语言学Morphology课间自学演讲 37页

Morphology\n1ThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyisthebranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andoftherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisgenerallydividedintotwofields:thestudyofInflectionsandofWord-formation.\n2InflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Ex.number:table/tablesapple/applescar/cars\n2Inflection(b)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedopen/opens/opening/openedshout/shouts/shouting/shouted(c)case:boy/boy’sJohn/John’suniversity/university’sEachsetintheaboveexamplesconstitutesasingleparadigm,thatis,asetofgrammaticallyconditionedformsallderivedfromasinglerootorstem.\n3Word-formationWord-formation,initsrestrictedsense,referstotheprocessesofwordvariationssignallinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andthederivational(derivation).3.1CompoundThetermCompoundcoversawiderangeofdifferentrelationsbetweenlexicalwords.Forinstance,\n3Word-formationEx.Nouncompoundsday+breakdaybreak(N+V)play+boyplayboy(V+N)hair+cuthaircut(N+V)call+girlcallgirl(V+N)wind+millwindmill(N+N)\n3Word-formation(b)Verbcompoundsbrain+washbrainwash(N+V)lip+readlipread(N+V)baby+sitbabysit(N+V)(c)Adjectivecompoundsman+eatingmaneating(N+Ving)heart+feltheartfelt(N+Ved)duty+freedutyfree(N+Adj)\n3Word-formation(d)Prepositioncompoundsin+tointothrough+outthroughout\nSomefeaturesoftheEnglishcompoundsOrthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponents.Phonetically,thewordstressofacompoundusuallyfallsonthefirstelement.\n3Word-formation3.2DerivationDifferentfromcompounds,derivationshowstherelationbetweenstemsandaffixes.Forinstance,un+consciousunconsciousnation+alnationalnational+izenationalizenationalize+ationnationalizationIncontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged.Forinstance,\n3Word-formationWordclasschanged:NV:length+enlengthenhospital+izehospitalizeun+horseunhorsedis+carddiscardNAdj:fool+ishfoolishbeast+lybeastlydelight+fuldelightfulspeech+lessspeechlessvirtue+ousvirtuous\n3Word-formationNAdj/Adv:clock+wiseclockwiseVN:work+erworkerpay+eepayeeinhabit+antinhabitantVAdj:accept+ableacceptableadore+ableadorableAdjN:mean+nessmeannessrapid+ityrapidityAdjV:deaf+endeafensweet+ensweeten\n3Word-formationAdjAdv:exact+lyexactlyquick+lyquickly(b)Wordclassunchanged:NN:non+smokernonsmokerex+presidentexpresidentprofit+eerprofiteerbook+letbookletVV:dis+obeydisobeyun+doundo\n3Word-formationAdjAdj:tall+ishtallishil+logicalillogical\n4Wordandmorpheme44.1MorphemeThemorphemeisthesmallestunitintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitwhichcannotbedividedwithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Forinstance,thewordbarksinThedogbarksconsistsoftwomorphemesinorthographicforms:barkand–s,neitherofwhichcanbefurtherdividedintoothersmallermeaningfulunits.Therefore,amorphemeistheminimalunitofmeaning.Itisnotlikethesoundpatternsorsyllableswhichcanbefurtherdividedintosegments.\n4WordandmorphemeWordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormorethanonemorphemes.Herearesomeexample:1---morpheme:boy,desire2---morphemes:boy+ish,desir(e)+able3---morphemes:boy+ish+ness,desir(e)+abl(e)+ity4---morphemes:gentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+able+ity5---morpheme:un+gentle+man+li+ness\n4Wordandmorpheme4.2MorphemeandphonemeAsinglephonememayrepresentasinglemorpheme,buttheyareidentical.Thephoneme/z/in/gouz/(goes)representsthethird-personsingularpresenttensemorpheme,but/z/occursveryoftenwhenithasnothingtodowiththisspecificmorpheme.Seethefollowingexamples:\n4Wordandmorpheme(a)bees/bi:z/(b)bee’s/bi:z/(c)raise/reiz/In(a),thephoneme/z/representsthepluralmorpheme,whereasin(b),itrepresentsthemorphemewhichmeanspossessivecase.However,in(c),itmeansnothingatall.\n5Typeofmorphemes5.1FreemorphemeandboundmorphemeAfreemorphemeisonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance.Aboundmorphemeisonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme,suchas–sindogs,-alinnational,dis-indisclose,andsoon.\nThus,theworddistemperedhasthreemorphemes,namely,dis-,temper,and–ed,ofwhichtemperisafreemorpheme,dis-and–edaretwoboundmorphemes.Inotherwords,allmonomorphemicwordsareconstitutedbyfreemorphemes.Thosepolymorphemicwordswhichconsistwhollyoffreemorphemesarecalledcompounds,suchaspaymaster,moonwalk,babysit,godfather,sunflower.\n5.2RootsPolymorphemicwordsotherthancompoundsmaydivideintoRootsandAffixes.Arootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalysedwithouttotallossofidentity.Thatistosay,itisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixesareremoved.Inthewordinternationalism,aftertheremovalofinter-,aland–ism,whatisleftistherootnation.\nFreerootmorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvessuchasblackinblack,blackboard,blackbird.Morphemesofthistypearepotentiallyunlimitedinnumberinalanguage.However,therearerelativelyfewboundrootmorphemesinEnglish,suchas–ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive;-mitinremit,permit,commit,submit;-taininretain,contain,maintain;curinincur,recur,occur,etc.\n5.3AffixAffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Naturally,affixesbelongtothetypeofboundmorphemes.\nAffixesarelimitedinnumberinalanguage,andaregenerallyclassifiedintothreesubtypes,namely,prefix,suffixandinfix,dependingontheirpositionwithreferencetotherootorstemoftheword.Forinstance,Prefix:para-,mini-,un-Suffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geese\n5.4RootandstemAstemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichanaffixcanbeadded.Friend-infriendsandfriendship-infriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastemcanbeequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontaintwoormoreroots,i.e.,compound,suchasblackbird,girlfriend,fighter-bomber,paper-clip,landlord.\nSummary1.Whatismorphology?2.Twofieldsofmorphology:inflectionandword-formation3.Differencebetweenwordandmorpheme4.Typesofmorphemes\n1)Definitionofmorphome2)TwotypesofmorphemesFreemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.\nBoundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;somerootscannotstandbythemselvesalthoughtheyhaveclearanddefinitemeanings,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”,and“-ceive”in“receive”.\nAffixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.\nExercisesDefinethefollowingterms:morphemeinflectionderivationaffixcompoundrootstem\nExercises2.Completethewordswithsuitablenegativeprefixes:____removableg.____human____formalh.____relevant____practicableI.____evitable____sensiblej.____mobile____tangiblek.____legal____logicall.____discreet\nirremovable(挥之不去的)g.inhuman（不人道的）informalh.irrelevantimpracticable(不切实际的)I.inevitableinsensible(没有知觉的)j.immobile(静止的)intangible(无形的)k.illegalillogicall.indiscreet(轻率的)\nin-;ig-,il-,im-,ir-(in-在辅音n,l,m,p,r前的变体。[l]加在形容词、名词、副词上，有：“无，不，非，未”之意，例如：incapable(不能的)incomparable（无比的）insensitive（不灵敏的）inability（不能）inconsistently（不一致的）inelastic（非弹性的）ignoble(不名誉的)ignore（装不知）impossible（不可能的）immeasurable（不可测量的）impatient `in-`patient out-paitientimpurity（杂质）immoral（不道德的）illegal（非法的)illimitable（无限的）illogical（不合逻辑的）irregular（不规则）irreversible（不可逆的）irrotational（非旋转的）\nun-与in-的含义和用法相近似un-一般是和本族语词干或本族语里已采纳的外来语词干相结合，而in-一般是和拉丁语词干相结合。比较：unable（不可能的）---- inability（无能）unjust（不公的）----injustice（不公正）unlucky ----ill-luck in an unlucky hour,偏偏，偏巧unceasing----incessant（不断的）unexplained（不能解释的）---- inexplicable（不可解释的）ungrateful（忘恩负义的）---- ingratitude（忘因负义）有时，为了区别词义，往往分别用un-和in-。例如：unexpressive (=inexpressive) (辞不达意),inexpressible (不可言传);unpractical (=impractical) (不切实际), impracticable (行不通)。\n另外un-和in-在构词上有以下区别：（1）in-或im-开头的单词，不再加in-，而用un-，如unimaginable（不可想象的）unimproved（未改进的）但inimitable（不可摹仿的）例外。(2)词尾是拉丁语后缀-ate,-ent,-ant,-ite,-ible的单词，多半用-in.inadequate(不充分的)insubordinate（不服从的）irrelevant（不相干的）incessant（不停的）independent（不依赖的）inconsistent（不一致的）indefinite（不确定的）impolite（不礼貌）indefensible（无法防御的）infusible（难熔的）\n（3）词尾是本族语后缀-able,-ed,-ful,-ing,-like,-ory,-some的单词，多半用un-。unable(不可能的)unconquerable(不可征服的)undecided（未决定的）unlimited（无限的）unceasing（不断的）unbending（不弯曲的）unsuccessful（不成功的）unfruitful（无结果的）unsportsmanlike（不公正的）unsatisfactory（不令人满意的）unhandsome（不美好的）unwholesome（不适合满意的）另外在同根词中un-和其他表示“否定”意义的前缀在词类或词义上也有区别。比较：inhuman（不近人情）unhuman（不属于人类的）nonhumna（不属于人类的）\nExercises3.Describethemorphologicalrulesconcernedinexercise2,therelevantconditioningprocess,andthemorphemewhichcarriesthecommonnegativemeaning.