语言学Chapter5Semantics 52页

5.1DefinitionofSemantics5.2ApproachestoMeaning5.3WordMeaning5.4SentenceMeaningChapter5Semantics\nLeech,G.1983.Semantics.Harmondsworth:PenguinOgden,C.K&Richards,I.A.1923.TheMeaningofMeaning.London:Routledge&KeganPaulReferencebooks\n\n《语义学》\nSemantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.p338Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.Whatismeaning?----Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.Philosophers—investigatedtherelationbetweenlinguisticexpressions.Linguists—investigatedthewayinwhichmeaninginalanguageisstructuredandhavedistinguishedbetweendifferenttypesofmeaning.5.1DefinitionofSemantics\n5.2.1Meaningasnaming(Plato)5.2.2Meaningasconcept5.2.3Meaningasbehavior5.2.4Meaningascontext(Bloomfield)5.2.5MeaningastruthconditionsCanyoutellhowmanymeaningsdoes‘mean’have?P104-1055.2ApproachestoMeaning\nThemeaningofanexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames,isoftencalledreferentialtheory(指称理论)ornamingtheory(命名理论).Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn,…3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…5.2.1Meaningasnaming(Plato)\nTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.5.2.2Meaningasconcept\nOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentence词Referent/objectintheworldofexperience事物Thought/reference/concept概念\nThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.“语义三角”说，词和所指事物之间没有直接联系，而是以概念作为中介。（胡，2002:127）OgdenandRichards:semantictriangle\nL.BloomfieldBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.thestoryofJackandJillJillJackS_________r--------s_________R5.2.3Meaningasbehavior\nMeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatio-temporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.5.2.4MeaningascontextThecontextualism\nThecircumstancesunderwhichthesenseofadeclarativesentenceistruearenamedtruthconditions(真值条件).SistrueifandonlyifP.sentencethesetofconditions5.2.5Meaningastruthconditions\n5.3.1Senseandreference5.3WordMeaning\nSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.5.3.1Senseandreference\nLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.Note:\nG.Leech5.3.2Seventypesofmeaning1.概念\n概念意义：构成了意义的中心部分。E:Pleaseshowthewordsinbinaryfeatures.bull,cow,calfbull=[+BOVINE+MALE+ADULT]cow=[+BOVINE+FEMALE+ADULT]calf=[+BOVINE-ADULT]5.3.2.1conceptualmeaning\nSocialmeaningisthemeaningwhichanexpressionconveysaboutthecontextsorsocialcircumstancesofitsuse.p114larcenyandtheftsteed,horse,nagandgee-geeStylisticmeaning文体意义Absolutesynonymsdonotexist.5.3.2.3SocialMeaning\nThelevelofmeaningthatconveysthelanguageuser’sfeelings,includehisattitudeorevaluationinshapinghisuseoflanguageiscalledaffectivemeaningoremotivemeaning.5.3.2.4Affectivemeaning\nItisthemeaningwhicharisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeanings,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Itistheproductofpeople’srecognitionandimagination.p1155.3.2.5Reflectivemeaning\nTheassociationsawordgetsbecauseofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitslinguisticcontextarecalledcollocativemeaning.5.3.2.6Collocativemeaning\nItreferstomeaningsariseoutofthewayinwhichthewriterorspeakerorganizeshismessage.5.3.2.7Thematicmeanings\nasetofwordswithanidentifiablesemanticconnection-lexicalfieldLexicalgap词汇空缺：Theabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguage.5.3.3Semanticfields语义场\n5.3.5.1Homonymy同音异义5.3.5.2Polysemy多义性5.3.5Semanticrelationshipsbetweenwords\nHomonyms:WordsofthesamelinguisticformbutdifferentmeaningsHomonymy:relationshipsoftwoormoremeaningssharingthesamelinguisticformE.g.lie,bat,race,pupil5.3.5.1Homonymy同音异义\nHomonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…Homonymy\nPolysemous/polysemic:awordhastwoormoremeaningsthatarerelatedconceptuallyorhistorically.Forexample：foot，head5.3.5.2Polysemy多义性\nPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.……Polysemy\nApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymologyoftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.Note:\nHomophone:wordswhichsoundalikebutarewrittendifferentlyandoftenhavedifferentmeanings.Homography同形Homograph:wordshavethesamespellingbutdifferinpronunciationandmeaning.5.3.5.3Homophony同音\nSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Therearenoabsolutesynonyms,theyarenearsynonyms.5.3.5.4Synonymy同义关系\n1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,…Synonymy\nAntonyms:wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningTheoppositenessofmeaningiscalledantonymy.5.3.5.5Antonymy反义关系\nGradableantonyms等级反义词----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…Complementaryantonyms互补反义词----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…Relationalopposites反向反义词----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,…Antonymy\nGradableantonymsGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…\nComplementaryantonymsComplementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…\nHyperonymy上义关系Hyponymy下义关系5.3.5.6Hyponymy下义关系\nYouneedtoknowWhatismeronymy?Howtodistinguishhyponymyandmeronymy?5.3.5.7Meronymy整体部分关系\n(1)XissynonymouswithY(2)XisinconsistentwithY(3)XentailsY(4)XpresupposesY(5)Xisacontradiction5.4.3Senserelationsbetweensentences\nX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.XissynonymouswithY\nX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.XisinconsistentwithY\nX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.XentailsY\nX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.Paulhasgivenupsmoking.Pauloncesmoked.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.XpresupposesY\n*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphan’sparentsareprettywell-off.Xisacontradiction\n*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions.*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.Xissemanticallyanomalous\nComponentialanalysisPredicationanalysisAnalysisofmeaning\nComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Componentialanalysis\n1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Predicationanalysis\nPredicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).Predication----theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Predicationanalysis\nAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:One-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,…Two-placepredication:like,love,save,bite,beat,…Three-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,…No-placepredication:Itishot.Predicationanalysis\nTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Thekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEIsenthimaletter.I(SEND)HIMLETTERPredicationanalysis