie/otherwritter.richard.lam.relax1.3and2.language.cloud.htm王彬彬隔在中西之间的日本——现代汉语中的日语“外来语”问题http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Miscellaneous/来自日语的外来语.TXT史有為论当代语言接触与外来词http://www.huayuqiao.org/articles/shiyouwei/shiyw09.htm孟伟根从词典的释义看大陆的性知识http://www.huayuqiao.org/articles/yuwenjianshetongxun/7402.htm警察妓女不能讲http://ccl.pku.edu.cn/doubtfire/link2file.asp?FileLink=/doubtfire/Joke/dialect_joke.htm英语绕口令http://www.hrexam.com/twister.htm鲍林杰,德怀特,1993,《语言要略》,方立等译。北京:外语教学与研究出版社。(¥19.80)Bolinger,Dwight.1968/1975.AspectsofLanguage.NewYork:HarcourtBraceJavanovich.Crystal,David.1997.TheCambridgeEncyclopediaofLanguage.2nded.Cambridge:Cambridge54\nUniversityPress.(《剑桥语言百科词典》外语教学与研究出版社已引进，约¥70)Fromkin,VictoriaandRobertRodman.1998.AnIntroductiontoLanguage.6thed.FortWorth:HarcourtBraceCollegePublishers.Matthews,PeterHugoe.1997.OxfordConciseDictionaryofLinguistics.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ReprintedShanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress2000.(《牛津语言学词典》，¥17.50)O’Grady,William.MichaelDobrovolskyandMarkAronoff.1989.ContemporaryLinguistics:AnIntroduction.1sted.NewYork:St.Martin’sPress.王刚,1988,普通语言学基础.长沙:湖南教育出版社。许国璋,1991,语言的定义、功能、起源,载许国璋(著),《许国璋论语言》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,pp.1-19。许国璋,1991,语言符号的任意性问题,载许国璋(著),《许国璋论语言》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,pp.20-40。Exercises:(Leaflettoprightcorner:ChineseName,StudentNumber,Class,Grade,Department)1.Judgewhetherthefollowingstatementsaretrueorfalse:1)Languageismerelyasystemofcommunication.()2)Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence.()3)EnglishismoredifficulttolearnthanChinese.()4)Hymesadvancedtheideaofcommunicativecompetence.()2.Choosethebestanswertocompleteeachofthefollowingsentences:1).Fatherofmodernlinguisticsis________A.BloomfieldB.ChomskyC.HallidayD.Saussure2).Whichofthefollowingisnotabranchoflinguistics?A.SyntaxB.PhonologyC.PsychologyD.PhoneticsE.Semantics3).Whatdoes“GB”standforinChomskyanlinguistics?A.GreatBritainB.GolfBagC.GovernmentandBindingD.PrinciplesandParameters4).Whatdoes“IPA”standfor?A.InternationalPhoneticAlphabetB.InternationalPhonemicAssociationC.InflectionalPhrasalArgumentD.IndiaPaleAle5).________studiesthestructureofwords.A.SyntaxB.SemanticsC.MorphologyD.Phonology6)."Thestudyofthewaylistenersperceivethesounds"refersto________.A.articulatoryphoneticsB.acousticphoneticsC.auditoryphoneticsD.None3.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounds:(1)voicelessbilabialstop(2)voicedpalatalaffricate(3)voicelesslabiodentalfricative54\n(1)voicedalveolarstop(2)voicedvelarstop(3)voicedbilabialnasal(4)voiceddentalfricative(5)voicedvelarnasal(6)palatalglide(7)voicedalveolarfricative1.Accordingtothedescriptionofthesoundsegments,filltheprovidedspeechsoundsofEnglishintheblanks.1)voiceddentalfricative:____2)voicelesspostalveolarfricative:____3)velarnasal:_____4)voicedalveolarstop:_____5)voicelessbilabialstop:_____6)voicelessvelarstop:_____7)(alveolar)lateral:_____8)highfrontlaxunroundedvowel:_____9)highbacktenseroundedvowel:_____10)lowbacklaxroundedvowel:_____2.SubstitutetheArabicnumeralswithappropriateEnglishconsonants=MannerofArticulationPlaceofArticulationBilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPost-AlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStop12345625Nasal789Fricative101112131415161718Approximate192021Lateral22Affricate23243.JudgewhetherthefollowingarepossibleEnglishwords,andwhy?(1)["tlIgIt](2)[swpOn](3)["trIg@n](4)["{l@pesg](5)[spl{d](6)[Nar](7)["u:z@pm](8)[skwIl](9)["8em@ret](10)[mlOp](11)["tSekt@r](12)["jrUNdkI](13)[hepl](14)[l{pm](15)[rpeI](16)[wbIk](17)[spwON](18)[stlu:T](19)[sklQv](20)[stwaUf](21)[I"l{ps](22)[k@"l{ps](23)[ftIk]Ifawordbeginswitha[w,r,j,l],thenmustthenextsoundbeavowel?4.Istheitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesaninflectionalmorphemeoraderivationalmorpheme?Pointoutthegrammaticalmeaningofeachitalicizedmorpheme.54\n(1)Janedancestofastmusic.(2)Janedancedapolkayesterday.(3)Janehasnotyetdancedherwayintotheheartsofhercolleagues.(4)Janeisdancingherlittledaughterroundtheroom.1.Givethesub-categorizationfeatureforeachofthefollowing:1.建议2.困扰3.看4.摆5.碎6.相信2.Definethefollowingterms,giveexampleswherepossible:1)arbitrariness2)duality3)metalingualfunction4)phonetics5)phonology6)languevs.parole7)competencevs.performance8)communicativecompetence3.Drawatreediagramforeachofthefollowing:fromChina,teafromChina,drinktea,fondoftea,finishmypaperonTuesday,playthepiano,proofofhisguilt,withapen,fullofhimself,hisfearofthedark,(boldfacesindicateheads)anoldgreyman,ahighredbrickwall,hersmallroundpinkface,abeautifulbig/old/longredFrenchplastictoycar,oldmenandwomenThegirleatsaredappleinherroomeveryday.JohnsaidthatMaryleft.Hesaidthattheygothim.TheAmericanofficerannouncedwithexcitingtearsinhiseyesthatthebraverapidsoldiersfinallycapturedtheformerIraqipresidentSaddamaliveinhishometownonDecember14.ThemanwhoopenedthedoorwasJohn.ThemanwhoopenedthedoorwearingthickglassesofmediumbuildwithshorthairwasJohn.OnSundayIwillputthebookontheshelfatyourrequest.Maryisquitefondofherjob.TheannouncementofthenewsonthelocalradiosurprisedallthestudentsoflinguisticsfromEngland.Shehasdecidedthatownersofbigcarswithoutchildrenshouldpaytax.4.Developeachofthefollowingtopicsintoanessay:1)Thedefinitionoflanguage(humanlang.biological,social,mathematical,signlang.)2)Thearbitrarinessoflanguage3)Dualityasanimportantfeatureofhumanlanguage(animallang.,trafficlights,semaphore)54\n1)Thedesigningfeaturesoflanguage2)Thefunctionsoflanguage3)Theoriginoflanguage4)Theanimallanguage5)Langue,parole,competence,andperformance6)Competence,performance,andcommunicativeperformance7)PronunciationdiscrepanciesbetweenAmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish8)SomestresspatternsinEnglish9)Therelationshipsbetweenphoneticsandphonology10)Therelationshipsbetweenphone,allophone,andphoneme.11)Therelationshipsbetweenmorph,allomorph,andmorpheme.12)AssimilationrulesinEnglishorChinese.13)TheinfluenceofEnglishuponCantonesevocabulary(store,tie,case)14)TheinfluenceofancientChineseuponCantonesevocabulary(食、饮、入来)15)Theapplicationofphonetics/phonology/morphology/syntaxtoEnglishlearning.16)Givesomeinstancesofneology/neologism(Chinese,English,French,Japanese,orRussian)thatyouthinkarefrequentlyusedandanalyzetheirinternalstructures.(e.g.GG,MM,JJ,B4,U2,r,BoBo,668,J,L)17)Syntagmaticrelationandparadigmaticrelationinlanguage(Atthelevelofphonology,morphology,andsyntax,cf.p.121)18)Endocentricconstructionandexocentricconstruction19)FunctionalismandFormalism–ReadingnotesonLinguistics20)AninitialintroductiontoFrench/Japanese/Russian(intermsoflinguistictypology.graphemics字位学:grapheme书写单位;字素;phonetics:pronunciation;phonology:phonemes,stress,intonation;morphology:inflection,wordformation;syntax:number,gender,case,tense,aspect,concord,government)21)AninitialcomparisonbetweenFrenchandEnglishorJapaneseandChinese22)ThecharacteristicsofInternetlanguage23)InternetResourcesandEnglishLearning24)TowhatextentisChomskyanlinguisticspsychologicallyoriented?25)TowhatextentisHallidayanlinguisticssociologicallyoriented?26)OnwhoseshouldersdoesChomskystand?27)OnwhoseshouldersdoesHallidaystand?28)ReflectionsonChomskyantheory29)RemarksonHallidayantheory(p.152Languageservesfortheexpressionofcontent…)30)Myimpressionsonlinguisticsasadiscipline.(e.g.Islinguisticsasocialscience?naturalscience?Sociology?Psychology?…cf.鲍林杰,1993:vi:“没有哪一个学科领域象语言学那样存在着如此多的谬误，不仅存在着，而且还继续被当作真理传授着。”)12Accountforthegrammaticalityofthefollowingsentences:Fortheretobeamanintheroomisunlikely.Isitreallynecessaryfortheretobeanexam?54\nForJohntogowouldbeamistake.IwouldlikeforJohntogo.IwillvoteforSenatorSmithintheelection.Whichsenatorwillyouvoteforintheelection?Forwhichsenatorwillyouvoteintheelection?IamanxiousforSenatorSmithtowin.*Whichsenatorareyouanxiousfortowin?*Forwhichsenatorareyouanxioustowin?Heranupthehillandupthemountain.*Heranuphismotheranduphissister.Shemighthavebeenwatchingtelevisionor(4might(3have(2been(1readingabook.)Whatd’youthinkshemighthavebeendoing?3Having2been1watchingtelevision.(*Mighthavebeenwatchingtelevision.)Hesuggestedthatshemighthavebeenwatchingtelevision,and…Soshemighthavebeen./Soshemighthave./Soshemight./*Soshe.Shemighthavebeenwatchingtelevisionmoreoftenthan1he/2might/3havebeen.WhodidyouseeMarywith?(subjacencyprinciple,cannotcrosstwoboundingnodes)*WhodidyouseeMaryand?(NPIsland,Rossfound4islands)JohnlikesthebookthatMarywrote.(cannotaskawh-questionaboutMary)JohnwonderswhatMarylikes.*WhodoesJohnwonderwhatlikes?(Wh-Island)Johnwillcomeif/whenMarycomes.*WhowillJohncomeif/whencomes?(AdjunctIsland)JohnregretsthatMarylikesTom.*WhodoesJohnregretthatMarylikes?(FactualIsland)*HowmanybooksdidhebuyaboutIT?HowmanybooksdidhewriteaboutIT?HewonderedwhereJohnputwhat*whatdidhewonderwhereJohnputWhodoyouwannasee?WhodoyouwanttoseeTom?*WhodoyouwannaseeTom?Heiwantshimselfitowin.Heiwantseitowin.Hewannawin.(anECwithinwanna?)John’sbeingcertaintopassTEM8*John’scertaintytopassTEM8John’samusingthechildrenwithhisstories*John’samusementofthechildrenwithhisstoriestheproofofthetheoremJohn’sthreeproofsofthetheorem*theprovingofthetheorem*HowmanybooksdidJohnbuyaboutIT?HowmanybooksdidJohnwriteaboutIT?HewonderedwhereJohnputwhat.*Whatdidhewonderwherejohnput?*Whatdidhestammerthathehadseen?Whatdidhesaythathehadseen?Wedecidedtoleave.*WedecidedJohntoleave.WedecidedthatJohnshouldleave.54\nWebelievedJohntohaveleft.Itispossibletowin.*Itislikelytowin.(try,decideareunmarked,believe,consideraremarkedthusspecial,andsomeadjectivesalsoshowthisphenomenon.)Hewanted/triedtowin.*Hesaidtowin.HewantsverymuchforJohntowin.(Xu,1988:327saysChomskyattributesthedifferencebetweentryandsaytotheLexicon,notsyntax.)Ibelievehimtobewise.*Ibelieveforhimtobeabletowin.I’manxiousforhimtowin.(C&N,1996:137saynotallEnglishinfinitivalclausesallowovertsubjects,herebelieveandforassignAccusativeCase,whichisExceptionalCaseMarking.Butonp.334MPassumesthatECMinvolvesthesubjectofthelowerclauseraisingtothespecifieroftheAGR0ofthehigherclause)JohnilikeshimjJohnilikeshimselfi*JohnithinksshelikeshimselfiJohn’sjbrotherilikeshimj*John’sibrotherjlikeshimjJohn’sibrotherjlikeshimselfj*John’sibrotherjlikeshimselfi*JohnithinkshimselfiisintelligentJohnithinksheiisintelligentMaryjwasupsetbyJohn’sicriticismofhimselfiMaryiwasupsetbyJohn’sjcriticismofheriColorlessgreenideassleepsfuriously.Visitingauntscanbeboring.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Sinceritymayfrightentheboy.Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.*Theboymayfrightensincerity.Aweekelapsed.*Theboyelapsed.(Onecannotelapseabook.isacceptable)IhavebeentaughtphysicsbyEinstein.*Einsteinhastaughtmephysics.IpersuadedJohntoleave.IexpectedJohntoleave.JohnistoostubborntotalktoBillJohnistoostubborntotalktoJohnistooclevertoexpectustocatchBillJohnistooclevertoexpectustocatch12Glossthefollowingsentences:54LiKuibayibafuzigei-leLinChong.LiKuiBAa-CLaxgive-AspLinChongLiKuigaveLinChonganax.(Chinese)JeanembrassesouventMarie.JohnkissesoftenMaryJohnoftenkissesMary.(French)John-gaMary-nihon-oatae-taJohn-NomMary-Datbook-Accgive-PstJohngaveabooktoMay.(Japanese)John-nunMary-lulsalangha-n-ta.John-topMary-acclove-pres-declJohnlovesMary.(Korean)5413Readthefollowingandconsiderhowlanguageservesthefunctionofcommunication:Aboybringshomeanobjectwhichhehasfoundonabuildingsite.Hismotherwishestoexpressherdisapproval.non-linguisticoptionse.g.smackinghim,linguisticoptionssuchas:1)that’sverynaughtyofyou54\n1)I’llsmackyouifyoudothatagain2)Idon’tlikeyoutodothat3)thatthingdoesn’tbelongtoyou4)Daddywouldbeverycross5)playinginthatsortofplaceruinsyourclothes6)grown-upsliketobetidy7)it’snotgoodforyoutogettooexcited8)boyswhoarewellbroughtupplaynicegamesinthepark9)allthatglassmightgetbroken10)Daddydoesn’tlikeyoutoplayroughgames11)youmighthurtyourself12)yououghttoshowJohnnyhowtobeagoodboy13)otherpeople’sthingsaren’tforplayingwith14)Mummyknowsbest15)youmustn’tplaywiththosekindofboys16)littleboysshoulddoasthey’retold17)thattinbelongstosomebodyelse18)ItoldyouIdidn’twantyoutodothat19)you’llgetsmackednexttime20)youcangotherewhenyou’rebigger21)I’llsmackyou22)Daddy’llsmackyou23)you’llgetsmacked24)I’llsmackyouifyoudothatagain25)Daddy’llsmackyouifyougoondoingthat26)you’llgetsmacked27)youdothatagainandI’llsmackyou28)yougoondoingthatagainDaddy’llsmackyou29)don’tyoudothatagainoryou’llgetsmacked30)youstopdoingthat31)Ishallbecrosswithyou32)Daddy’llbecrosswithyou33)you’llfalldown34)you’llgethurt;you’llhurtyourself35)you’llgetdirty36)you’llcutyourhands;yourhands’llgetcut37)you’lltearyourclothes;yourclothes’llgettorn38)yourfeet’llgetwet39)you’llgetyourselfhurt40)you’llgetyourhandscut41)you’llgetyourfeetwet(Halliday,1973.Towardsasociologicalsemantics.inBrumfitandJohnsoneds.1979,pp.28-39reprintedbyShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress2000.)54\n(KeytoQ3:[p,dZ,f,d,g,m,D,N,j,z])(戴炜栋等,1989:28)(KeytoQ4:1.[D],2.[S],3.[N],4.[d],5.[p],6.[k],7.[l],8.[I],9.[u:],10.[Q])(Huetal.,2001:74,479)IhopeyouenjoylinguisticsasmuchasIdo.54