社会语言学期末复习 17页

KeyTerms1.Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguisticsisconcernedwithinvestigatingtherelationshipsbetweenlanguageandsocietywiththegoalbeingabetterunderstandingofthestructureoflanguageandofhowlanguagesfunctionincommunication.Itisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.Thatistosay,insociolinguistics,westudylanguageandsocietyinordertofindoutasmuchaswecanaboutwhatkindofthinglanguageis.Coulmasputsitthatsociolinguisticsinvestigates"howsocialstructureinfluencesthewaypeopletalkandhowlanguagevarietiesandpatternsofusecorrelatewithsocialattributessuchasclass,sex,andage/'Insociolinguistics,westudy,forexample,linguisticvariation,dialects,languageattitudeanditseffectetc.2.1ndepcndentvariable&dependentvariableAnindependentvariableisanactivityorcharacteristicbelievedtomakeadifferencewithrespecttosomebehavior;adependentvariableisthechangeordifferenceinbehaviorthatoccursasaresultoftheindependentvariable.Forexample,inLaborsstudyof/r/,thesocialstatusofthepeopleisanindependentvariableandthepronunciationof/r/isthedependentvariableasaresultofthechangeofthesocialstatus.3.VarietyVarietyreferstoasetoflinguisticitemsorhumanspeechpatterns(sounds,words,grammaticalfeatures),whichcanbeuniquelyassociatedwithsomeexternalfactor(e.g・ageographicalareaorasocialgroup).Forexample,BlackEnglishisavarietyofEnglishrelatedwiththeracialgroupandBeijingdialectisalsoavarietyofChineseMandarinrelatedwiththegeographicalarea.4.LanguageanddialectLanguagereferseithertoasinglelinguisticnormortoagroupofrelatednormswhiledialectreferstooneofthenorms.Forexample,inBritain,theBritishspeaktheEnglishlanguageandtherearedialectssuchasYorkshiredialectetc.5.StyleandregisterStylereferstodifferencesinspeechorwritingintermsofdegreeofformality.Itisusuallyassociatedwithvariationsinsituation,topic,addressee,andlocation.Forexample,ourtalkismuchmoreformalinapublicspeechandlessinformalindailyconversation.Similarlywewouldtalkmorerespectfullywithaninterviewerandlesssowithclassmatesorfamilymembers.Registerreferstodifferencesinspeechorwritingintermsofvocabulary・Itisusuallyassociatedwithacertainoccupationalorsocialgroup.Forexample,jargonisthevocabularydifferencesbecauseofdifferentoccupations.6.Standardvarietyandnon-standardvarietyStandardvarietyisthevarietywhichhasthehigheststatusinacommunityornationandwhichisusuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakers・Othervarietiesareregardedasnon-standardvarieties.Forexample,inChina,Mandarinisthestandardvarietythathasthehigheststatus,andisusedinmedia,educationetcandothervarietiesarenon-standardones.7.StandardizationStandardizationreferstotheprocessofmakingsomeaspectoflanguageusageconformstoastandardvariety.Thismaytakeplaceinconnectionwiththewritingorspellingsystemofaparticularlanguageandisusuallyimplementedbyagovernmentauthority・8.Dialectgeographyandisogloss・Dialectgeographyreferstothestudyofgeographicdistributionoflinguisticitems,theresults\nplottedonmaps(dialectatlases).Linesmarkingtheboundariesoflinguisticfeaturesonsuchmapsareisoglosses.Forexample,inthefollowingmapwhichshowsthedistributionof/i7,/u/and//pronunciation,thelines,bothdottedandreallinesarecalledisogloss.3.NetworksNetworksrefertogroupsofpeoplewhocommunicatewitheachotherregularly.Thedensityofasocialnetworkdependsonthedegreetowhichthepeoplewhoformthesocialnetworkallknoweachothe匚Theconcept"networks”isusedtoviewhowanindividualrelatestootherindividualsinsociety.Thatis,itstudieshowandonwhatoccasionsaspecificindividualAinteractsnowwithB,thenwithC,andthenagainwithD,howintensivethevariousrelationshipsare,(doesAinteractmorefrequentlywithBthanwithCorD?)andhowextensiveA'srelationshipwithBisinthesenseofhowmanyotherindividualsinteractwithbothAandBinwhateveractivitybringsthemtogetherPeoplecanbeinvolvedinadensenetworkifthepeopleyouknowandinteractwithalsoknowandinteractwithoneanother.Iftheydonot,thenetworkisalooseone.Andpeoplearesaidtobeinvolvedinamultiplexnetworkifthepeoplewithinitaretiedtogetherinmorethanoneway.10-VariationVariationreferstolanguagedifferencesinspeechandwritingbetweenspeakersofdifferentages,genders,socialclassesoridentities;ordifferencesindifferencesindifferentsituation,topic,addressee,andlocation;includingdifferenceovertime.Forexample,torefertothesameautomotivevehiclesuitableforhauling,AmericansandBritishwouldusedifferentwords:truckv.s.lorry,andspellthesamewordmeaningthemiddleassomethingas"centre"v.s."center：11・SpeechrepertoireSpeechrepertoirereferstotherangeoflinguisticvarietieswhichthespeakerhasathisdisposalandwhichhemayappropriatelyuseasamemberofhisspeechcommunity.Itcanbeusedtodescribethecommunicativecompetenceofindividualspeakers.Eachpersonwillthenhaveadistinctivespeechrepertoire・Andquiteoften,manyindividualswillhavevirtuallyidenticalrepertoire.12.IdiolectIdiolectreferstothespeechcharacteristicsandlinguisticbehaviorofindividuals.13.LinguafrancaLinguafrancareferstoalanguagewhichisusedhabituallybypeoplewhosemothertonguesaredifferentinordertofacilitatecommunicationbetweenthem.Itcanbespokeninavarietyofways・Forexample,todayEnglishisusedinverymanyplacesandforverymanypurposesasalinguafranca,e.g.,intravelandoftenintrade,commerce,andinternationalrelation.AndtheEnglishcanserveasalinguafrancainmanypartsoftheworld,andforsomespeakers,itisanativelanguage,andstillothersaforeignlanguage・\n12.SpeechcommunitySpeechcommunityhasbeendefineddifferentlybydifferentpeople.Butgenerallyitcanbeusedtorefertoagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity,e.g.avillage,aregion,anation,andwhohaveatleastonelinguisticvarietyincommon.Possiblestandardsfordefiningaspeechcommunityareonesinglespeechvariety,sharedattitudestowardslinguisticbehaviorinthecommunity,andin-groupsocialcohesiveness.13.PidginPidginreferstoalinguisticvarietywhichdevelopsasacontactlanguagewhengroupsofpeoplewithdifferentmothertonguescomeintocontactandcommunicatewithoneanother,aswhenforeigntraderscommunicatewiththelocalpopulationorworkersonplantationsorinfactoriescommunicatewithoneanotherorwiththeirbosses・Itisnoone?sfirstlanguage・Forexample,TokPisinisusedasaunifyinglanguageamongspeakersofmanydifferentlanguagesinPapuaNewGuinea.Characteristicsofpidgin:simplificationsofpronunciation,vocabulary,andgrammar14.CreoleCreolereferstoa“pidgin"whichhasbecomethenativelanguageofagroupofspeakers,beingusedforallormanyoftheirdailycommunicativeneeds.CharacteristicsofCreolewhencomparedwithpidgins:largervocabulary;morecomplexgrammar;morestyles.15.CodeCodeisatermusedinsteadoflanguage,speechvariety,ordialect.Itissometimesconsideredtobeamoreneutraltermthantheothers.16.DiglossiaDiglossiareferstoasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentcodesexistsidebysideinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofsocialfunctions.Thekeydefiningcharacteristicofdiglossiaisthatthetwovarietiesarekeptquiteapartintheirfunctions.TheHighvariety(orH-variety)isusuallymorestandardized,andisusedingovernment,themedia,education,andforreligiousservices;theLow-variety(orL-variety)isusedinfamilyconversationandotherrelativelyinformalsetting.Forexample,inSwitzerland,thereareStandardGerman(H)andSwissGerman(L)varieties,withtheformeroneusedinmostoftheformalsituations,andthelatterforotherinformalsettings.AndinHaiti,thereareStandardFrench(H)andHaitianCreole(L).17.BilingualismBilingualismcanrefertothecommunitywheretwolanguagesareused,andtheabilitytousetowlanguageseitherbyanindividualorbyaspeechcommunity.Balanced,compound,andcoordinatebilingualism18.Code-switchingCode-switchingreferstoachangebyaspeaker(orwriter)fromonecodetoanother.Itisaconversationalstrategyusedtoestablish,crossordestroygroupboundaries,tocreate,evokeorchangeinterpersonalrelationswiththeirrightsandobligations.Forexample,tohidemeaningfromathirdpartypresentattheconversation,thetwospeakersmayswitchtotheirhometowndialecttodistancetheirrelation.19.code-mixingCode-mixingisthemixeduseofcodes.Usuallythetwocodesinvolvedarenotofequalpositionwithonebeingpredominantandtheothersubordinate.Forexample,"明天是peter白勺part,\n我们开一个party,好吗厂12.ImplicationalscaleImplicationalscaleisatermfromvariationtheoryparticularlyassociatedwiththestudyofthepost-creolecontinuum.ItisintroducedbytheAmericanlinguistDavidDeCampin1971asawayofshowingrelationshipsbetweenlinguisticvarieties.HedemonstratedthatcertainlinguisticformsfromtheJamaicansocialdialectcontinuumhadbothcreoleandstandardvariants・Therevariantscanberankedintermsoftheir"creoleness'”and"standardness"onanimplicationalhierarchythatisobservedby(nearlyall)speakers,suchthatusagebyaspeakerofcreoleformsfromaparticularpointonthehierarchyimpliesthatonecanpredictthatheorshewillalsousecreoleformsfromlowerdownonthehierarchy,butnotnecessarilyfromhigherup.Thatis,somemesolectalformsaremorebasilectaloracrolectalthanothers・Similarly,useofstandardformsfromaparticularpointonthecontinuumalsoimpliesuseofstandardformsfromhigheruponthehierarchy,butnotnecessarilyuseofthosefromlowerdown.13.CultureCultureisthesumtotalofallcontributionsofagroupofpeople,inadesignatedarea,withinagiventime・1(represents,morespecifically,theaestheticorintellectualachievementorappreciationofanindividualorasociety,andalsothelifestyleofasocietyaspassedonfromgenerationtogeneration.14.WhorfianhypothesisWhorfianhypothesishastwoversions:strongoneandweakone・Thestrongversionsaysthatone'sthinkingiscompletelydeterminedbyhisnativelanguagebecauseonecannotbutperceivetheworldintermsofthecategoriesanddistinctionsencodedinthelanguage.Thecategoriesanddistinctionsencodedinonelanguagesystemareuniquetothatsystemandincommsurablewiththoseofothersystems.Theweakversionputsitthatthestructuredoesnotdeterminetheworld-viewbutisstillextremelyinfluentialinpredisposingspeakersofalanguagetowardadoptingaparticularworld-view・15.PrototypetheoryAprototypeisthefirstmodelthatismadeofsomethingnew,firstororiginalexample,e.g.anaircraft,fromwhichothershavebeenorwillbecopiedordeveloped・Prototypetheoryreferstotheideathatconceptsarebestviewedasprototypes.Aprototype-basedconceptcanbelearnedonthebasisofaverysmallnumberofinstances,perhapsasingleone,andwithoutanykindofformaldefinition.26・EthnographyEthnographyisanon-manipulativestudyoftheculturalcharacteristicsofagroupinrealworldratherthanlaboratorysetting,utilizingethnographictechniquesandprovidingasocio-culturalinterpretationoftheresearchdata.Forexample,anethnographyofacommunicativeeventisadescriptionofallthefactorsthatarerelevantinunderstandinghowthateventachievesitsobjective・AndLindenfeld\ethnographicalstudyoffersanaccountofthelanguageofadozenlong-standingurbanmarketplacesinParisetc,thetalkofvendors,vendor-customertalk,politenessroutines,smalltalk,jokes,insults,etc.Analternativeapproachtodevisingethnographiesistoattempttodescribethedifferentfunctionsoflanguageincommunication.27.Ethnomethodology\nEthnomethodologyisthestudyofhowindividualscreateandunderstandtheirdailylives.Subjectsforsuchstudiesarenotpeopleinprimitivetribes,butthoseincontemporarysociety.Itisabranchofsociology,whichahslinkswithconversationanalysisbecauseofitsuseofrecordedconversationmaterialasdata.Mostethnomethodologistsstudynotlanguageorspeech,buttalk.Inparticular,theyareinterestedinwhatisnotsaid.Theyfocusonthesharedcommon-senseknowledgespeakershaveoftheirsocietywhichtheycanleaveunstatedinconversationbecauseitistakenfrograntedbyallparticipants.2&CommunicativecompetenceCommunicativecompeteneereferstotheabilitynotonlytoapplythegrammaticalrulesofalanguageinordertoformgrammaticallycorrectsentence,butalsotoknowwhenandwheretousethesesentencesandtowhom・CCreferstowhether(andtowhatdegree)somethingisformallypossible,feasible,appropriate,andinfactdone.Itincludeslinguisticcompetence;sociolinguisticcompetence,discoursecompetence,andstrategiccompetence.29.SpeechactsUtterancesasfunctionalunitsincommunication30.Turn-takingTurn-takingreferstothedistributionoftalkacrossparticipantsinconversation.Therearetherewaysofturn-taking(degreeofcontrol).Firstly,turn-takinghappensbymentioninghis/hername,currentspeakerselectsthenextspeaker.Secondly,byaskingaquestion,currentspeakerinvitesanotherspeakertospeakbutleavesthechoiceopen.Thirdly,acertainhearerself-selectsasthenextspeake匚31.AdjacencypairsItreferstosequencesoftwoutterancesthatareadjacent,producedbydifferentspeakers,orderedasafirstpartandasecondpart,typedsothataparticularfirstpartrequiresaparticularsecondpartorrangeofsecondparts・Forexample,aquestioncanleadtoananswer,whichcanleadtoacomment,whichcanleadtoanacknowledgment,andsoon.32.SolidarityItreferstosupportandunityresultingfromcommoninterestsorfeelingsincommunication,andfeelingsofsharedexperieneeandcommongroupmembership.33・PolitenessItreferstorecognitionofother9srightsinasocialsituation,(positiveandnegativepolitenessbyPenelopeBrownandStephenLevinson)34.AddresstermsAddresstermsrefertosecond・pe「sonpronouns,ornames,ortitles,orendearments,andexpressionsusedwhenspeakingtosomeone・Forexample,thesamepersonmaybeaddressedby"you","Mr.JamesMartin^,"ProfessorMartin",“dear”,orotherexpression.35.Languageplanning"Languageplanningisagovernmentauthorized,long-term,sustainedandconsciousefforttoalteralanguage'sfunctioninasocietyforthepurposeofsolvingcommunicationproblems"(Weinsten,1980).Itreferstodeliberateeffortstoinfluencethebehaviorofotherswithrespecttotheacquisition,structure,orfunctionalallocationoflanguage.Topicallyitwillinvolvethedevelopmentofgoals,objectivesandstrategiestochangethewaylanguageisused・Atagovernmentallevel,languageplanningtakestheformoflanguagepolicy・Manynationshavelanguageregulatorybodieswhicharespecificallychargedwithformulatingandimplementing\nlanguageplanningpolicies.36-StatusplanningItreferstodeliberateeffortstoallocatethefunctionsoflanguagesandliteracieswithinaspeechcommunity.Itinvolvesstatuschoices,makingaparticularlanguageorvarietyan"officiallanguage笃"nationallanguage笃etc.Oftenitwillinvolveelevatingalanguageordialectintoaprestigevariety,whichmaybeattheexpenseofcompetingdialects.Statusplanningisoftenpartandparcelofcreatinganewwritingsystem.Statusplanningtendstobethemostcontroversialaspectoflanguageplanning.37.CorpusplanningItreferstoprescriptiveinterventionintheformsofalanguage.Thismaybeachievedbycreatingnewwordsorexpressions,modifyingoldones,orselectingamongalternativeforms.Corpusplanningaimstodeveloptheresourcesofalanguagesothatitbecomesanappropriatemediumofcommunicationformoderntopicsandformsofdiscourse,equippedwiththeterminologyneededfrouseinadministration,education,etc.Corpusplanningisoftenrelatedtothestandardizationofalanguage,involvingthepreparationofanormativeorthography,grammar,anddictionaryfortheguidanceofwriters,andspeakersinaspeechcommunity・Effortsatlinguisticpurismandtheexclusionofforeignwordsalsobelongthecourpusplanning,asdospellingreforniandtheintroductionofnewwritingsystem.Linguisticassimilationisthebeliefthateveryone,regardlessoforigin,shouldlearnthedominantlanguageofthesociety.(Franceexample)Linguisticpluralismistherecognitionofmorethanonelanguage.Itcanbeterritoriallybasedorindividuallybasedortheremaybesomecombinationofthetwo.Itcanbecompleteorpartial,sothatalloronlysomeaspectsoflifecanbeconductedinmorethanonelanguageinasociety.(Canada)39.VernacularizaionandinternationalismVemacularizationistherestorationorelaborationofanindigenouslanguageanditsadoptionasanofficiallanguage,e.g.,BahasaIndonesiainIndonesia.Internationalismistheadoptionofanon-indigenouslanguageofwidercommunicationeitherasanofficiallanguageorforsuchpurposesaseducationortrade,e.g.,EnglishinSingapore,India,thePhilipines,andPapuaNewGuinea・1・Whatisthescopeofsociolinguisticresearch?Thescopeofsociolinguisticineludeslinguisticsituation;dialects;languageincommunication;languageattitudeanditseffect;languagecontactandlanguagechange;languageplanningandlanguagestanclardization.2.Whatinsightscanwegetfromsociolinguistic?①Languageisnotacloseandabstractsystem,anditisasocialinteractionandaconductofcommunication・②Linguisticcompetenceincludesknowledgeoflanguageandknowledgeoflanguageuse.③Linguisticvariationandlanguagechangearecloselyrelatedtothesocialcontext.3.Whatarethemajorapproachesinsociolinguistic?①Linguisticsociolinguistic②Ethno-sociolinguistic\n①Thesociologyoflanguage②Thesocialpsychologyoflanguage③Pragmaticsociolinguistic2.Whatistheinteractionalsociolinguisticresearchmethod?ResearchmethodsinISinvolveseveralstages:①Apreliminaryperiodofethnography②Themainprocessofdatacollection,transcriptionandanalysis(3)Afinaleffortofconfinningthefindingsasconsonantwithcurrentknowledge・Question5.PleasecomparelinguisticsandsociolinguisticsLinguisticscanbedefinedasascientificstudyoflanguage・Thescopeoflinguisticsincludesatleastfivebranches,namely,phonologic,morphologic,syntactic,semanticandpragmatic・Sociolinguisticsisakindofmacro-linguistics,whichshowsaninterdisciplinarynaturebetweenlinguisticsandsociology・Thescopeofsociolinguisticineludeslinguisticsituation;dialects;languageincommunication;languageattitudeanditseffect;languagecontactandlanguagechange;languageplanningandlanguagestandardization.6.Pleasecomparedialectologyandsociolinguistics・Thestudyoflanguageinsocietyiscalledsociolinguistics.Therealbasisformuchofsociolinguisticsisthatthedifferencesinlanguageamongmembersofaspeechcommunityorbetweendifferentregionsspeakingdifferentvarietiesofthesamelanguageareoftenmeaningfulforsociety.Noteveryonewhospeaksagivenlanguagespeaksitinthesameway.AnindividuaFsparticularwayofspeakingiscalledanidiolect・Languagevariantsspokenbyentiregroupsofpeoplearereferredtoasdialects.Dialectologyisabranchofsociolinguisticsthatstudiesthesystematicvariantsofalanguage・Thetermdialectwasfirstcoinedin1577fromtheLatindialectus,wayofspeaking.Dialectalvariationispresentinmostlanguageareasandoftenhasimportantsocialimplications.(1)Dialectologyfocusesonthepronunciationofthedialects,aimingatsummarizingthephonology,butsociolinguisticsdoesnotnecessarilydoso,focusingonthelinguisticvariations,thatis,thedifferencesbecauseofdifferentstatuses,differentagesanddifferentsituations.(2)Bothdialectologistsandsociolinguistsusetheon-the-spotresearchmethod,buttheformerwillregardtheone-person-from-one-placeasthestandard,thatis，theinformantshouldbestrictlyselectedwithoutconsideringtheaspectslikeage,gender,socialclassandsoon.Butthelatterfocusesonthedifferentsocialstrataandrandomsamplingfrommorepeopleandthenproceedwiththequantitativeiinalysistoreachthelinguisticrules.(3)Dialectologistsindulgeintheresearchesontheruraldialectsandthedialectsofoldpeople,tiyingtofindtherulesoflanguageslowchanges;butsociolinguistsmoreventureintothecities,becauseincitiestherearemoresocialclasses,morelinguisticphenomena・7.ExplaintheSapir-WhorfHypothesisinyourownwordsandgiveyourcomments.Explain:\n讲义答案：（1）One'sthinkingiscompletelydeterminedbyhisnativelanguagebecauseonecannotbutperceivetheworldintermsofthecategoriesanddistinctionsencodedinthelanguage.（2）Thecategoriesanddistinctionsencodedinonelanguagesystemareuniquetothatsystemandincommensurablewiththoseofothersystems.strongversion：TheSapir-Whorfhypothesismakestheclaimthatthestructureofthelanguageonehabituallyusesinfluencesthemannerinwhichonethinksandbehaves.weakversion：Thestructuredoesnotdeterminetheworld-viewbutisstillextremelyinfluentialinpredisposingspeakersofalanguagetowardadoptingaparticularworld-view・Comment:Thestrongversiongoestoextremesbuttheweakversionisacceptable・Differentlanguagesmayrefertocertaincharacteristicsoftherealworldintermsofdifferentsub-setofcharacteristics.However,speakersofbothlanguagesmaystillbeawareofallthecharacteristics・Thewayagivenlanguageencodesexperiencesemanticallymakesaspectsofthatexperiencenotexclusivelyaccessible,butjustmoresalientfortheusersofthatlanguage・IFsabsurdtosayspeakersofonelanguagecannothaveaccesstomodernscientificthoughtbecausetheirlanguagedoesn'tallowthemto.6.Dotabooandeuphemismserveanysociallyusefulpurpose?Oraretheyjust'relicsoftheDarkAges'?Tabooandeuphemismdoservesomesociallyusefulpurpose・Tabooistheprohibitionoravoidanceinanysocietyofbehaviorbelievedtobeharmfultoitsmembersinthatitwouldcausethemanxiety,embarrassment,orshame.Standardsandnormschange,linguistictaboosarealsoviolatedonoccasiontodrawattentiontooneself,ortoshowcontempt,ortobeaggressiveorprovocative,ortomockauthority,suchas“damnit","shit"“youbastard”,“yousonofbitch”,etc.Euphemismdefinedas"agoodinterpretationofabadworcTcanmainlyservefivefunctions:avoidanceoftaboo,avoidanceofvulgarity,politeness,deceptionandsatire.1.Avoidanceoftaboo:People'sfearofdeathgeneratesmanyeuphemismsfordeath,suchas"goHeaven/Paradise：“beatpeace二"returntodust/earth^.2.Avoidanceofvulgarity:weuse“gotothebathroom,\“washhands二"gotothepowderroom99for"gothetoilet”.3.Politeness:weuse"seniorcitizens'："seasonecT,"well-preserved^for“old：4.Deception:Governmentsoftenusesubstandardhousing（次标准房）forslum（贫民区）;revenueenhancement（税收加强）fortaxincrease（增税）5.Satire:Tiveonnothing”，originallyfromVanityFairbyWilliamThackeray,isusedasaneuphemismtosatirizethosestingymisers.7.WhatdifficultydoyouencounterindiscussingaddresstermswithEnglishspeakingpeople?Doyoueverexperiencedifficultybecauseyourtermsandtheirsfailtomatch?Andwhatkindoftermsdoyouuse?ChineseaddresssystemismorecomplexthanEnglishaddresssystem.Thereforewhen\ndiscussingaddresstermswithEnglishspeakingpeople,Chinesepeoplemayfindmanytermsdifficulttoexplain.1).Usageofkinshipterms.Chinesekinshipsystemineludesavarietyofaddressterms,whichhavenodirectequivalentsinEnglish.Forexample,"aunt"means"舅母"，“姑姑”，"姨娘”，"婶婶”,etc.inChinese.2).SomeChinesetermshavedifferentmeaningsindifferentoccasions・Forexample,"大爷tIfyouaskaratheroldmanforthewaytosomeplace,itisjustaappellation.Itcanalsobeusedtoaddressyourfather'selderbrothe匚Intheoldsociety,itisusedtoaddressthoserichmalesorofficers,landlords.3).Chinesepeoplefavortheuseofpostandranktitles,buttherearenotenoughtitlesmatchingChinesetitlesinEnglish,forexample,"科长”,“4).SomeuniqueaddresstermsofChinesecharacteristics,suchas“同志二“小冷“老二Take“叶老”asanexample."叶老”isarespectfuladdresstermto"叶圣陶冷butwecanhardlyfindacounterpartof“老"inEnglish.举例说明不能匹配的称谓语，如“司令"，“排长"一直接用Mr.表示头衔"孩子他妈"一mywife“二姑奶"—mygrandpatsecondsister.Inordertoexplainthosekinshipterms,wehaveusemorewordstodescribetherelationship.6.Definethedistinctionoftuandvousatworkinconversation?Fromthepronominalchoicebetweentuandvousfonnsinlanguages,wecanseethatcertainlinguisticchoicesaspeakermakesindicatethesocialrelationshipthatthespeakerperceivestoexistbetweenhimorherandthelistenerorlisteners・Manylanguageshaveadistinctioncorrespondingtothetu-vous(T/V)distinctioninFrench,wheregrammaticallythereisa'singularyoiftu(T)anda"pluralyou'vous(V)buttheusagerequiresthatyouusevouswithindividualsoncertainoccasions.TheTformissometimesdescribedasthe“familiar'formandtheVformasthe4polite,one・TheasymmetricalT/VusagesuchastheupperclassaddressedthelowerclasseswithTbutreceivedVsymbolizesapowerrelationship.SymmetricalVusageis"polite9usage・SymmetricalTusageistoshowintimacyanditsuseforthatpurposealsospreadtosituationsinwhichtwopeopleagreedtheyhadstrongcommoninterests,i.eMafeelingofsolidarity,thismutualTforsolidaritygraduallycametoreplacethemutualVofpoliteness,sincesolidarityisoftenmoreimportantthanpolitenessinpersonalrelationships.Moreover,theuseofasymmetricalT/VtoexpresspowerdecreasedandmutualVwasoftenusedinitsplace,asbetweenofficerandsoldie匚Today,wecanstillfindasymmetricalT/Vuses,butsolidarityhastendedtoreplacepower,sothatnowmutualTisfoundquiteofteninrelationshipswhichpreviouslyhadasymmetricalusage,e.gMfatherandson,employerandemployee・Tushouldbeusedbetweenspouses,betweenbrothersandsistersregardlessofage,betweenparentsandchildren,betweencloserelatives,betweenyoungpeoplelivingorworkingcloselytogether,andbetweenadultswhohaveafriendshipoflong-standing・Vousshouldbeusedbetweenstrangers,betweenthosewhohavenotiesofanykind,andbetweeninferiorandsuperior.NowadayspowerisnolongerasimportantasitoncewasindeterminingT/Vusage;therehasbeenadramaticshiftinrecentyearstosolidarity.DifferentsocietiesdevisedifferentwaysofhandlingtheT/Vdistinctioneg,T/VformsbeingdifferentlyemployedinGermany,France,andItaly.EnglishhasnoactiveT/Vdistinction.T/V\nusageisconstantlyinvolving.Theevolutionisnotalwaystowardsolidarityandawayfrompower.Powerisstillverymuchpartofmodernsocialstructure.6.Whatarethemainfactorsinchoosingaddressterms?Socialfactorsthatinfluencechoicesofaddressterms:socialstatus,family,sex,age,relationship,occupationalhierarchy,transactionalstatus,degreeofintimacy.举例：Socialstatus:peopleatlowerstatustendtouseVousformstopeopleathighersocialstatus,e.g.:employeetoemployer,studenttoteache匚Relationship/degreeofintimacy:Thechoiceofaddressingtermschangeswithpeople'srelationship,e.g.:AmadeacquaintancewithB,astheirrelationshipbecamecloser,fromordinaryfriendstolovers,evenhusbandandwife,theiraddresstermschangesaccordingly.Age:WetendtoaddressolderpeoplewithpoliteaddresstermsorVousforms,butweusethefamiliarformTutothosewhoareyoungerthanus.7.WhatarethebasicfactorsinJapanesepoliteness?Answer:TheJapaneseisanationcharacterizedby"extremepolite"・Ithasacomplicatedsystemofpoliteness.Generally,speakerstendtodepreciatethemselvesandappreciatehearers.Therearegenerally4basicsocialaspectsinfluencingJapanesepoliteness.1).Gender.Politenessisexpectedwhenwomenaddressmen.Japanisamale-dominancesociety.Women'ssocialstatusislowerthanmen.1).Age・Politenessisexpectedwhentheyoungaddresstheold.3).Socialclassorposition.Membersofthelowerclassesshouldshowpolitenesstotheonesofupperclasses.Forexample,inacompanystaffsoftenaddresstheirsuperiorwithhonorifictitle.4).Degreeofintimacy.Japaneseshowgreaterpolitenesstostrangersthantoacquaintances.CertainlythereareotherfactorswhichgovernthepolitenesssystemofJapanese,suchtheparticularoccasion,education.AfterallitistheparticularculturalandsocialbackgroundoftheJapanesenationthatmodelthecomplexpolitenesssystem.8.TowhatextentareCRPPandtherelatedmaximsuniversal?ToWhatextentdotheydifferindifferentspeechcommunities?(Chooseeitheroneofthefollowingperspectives)(1)Universal:Generallyspeaking,CRPPareuniversaltotheextentthatalmostallthelanguagesobservethesetwogeneralprinciples.CPisaccepteduniversallyasanatureofconversations,andPPhasalsoreceivedglobalacknowledgment.Despitetheslightdifferences,thereareamazinguniversalitiesinthewaystoexpresspoliteness.ForexampleindirectnessinFaceThreateningactsisuniversallyacknowledgedtobethemainwaytoexpresspoliteness.T/VdistinctioninaddressingthesecondpartyisanotherexampleofpolitenesswhichisfoundinalargemajorityofspeechcommunitiessuchasFrench,Italian,Chineseandsoon.\n(1)Differ:AlthoughCPandPParesupposedtobeuniversaltoallhumanlanguages,theextentthatpeopleindifferentspeechcommunitiesobservetheseprinciplesvaryalotaccordingtodifferentspeechcommunities.PolitenessstrategiesindifferentspeechcommunitiesforalmosteachkindofFaceThreateningactshavereceivingagreatamountofstudiesallaroundtheworld.Takerequestasanexample,therearestudiesonrequestsinChineseandGerman(Hong1998),requestsinBritishEnglishandGreek(Sifianou1992),requestsandapologiesinBritishEnglishandUruguayanSpanish(Marquez-Reiter2000),requestsbyTurkish-GermanbilingualandTurkishmonolingualrequest(Marti2005),requestsbyDanishlearnersofEnglish(Trosborg1995),requestsbyIrishlearners，acquisitionofGerman(Barron2003)andrequestsbyKoreanlearnersofEnglish(Suh1999)andsoonandsoforth.ThestudyofpolitenessstrategiesinAmericanandJapanesespeakers'correctingspeechacts,forexample,hasfoundthatAmericanEnglishspeakersaremostlikely,andJapanesespeakersofJapaneseareleastlikely,touseapositiveremarkbeforemakingacorrection,withJapanesespeakersofEnglishfallinginbetween・6.WhatarethemaximsofCP?Pleaseexplainandcomment.ThegeneralprincipleofCPisthat:makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged・Therearefourmaximsinall:(1)Quality:Trytomakeyourcontributiononethatistruth.(Whattosay)(i)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.(ii)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidenee.e.g•:Helovesyou.Implication:Thespeakerbelieveshelovesyouandthespeakerhassomeevidenceforit.(2)Quantity:(Whattosay)(i)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).(ii)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired・e.g.:Johnhassixcreditcardsimpliesthathehasatmostsixcreditcards.(3)Relation:Berelevant.(Whattosay)e.g.:—What5sthetime?—Thesupermarkethasn^topenedye匸\nImplication:It'satleastbeforewheneverthesupermarketnormallyopens.(4)Manner:Beperspicuous.(Howtosay)\nAvoidobscurityifexpression.(ii)Avoidambiguity.(iii)(iv)Beorderly.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).e.g.:John，sgotmarriedandhadtwochildren.Implication:Johnfirstgetmarriedandthenhadtwochildren.Comments（给了五种，可自选其中三项）:First,thecriterionisproblematic.Thecriterionforthecategorizationhasreceivedmuchcriticism,especiallyfortheoverlappingpartsbetweenthesecondmaximofquantityandthemaximofrelation.Andthereisnospecificcriterionforthefollowingorfloutingofthemaxims.Howrelevantisrelevant?Howmuchinformationisnotoverinformative?Second,theprocedureisproblematic・Theprocedureofworkingouttheimplicatureisnotclear.Thereisnoexacthierarchyinthesemaxims,andthereisnoguidancewhenthereisconflictbetweenthesemaxims.Howexactlydoweworkouttheimplicature,especiallywhenthemaximsworkinadeeperlevelwhensomeofthemaximsseemtobeflouted?Third,somearenotnecessarytofulfilltheultimategoal.Co-operativeprincipleistoenableanefficientandsuccessfulconversation,butsomemaximssuchasbeingbriefandbeingperspicuousarenotanecessityforasuccessfulconversation.Efficientandsuccessfulconversationsarenotalwaysbriefandperspicuous.Forexample,thefollowingtwoexamplesarebothsuccessfulwaystocommunicatebutarenotbriefnorperspicuous:(1)OhFdliketogobutIhavealotofworktodoonSaturday・(Idon5twanttogo.)(2)Well,Idon'thaveanyobjectiontopeoplesmokingactually,butheiskindofallergictosmokesocouldyoupleasenotsmokehere?(Don'tsmoke.)Fourth,thereisnojustificationforitsdescriptivenature.AccordingtoGrice,CPisnotprescriptive,notabouthowpeopleshouldbehave,ortheconversationshouldbe,butisdescriptive,thatdescribesthespontaneousconversations.However,dowereallylearnthoseprinciplesfirsttocommunicate?Dowealwaysbearthoserulesinmindinourdailyconversation?Gricesaysitisanempiricalfact,butthereisnoevidenceforthat,norphilosophicaljustificationfortheclassification.Fifth,it\notexplanatorilypowerfulenough.AccordingtoLeech(1983:80),Grice，sco-operativeprincipleisnotpowerfulenoughtoexplainwhyspeakerwouldintentionallyflouttheCP.Itissurelynotarareoccasionthatthespeakersfloutthesemaxims;people\nsometimeschoosenottocooperate,benotperspicuous,forinstance,andGrice'stheorydoesnottelluswhythishappens.Why?'ThereasonwhythespeakerwouldintentionallyfloutCPandletthehearerworkoutwhatheactuallymeansisbecauseofPolitenessPrinciple^(ibid.,80).Wemaylookatthefollowingexamplesforanillustration:(1)OhFdliketogobutIhavealotofworktodoonSaturday・(Idon'twanttogo.)(2)Well,Idon'thaveanyobjectiontopeoplesmokingactually,butheiskindofallergictosmokesocouldyoupleasenotsmokehere?(Dorftsmoke・)(3)Istayedinjailforafewyears.(Iactuallystayedordecades)(4)ItellMrs・HodgeaboutMr.Hodge^sbehaviorbutnotindetail,althoughIknowmoreandIknowthatsheexpectsmore.16.Whatarethemajormaleandfemaledifferencesinlanguage?1.PhonologySchoolgirlsinScotlandapparentlypronouncethetinwordslikewaterandgotmoreoftenthanschoolboys,whoprefertosubstituteaglottalstop.2.VocabularyEmptyadjectivesusedsuchasadorable,charming,lovely,sweetarecommonlyusedbywomenbutonlyveryrarelybymen.3.GrammarWomenliketousetagquestions,e.g・Sheisverynice,isn'tshe?4.ScriptZhaoLiming:womensscript(女书)inHunan,ChinaGaoYihong:the"niTparticle(女字旁)inChinesecharacters5・ConversationalstyleGaoZhiyun:womenusemodalparticles(吧,吗)morefrequently.6.The“sexist”languageControversyoverthirdpersonpronouns“he”"she”"it"inEnglishWordconstruction:“woman",or"person''Specialpsychologicalstudiesongenderprototypes\nThemodelindicatesthattheactivitieswhichmakeupthelanguageplanningprocesscanbeviewedfromeitherasocietaloralanguagefocus.Thesocietalfocusiscalled'statusplanning*andconsistsofthosedecisionsasocietymustmakeaboutlanguageselectionandtheimplementationtochooseanddisseminatethelanguageorlanguagesselecteii.Thelanguagefocusiscalled"corpusplanning*andconsistsoflinguisticdecisionswhichneedtobemadetocodifyandelaboratealanguageorlanguages.Thesetwofociformthebasisforanoverviewofalltheactivitieswhichmakeupthelanguageplanningprocess.Themodelcanalsobeexaminedintermsofformorpolicyplanning,withitsemphasisonbasiclanguageandpolicydecisionsandtheirimplementation,oronfunctionorlanguagecultivation,withitsemphasisonlanguageteachingandextendedlanguagedevelopmentanduse.Whiletheseactivitiescanbesaidtodescribetheoveralllanguageplanningprocess,inanyparticularsituationitmaybepossibleorevennecessarytoomitsomeofthestepsoutlinedintheprocess.Inpartthisissobecausetheactivitieswhichareimportantinaspecificlanguageplanningsituationcanbedeterminedbytheparticulargoalsforwhichlanguageplansarebeingdeveloped(seeChapter3).Inpartthemodelmaynotbefollowedbecause,althoughsuchmodelsareconceptuallyusefulinunderstandingthelanguageplanningprocess,individualsinvolvedinlanguageplanningdonotnecessarilyknowaboutorfollowthisoranyothermodelTable2.1Haugen's(1983:275)revisedlanguageplanningmodelwithadditionsForm(policyplanning)Function(languagecultivation)3.Implementation(educationalspread)a.correctionproceduresb.evaluation4-Elaboration(functionaldevelopment)a.terminologicalmodernisationb.stylisticdevelopmentc