语言学教程 我的复习 13页

语言学概论Chapter:Invitationtolinguistics一、language1、DefinitionLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是用于交际的一套有声符号系统。Itevolveswithinspecifichistorical,socialandculturalcontents.(humanspecific)2、Thehistory（origin）(1)Thebow-wowtheory模仿说（imitation）Peopleimitatedthesoundsoftheanimalcallsinthewildenvironment.Onomatopoeicwords(拟声词)(2)Thepooh-poohtheory本能说（instinct）Inthehardlifeofourprimitiveancestors,theyUtterinstinctivesoundsofpain,angerandjoy.Interjectionslikeoh,ahaiyo.(3)Theyo-he-hotheory号子说（rhythmicgrunts）Asprimitivepeopleworkedtogether,theyproducedsomerhythmicgrunts(咕哝)whichgraduallydevelopedintochantsandthenintolanguages.(4)Thedivine-origintheory神授说（creation）(5)Theinventiontheory人造说（invention）(6)Theevolutionarytheory进化说（evolution）3、designfeaturesoflanguage语言的普遍特征llanguagedistinguisheshumanbeingsformanimalsinthatitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalscommunicationsystem.Eg.(philosopherBertrandRussell)nomatterhoweloquentlyadogmaybark,hecannottellyouthathisparentswerepoorbuthonest.再会叫的狗，他也不会说出他的父母很穷但是很务实的话来ldesignfeatures(1)Arbitrariness任意性Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundsandmeaning.(Saussurefirstreferstothefactthattheformsofalinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning.)Wedonotknowwhythebookiscalledthebook.(2)Duality二元性Itmeansthepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelhasitsownprinciplesoforganization.(3)Creativity创造性itmeanslanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityandrecursiveness(递归性)。Languageiscreativeinanothersense,thatis,itspotentialtocreateendlesssentence.(4)Displacement移位性:Displacementisthatlanguagecanrefertothecontextsremovedfromthe\nimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.(1)Culturetransmission文化传递性:Animalscallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Humanlanguagesareculturallytransmitted.1、thefunctionoflanguage语言的功能（1）Informative信息功能：Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.（2）interpersonalfunction人际功能：Itisthemostimportantsociologicaluseoflanguage.Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.（3）performative施为功能Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.（4）Emotivefunction感情功能Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.（5）phaticcommunion寒暄功能Thephaticcommunionmeansthesocialinteractionoflanguage.suchritualexchangesasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.（6）recreationalfunction娱乐功能Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.（7）metalingualfunction元语言功能Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.二、linguistic1、definitionItisthesystematicinvestigationofthecommonfeaturesofallnaturalhumanlanguages.2、mainbranchesoflinguistic(1)Phonetics语音学Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics.从自然属性研究人类语音(2)Phonology音系学Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.研究语音结构、分布和排序的规则以及音节的形状。\n(3)Morphology形态学Morphologyisconcernedwiththeinternalorganizationofwords.Itstudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning-morphemesandword-formationprocesses.研究单词内部组成(4)Syntax句法学Syntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences.研究组词造句的规则(5)Semantics语义学Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage.语言的意义(6)Pragmatics语用学Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.研究语言在环境中的意义3、Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Macrolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinallaspects,distinctfrommicrolinguistics,whichdealtsolelywiththeformalaspectoflanguagesystem.（1）Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguisticsinvestigatestheinterrelationoflanguageandmind,inprocessingandproducingutterancesandinlanguageacquisitionforexample.（2）Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguisticsisatermwhichcoversavarietyofdifferentinterestsinlanguageandsociety,includingthelanguageandthesocialcharacteristicsofitsusers.（3）Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学Anthropologicallinguisticsstudiestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureinacommunity.（4）Computationallinguistics计算机语言学Computationallinguisticsisaninterdisciplinaryfieldwhichcentersaroundtheuseofcomputerstoprocessorproducehumanlanguage.4、theprinciplesoflinguisticstudy语言学研究的规则exhaustivenessobjectivityconsistencyeconomy5、Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics几对重要的区别性概念（1）Descriptivevs.prescriptive规定性研究与描述性研究（2）Synchronicvs.diachronic共时与历时（3）Langue&parole语言与言语（4）Competenceandperformance语言能力与语言应用Chaptertwo:speechsounds(twomajorareasofstudy:phoneticsandphonology)Phoneticsisthestudyofallpossiblespeechsoundswhilephonologystudiesthewayinwhichspeakersofalanguagesystematicallyuseaselectionofthesesoundsinordertoexpressmeaning.\nnPhonetics语音学1、definition:Phoneticsisthestudyofproduction,transmission,perception.descriptionandclassificationtranscription(标记)ofspeechsounds.2、threebranchesofphonetics(1)Articulatoryphonetics(physiologicalphonetics生理语言学)发音语言学thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds(2)Acousticphonetics（physicalphonetics物理语言学）声学语言学thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech(3)Auditoryphonetics（psychologicalphonetics心理语言学）听觉语言学thestudyofperceptionofspeechsoundsMostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.3、speechsounds:aresoundsthatconveymeaningAresoundsthataresystematicallyusedinhumanlinguisticcommunication.4、speechorgans发音器官Speechorgansarethosepartsofthehumanbodyinvolvedintheproductionofspeech.【thelungs肺thetracheaorwindpipe气管thethroat喉（larynx喉pharynx咽vocalfolds\cords声带）thenose鼻themouth口】-----vocaltract声道Thespeechorganscanbeconsideredasconsistingofthreeparts:theinitiatoroftheairstream,theproducerofvoiceandtheresonatingcavities（pharynxthenasalcavitiestheoralcavities）.5、theIPAchart国际音标图=InternationalPhoneticAlphabetFirstversion:August1888lastversion:2005Mainprinciples:laseparateletterforeachdistinctivesound一音一符lThesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanylanguageinwhichitappears.同音同符lThealphabetwastoconsistofasmanyromanalphabetlettersaspossible.lUsingnewlettersanddiacriticsonlywhenabsolutelynecessary.变音符号6、classificationofEnglishspeechsounds英语语音的分类（1）vocal&consonant(accordingtothearticulatorycharacteristics)(theobstructionofairstream气流受阻与否)Vocal(元音)：soundsproducedwithouttheobstructionofairstream.Consonant（辅音）:soundsproducedwiththeobstructionofairstream.（2）voicelesssound&voicedsound(thevibrationofvocalcord声带的振动与否)Voicelesssound（清音）：whenthevocalcordsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.\nConsonant[pstfk]Voicedsound(浊音)：whenthevocalcordsareclosetogether,theairstreamcausesthemtovibrateagainsteachotherandthereluctantsoundissaidtobevoiced.Consonants[bzdvg]7、classificationofconsonants辅音的分类[t]:voicelessstopalveolar[l]:voicedalveolarapproximant[h]:voicelessglottalfricative[m]:voicedbilabialnasalMannerofarticulation发音方式Placeofarticulation发音部位Stop\plosive爆破音PbtdkgBilabial双唇音PbmwFricative摩擦音FvszhLabiodental唇齿音fvDental齿音Affricate塞擦音Alveolar齿龈音tdszlnPost-alveolar后齿龈音Approximant中通音WjPalatal硬腭音jLateral边音LVelar软腭音KgNasal鼻音MnGlottal声门音h8、classificationofvowels元音分类nVocalglides滑音---monophthongs[i]anddiphthongs[ei]单元音和双元音nTheheightofthetongueraising----highmidlownThepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue-----frontcentralbacknThelengthoftensenessofthevocal----long(tense)short(lax)nLiprounding---roundedunrounded圆唇非圆唇E.g.[i:]highfronttenseunroundedvocal[u]highbacklaxroundedvocal[e]倒着写midcentrallaxunroundedvocal9、cardinalvocalsareasetofarbitraryreferencepointsestablishedinthedescriptionofvocals10、thevocalsofRP:thestandardpronunciationofsouthernBritishEnglish,knownasRP----receivedEnglish11、coarticulation协同发音Thesimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationoftwosuccessivephonologicalunits.Anticipatorycoarticulation逆协同发音:Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamp,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Perseverativecoarticulation顺协同发音:Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,asinthecaseofmap,itisperseverativecoarticulation.Nasalization:Changeorprocessbywhichvowelsorconsonantsbecomenasal.Diacritics:Anymarkinwritingadditionaltoaletterorotherbasicelements.\n12、phonetictranscription语音标记（标音法）Itismethodofwritingdownspeechsoundsinasystematicandconsistentway以系统一致的方式记录语音二、phonology音系学1、definitionItisthestudyofsoundpatternsinagivenlanguage.(language-specific)phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.itdealswiththesoundsystemofalanguagebytreatingphonemeasthepointofdeparture.2、phone音素[]phoneme音位//allophone音位变体Speechsound------phonePhoneme(Distinctivesound):Aphonemeisthesmallestlinguisticunitofsoundthatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Allophone(Non-distinctive):Anyofthedifferentformsofaphonemeiscalleditsallophones.3、Phonologicalprocesses音位过程（1）phonologicalrules音系学规则Assimilation同化referstotheprocessorresultofonesoundtakingonsomecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.（2）Distinctivefeatures区别性特征4、suprasegmentals超音段特征Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Fourprinciples:nSyllables音节：onset节前+rhyme韵基（peakornucleus节峰+code节尾）nStress重音:referstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.nTone音调:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.nIntonation语调:Chapterthere:formMorphemetophrase(morphemeandmorphology)Thegrammaticalhierarchyofalanguage:clausecomplexClauseWordgroup/phraseWord\nmorpheme一、morpheme词素，语素------------1、definitionMorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageInregardtotherelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning.Morphology形态学studiestheinternalstructureofwordsandwordinformationrules.Morphemesandwordformationprocess语素和形成过程Twofields------inflectionalmorphology曲折形态学（研究语法的曲折变化及表达）Derivationalmorphology派生形态学（研究构词法及词义表达）2、TypesofMorphemes(1).Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme自由词素和粘合词素（Intermsoftheircapacityofoccurringalone)Freemorphemes:Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes.Boundmorphemes:Thosewhichmustappearwithatleastanothermorphemearecalledboundmorphemes.(2).Root词根,affix词缀andstem词干lArootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithoutdestroyingthemeaning.(canbefreeorbound)lAnaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.(itisaboundmorpheme)----prefixsuffixinfixlAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.(3).Inflectionalaffix屈折变化（反映语法关系）：Inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixesderivationalaffix派生变化（反映词性关系）：Derivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.itoftenchangesthelexicalmeaninge.g.Friendships--------stem(friend+ship)friend---rootship---inflectionalsuffixs----derivationalsuffix3.morphemeandallomorph语素变体Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.(map---maps)4.morphologicalchange形态学的变化Morphologicalchangetakestheformofinflectionalchangesinaffixes.Thepluralformsofnounshavealsochanged.二、word词1、definition定义Wordisaunitoflinguisticexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynarrativespeakers.2、lexicalitems词条refertothecaseswhenawordappearsindifferentforms.\n(Boyandboysareoneword,butaretwolexicalitems.)3、Identificationofwords词的识别nStability:chairman-----manchairunacceptablenRelativeuninterruptibilityByuninterruptibility,wemennewelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordevenwhenthereareseveralpartsinaword.*disappointment.nAminimumfreeform3、classificationofwords词的分类nVariableandinvariablewords变化词和非变化词Variablewords----theyhaveinflectivechanges.Verb,nounandadjectiveInvariablewords----theydonothaveinflectiveendings.ConjunctionandprepositionnGrammaticalwordsandlexicalwords虚词和实词Grammaticalword----theyservetolinktogetherdifferentcontentparts.Determiner,pronounandprepositionLexicalwords-----theycarrythemaincontentofalanguage.Nouns,verbsandadjectivesnClosed-classwordsandopen-classwords封闭词类和开放词类Open-classwords------itisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleinfiniteorunlimited.noun,verb,adjectiveandadverbClosed-classwords------itisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Pronoun,preposition,conjunctionandarticlenWordclass（=partsofspeech）Mainclass---nounpronounadjectiveverbadverbprepositionconjunctioninterjectionandarticlenumeralParticles小品词----infinitivemakertonotdoupAuxiliaries助动词Pre-form代形词-----sodidthereDeterminers限定词三、wordformation构词法-------1、theinflectionalwayofformationInflectionindicatesgrammaticalrelationbyaddinginflectionalaffixes,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofstemstowhichtheyareattachedto.Table—tablestalk---talkstalkedtalkingboy---boy’s2、thederivationalwayofformationDerivation(wordformation),initsrestrictedsense,referstotheprocessofhownewwordsareformed.nDerivation派生词Itshowsarelationshipbetweenrootsandaffixes.ncompound合成词definition-----itreferstothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,twokinds------theendocentriccompound向心复合词（偏正结构）seif-control\ntheexocentriccompound离心复合词（动宾结构）cutthroatnconversion转换法=zeroderivation3、lexicalchange词汇变化definitionexampleremarksInvention/coinage新创词ItcomesfromtheinventionofnewentitiesKodakGoogle新创词常出现在科技，经济等领域Blending混合词AprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwordsMotor+hotel--motel汽车旅馆两个单词混合在一起构成新词Abbreviation缩写词AlongwordisshortenedbyclippingthefrontpartorthebackpartorbothAeroplane-planeAdvertisement-adInfluenza-flu也称clippigAcronym首字母缩写词ItismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenamesofanorganizationWTO将几个单词的首字母组合一起而形成的词Back-information逆构词法AshorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromalongerformthatalreadyexistsEdit------editorTelevise--television例子中，editoreditor是被人想象出来的后缀Analogicalcreation类推构词Co-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregularWork---workedwrought英语中的动词有规则和不规则两种形式Borrowing外来词BorrowfromotherlanguageCancer来自于拉丁语直接从外语中借来Classshift1、Phonologicalchange音素变化nLosslaboratorynAdditionnMetathesis调整nAssimilation同化\nnDissimilation异化1、Morpho-syntacticalchange语法变化n.Morphologicalchange形态变化Theformofinflectionalaffixesmayalsochange.nSyntacticalchange句法变化Therearemoreinstancesofchangesinthesyntacticalfeaturesofwords2、Semanticchange语义变化nBroadeningnNarrowingnMeaningshiftnClassshiftnFolketymology3、Orthographicchange拼写变化Chapter4fromwordtotext一、syntax句法学1、definition定义Itisthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsentencestructuresandthestudyoftherulesgoverningsentenceformation.2、syntacticrelations句法关系lPositionalrelation(wordorder)位置关系==horizontalrelationschainrelationsSyntagmaticrelation横组合关系Itreferstothesequentialarrangementofwordsinalanguage.F.desaussureEg.Theboykickedtheball.(theballkickedtheboy?)---------asentencemustmeetsyntacticconditionandsemanticconditionlRelationofsubstitutability替换关系（Saussure）associativerelations(Hjemslev)paradigmaticrelations纵聚合关系Verticalrelations垂直关系choicerelations选择关系Itreferstoclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.同一类型的词所具备的的句法关系E.g.The-------------(man/boy/girl)smileslRelationofco-occurrence共现关系Itmeansthatwordsofdifferentsetsofclausesmaypermit,orrequire,theoccurrenceofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoradetermineroraparticularpartofasentence.Eg(precededby)NP(followedby)Aprettygirlsmiles------anominalphrasecanbeprecededbyadeterminerandadjectiveandfollowedbyaverbalphrase.\n3、grammaticalconstructionanditsconstituents语法结构与成分（1）、GrammaticalconstructionOnthelevelofsyntax,wedistinguishforanyconstructioninalanguageitsexternal外部的句子短语）andinternalproperties（内部的主谓成份）.（2）Immediateconstituents(ICanalysis)直接成份分析Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents–wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.TheICanalysisofasentencemaybecarriedoutwithbrackets（圆括号）orshownwithatreediagram树形图法）.E.g.PoorJohnranaway.→(1)((Poor)(John))((ran)(away)).(2)PoorJohnranawayItsadvantages:thecleardemonstrationoftheinternalstructureofaconstructionandambiguities,ifany,willberevealed.Eg.Thesentenceleavethebookontheshelvemaymeanputitthereordonottouchit.Thesonofpharaoh’sdaughteristhedaughterofpharaoh’sson法老儿子的女儿是法老的孙女（3）、endocentricandexocentricconstructionThetwomaintypeofanalyzingthesyntacticconstructionsDependsontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituentsnEndocentricconstruction向心结构Anendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.NounphrasesverbphrasesadjectivephrasesVerylate(very---thisconstituentissubordinatetotheHead—late)ThesetwooldeststonebridgesWillbeleavingtwomaintypes--------(dependsontherelationbetweenconstituents)----coordination并列：andor(recursiveness)----subordination从属:modifiertwoboysswimminginthelakenExocentricconstruction离心结构Theexocentricconstructionisdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofits\nconstituents.Basicconstructiontheboysmiledprepositionalphrasehehidbehindthedoorpredicate(verb+object)constructionhekickedtheball.connective(be+complement)constructionJohnseemedangry3、syntacticfunction语法功能itshowstherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused.nSubject主：itreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecaseTobethedoeroftheactionGrammaticalsubjectandlogicalsubjectnPredicate谓Itreferstoamajorconstituentofsentenceinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrelatetothesubject.nObject宾Itreferstothereceiverorgoalofananction.DirectobjectandindirectobjectCaselabels:theaccusativecasefordirectobject主格Thedativecaseforindirectobject与格nPredicators谓语结构nModifiers修饰语nComplements补语4、category语法范畴itreferstotheclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits.nnumber数itisagrammaticalcategoryusedfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingularandplural.--------nounsngender性itdisplayscontrastsasmasculine（男性）feminine（女性）andneuter（中性）,animatencase格thecasecategoryisusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.Nominative(主格),accusative宾格genitive所有格dative与格（介词）Howtorealizeacombinationofprepositionandnoun?---------inflection:teacher—teacher’s---------followingapreposition:with/toaman--------wordorder:JohnkickedPeter;PeterkickedJohnnagreement一致关系subjectandpredicate主谓一致determinerandnoun修饰词与被修饰词之间\nngovernment3、phrase,clauseandsentence结构类型4、Recursiveness递归性--------toextendsentencesnConjoining连接（并列）nEmbedding嵌入（附和）5、beyondthesentence(=textlinguisticanddiscourseanalysis)篇章结构nsententialconnectionncohesion