语言学简明教程Chapter 30页

Thepenguinswallowedthefish.Det.NounVerb.Det.nounNPNPNPsentenceJohngaveMarythebook.nounverbnoundetnounNPVP1\nChapter7MeaningSemanticsisthestudyofthelinguisticmeaningconveyedbywords,phrasesandsentences.—broadlyspeaking(non-linguistically)Lifeismeaningful./That’sthemeaningoflife.(thesignificanceofsomething)—narrowlyspeaking(linguistically)Whatdoestheword“supermarket”mean?Whatismeaning?Whatissemantics?2\n7.2WordMeaningQs:1)Whatisthesmallestunitthatcandistinguishmeaning?2)Whatisthesmallestunitthatcancarrymeaning?3)Arephonemesmeaningfulinthemselves?4)Howcanwedefineaword?(Howmanyrulesforthat?)5)Howcanwordmeaningsbeclassified?Wordmeaningconnotation(内涵意义):pigrefersto“dirty”“lazy”“fat”denotation(本义，外延意义）:pigdomesticorwildanimalwithshortlegs,clovenhoovesandabroadbluntsnout3\nHowarewordsandmeaningrelated?Whenwenameanobject,itisourthoughtorreferencethatlinkthesymbolandtheactualobject,thereferenttogether.Forexample,ifweuse‘desk’torefertotheobjectlikeatablethatwesitatandwork,thereisdefinitelyaprocessthatweuseourthoughttoconnectthesymbolandtheobjectalthoughwedon’trealizeit.(byOgden&Richard’s)4\nOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/objectintheworldofexperienceThought/reference/concept(思想/相关/概念)5\nMoreexplanation:Thesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.6\n7.3HowAreWordMeaningsRelated?Majorsenserelations:1)Synonymy(同义关系)2)Antonymy(反义关系)3)Polysemy(一词多义关系)4)Homonymy(同音同形异义关系)5)Hyponymy(上下义关系)7\nSynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…………………8\nAntonymyGradableantonyms(分级反义词)---thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…Complementaryantonyms(互补反义词)---thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…Relationalopposites(关系对立反义词)---exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,…Reversives(可逆性反义词)---refertotheverbsdenotingareversiveprocess.e.g.advance-retreat,enter-leave9\nGradableantonymsGradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…10\nComplementaryantonymsComplementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…11\nPolysemyPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableOrderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.……(Theword‘table’hereispolysemous.)12\nHomonymyHomonymy---thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone(同声异义词)---whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign(统治),night/knight(骑士),…Homograph(同形异义词)----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.眼泪)-tear(v.),lead(n.铅)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.bank,watch,…13\nHyponymyHyponymy----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate(上义词):thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms(下义词):thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms(同级下义词):hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.E.g.Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,…Superordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,…14\n7.4HowIswordmeaningAnalyzed?Componentialanalysis(语义成分分析)---awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:[+concrete,+animate,+human,+adult,+male]Boy:[+concrete,+animate,+human,-adult,+male]Woman:[+concrete,+animate,+human,+adult,-male]Girl:[+concrete,+animate,+human,-adult,-male]15\nMysonsawthatgasolinecanexplode.Mysonsawthatgasolinecanexplode.16\n7.5SentenceMeaningMysonsawthatgasolinecanexplode.Mysonsawthatgasolinecanexplode.17\nAccordingtothetwoexamplesabove,whatdoyouthinksentencemeaningconsistsof?Sentencemeaninglexicalmeaninggrammaticalmeaning(P146)Inaddition,stress,intonationetc.18\nSenserelationsbetweensentences(1)  XissynonymouswithY(Equivalent)(2)  XisinconsistentwithY(Contradictory)(3)  XentailsY(Entailment)19\nXissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.20\nXisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.21\nXentailsYX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.22\n7.6ContextandImplicature(语境和语义含义)Context----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc...Example1:A:Whereishe?B:Heisinthebath.Example2:A:Lily,thephoneisringing!B:I’minthebath.Thisstudyofsentencemeaninggoesbeyondsemantics.Andtheimpliedmeaningconveyedbythe2ndexampleiscalledtheimplicature.23\nPragmaticsvs.semanticsSemanticsisthestudyofthelinguisticmeaningconveyedbywords,phrasesandsentences.Pragmaticsisastudyoftheintendedmeaningofspeakersinaparticularcontext.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…(Seeexamplesonpage152&153.)Ineverydayconversation,wetalkwithpeopleindifferentmanners.Andpolitenessisveryimportantforsuccessfulconversation.Inthiscase,conversationalimplicatureoccur.However,iftoopolite,thatwillbeirony.24\nTheEnglishlanguagephilosopherPaulGrice(2002:26-27)proposesthatinordinaryconversation,speakersandhearerssharea"CooperativePrinciple"(abbreviatedCP).Makeyourcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Theprincipleisillustratedwithitsfoursub-principles,i.e.maxim,asfollows:25\nThemaximofquantity:1Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired;2Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.Themaximofquality:1Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse;2Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofrelation:Makeyourcontributionrelevant.Themaximofmanner:1avoidobscurity2avoidambiguity3bebrief4beorderly.26\nA:WheredoesClive?B:SomewhereinthesouthofFrance. IfBknowsthatAisgoingtovisitC,hisanswerisviolatingthemaximofquantity,becauseheisnotgivingenoughinformationaboutwhereClives.SowecaninferthathisimplicatureisthathedoesnotknowtheexactaddressofC.Inthiscase,thereisconversationalimplicature.Violationofthemaximofquantity:27\nA:Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltoday.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBisnothavinganyhealthproblemthatwillpreventhimfromgoingtoaparty.ThusBissayingsomethingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandisfloutingthemaximofquality.Violationofthemaximofquality:28\n(Inaformalget-together)A:Mrs.Xisanoldbag.B:Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasn’tit?Bisintentionallyviolatingthemaximofrelation,implicatingthatwhatAhassaidistoorudeandheshouldchangeatopic.Violationofthemaximofrelation:29\nA:Whereareyougoingwiththedog?B:TotheV-E-T.Thedogisknowntobeabletorecognizetheword“vet”andtohatebeingtakenthere.Therefore,Amakesthewordspelledout.Hereheis“flouting”themaximofmanner,makingtheimplicaturethathedoesnotwantthedogtoknowtheanswertothequestionjustasked.Violationofthemaximofmanner:30