胡壮麟语言学课件 69页

2.Whatisthiscourseabout?Chapter1InvitationstoLinguisticsChapter2SpeechSoundsChapter3LexiconChapter4SyntaxChapter5MeaningChapter6LanguageandcognitionChapter7Language,Culture,andSocietyChapter8LanguageinuseChapter9IanguageandliteratureChapter10IanguageandcomputerChapter11linguisticsandforeignlanguageteachingChapter12Theoriesandschoolsofmodernlinguistics1.IanguageDefinitionFeaturesFunctions1）Definition:Sapir,1921:Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols・（语言是纯粹人为的、非本能的、用任意制造岀来的符号系统来传达观念、情绪和欲望的方法。）Hall,1968:Languageis"theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols."（语言是人彳门通过惯用的任意性的口头•听觉符号进行交际和互动的惯例。）Chomsky,1957:FromnowonIwillconsiderIanguagetobeaset（finiteorinfinite）ofsenterices,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements・（从现在起，我扌各语言看作是一系列有限的或无限的句子,每个句子的长度有限，并由有限的成分组合而成。）语言是人类特有的一种符号系统，当它作用于人与人的关系的时候，它是表达相互反映的屮介;当它作用于人和客观世界的关系的时候，它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候，它是文化信息的载体和容器。AGenerallyAcceptedDefinitionLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.UnderstandingtheDefinitionWhyasystem?Whyarbitrary?Whyvocal?Whysymbols?Whyhuman?Whycommunication?system:elementsinIanguagearearrangedaccordingtocertainrules・\narbitrary:thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingswereferto.vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguagessymbol:wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideasbyconventionhuman:languageishumanspec讦ic,differentfromthecommunicationsystemofanimalsThearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.Productivity/creativity:Humanbeingscanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences.Duality:lowerlevel・™sounds（meaningless）higherlevel-…meaningasmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitelynumberofsentences・Culturaltransmission:Languageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.3）OriginofLanguageTheDivine-OriginTheoryTheBow-wowtheoryThePooh・poohtheoryThe"Yo-he・ho"theoryThenaturalresponsetheory4）FunctionsofLanguageWhatdoyouthinkarethefunctionsoflanguage?Jakobson'sModel（I960）:basedonsixelementsofcommunicationReferential（所指的）-Context（语境）Emotive（情感的）-Addresser（说话者）Poetic（诗学的）…Message（信息）Conative（意动的）-Addressee（受话者）Phatic（交感的）-Contact（接触）Metalingual（元语言的）-Code（语码）Halliday'sModel:Ideational（概念功自E）:conveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearerInterpersonal（人际功能）:expresssocialandpersonalrelationstextual（语篇功能）:makeanysketchofspokenorwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandurdfiedtext（1925-）,founderofsystemicfunctionallinguistics,1947-1949studiedatBeijingUniversity,1949-1950studiedatUngNanUniversity,1955gotdoctor'sdegreeatCambridgeUniversitywith\nTheLanguageoftheChinese"SecretHistoryoftheMongols"GeneralFunctionsofLanguageInformative（信息功能）：totellwhatthespeakerbelieves,togiveinformationaboutfacts,ortoreasonthingsout・Byuseofdeclarativesentencese.g.Roadclosed!Interpersonal（人际功能）:toestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.Performative（行事功能）:theuseoflanguageto"dothings；toperformactions.ThroughquiteformalandevenritualizedIanguage.e.g.Ideclarethemeetingopen!Emotive（感情功能）：theuseoflanguagetocreatecertainfeelingsinthehearer.ThroughJokes,Advertising,Propaganda,etc.Directivefunction（指令功能）：getthehearertodosthe.g.closethebookandlistentomecarefully!Phatic（寒暄功能）：theuseoflanguagetoestablishanatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact・Greetings,Farewells,andCommentsontheweather,etc.e.g.howdoyoudo!Interrogativefunction:askforinformationfromotherse.g.whatisyouridea?Expressivefunction:revealspeaker'sattitudesandfeelingse.g.MyGod!Recreational（娱乐功能）：theuseoflanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit.baby'sbabbling,poetry,etc.Metalingual（元语占功能）:theuseoflanguagetotalkaboutIanguageitself.1.Linguistics1）Definition•LinguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguageorthescieneeoflanguageIanguage:notanyparticularIanguage,butthelanguageofallhumansociety,languageingeneralscientific:basedonsystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdataFourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies•Exhaustiveness/adequacy•Consistency•Economy•Objectivity2）SignificaneeofLinguistics?\n思考：•一个人如果没有有关某一语言的语言学知识，她/他能够流利地讲这一语言吗？答：可以。•刘翔是因为具有了跨栏和跑步的运动力学知识，所以才成为奥运冠军的吗？答：应该不是。•语言是人的一部分。研究语言，人门不得不把焦点瞄准白己，到白己的大脑中去寻找答案。研究与人形影不离的语言，能帮助人类进一步认识自己。（熊学亮2003：1）语言既是社会现象，是人们相互联系的纽带，但它本身的发生、传递和接受的机制又属于自然现象。语言的这种特殊的性质决定了语言学在科学体系屮的特殊地位，即它既是社会科学，乂与自然科学有密切的联系，可以说，语言学是介于社会科学和自然科学之间的一门特殊的学科。正由于此，语言学善于从自然科学的发展中吸取相关的理论和方法，推动语言学的发展，而其他人文社会科学又从语言学中吸収相关的理论和方法。语言学是联系社会科学和自然科学的纽带和桥梁。语言学的理论和方法在人文社会科学中处于领先的地位。•每一语言都包含着一种独特的世界观，个人更多地通过语言形成世界观（洪堡特）。也就是说，每一具体语言都是源出于人，反过来又作用于人，制约着人的思维和行动（姚小平）。•语言思维现实/科学•现代科学的世界观是根据西方印欧语言的基木语法特征概括而成的.（沃尔夫）语言学理论对语言学习和语言教学具有方法论上的指导意义。3)TheScopeofLinguistics•思考：•语言可以分为哪些层次?TheCoreofLinguisticsphoneticsphonologymorphologysyntaxsemanticspragmatics•Sound•Sounds•Word•Words/sentence•Meaning•MeaninginacontextThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsTheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics\nTheoreticallinguisticsPhonetics—speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.Phonology-…soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology-—theformofwordsSyntax-―therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics——themeaningoflanguagePragmatics-…themeaningoflanguageincontextUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguistics-—linguisticsandIanguageteachingSociolinguistics-―socialfactors(e.g・class,education)affectIanguageusePsycholinguistics™・linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics—linguisticandliteratureAnthropologicallinguistics:anthropology&IanguagevariationanduseNeurolinguistics:brainandIanguageComputationallinguistics:theuseofcomputersandcomputertechtodolinguisticresearch3)SomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsPrescriptivevs.descriptive:•descriptive:Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,.•Prescriptive:IfthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesforcorrectandstandardbehaviorinusingIanguage,i.e・totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsaySynchronicvsdiachronicSynchronicstudy-—descriptionofaIanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy-—descriptionofaIanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentofIanguageoveraperiodoftime)Speechvs.writing•SpeechisregardedastheprimarymediumofhumanIanguageforthefollowingreasons:A.historyB.functionC・acquisitionorder如果说语言符号是人类走出动物界的里程碑，那么文字的产生，则是人类由野蛮社会进入文明社会的一个重要标志。(陈宗明)Ianguevs.parole(F.deSassure)•Langue:thegeneralizedrulesofaIanguageabstract,stable,social•Parole:theapplicationoftherulesconcrete,changeable,individualSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionofIangueisamatterofsocialconventionsFerdinanddeSaussure•(1857-1913),Swiss,founderofstructuralism,modernlinguistics,semiology.•CourseinGeneralLinguistics,1916Competenee&Performanee(Chomsky)Competence:theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhisIanguagePerformanee:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatIanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompeteneeisa\npropertyofthemindofeachindividual.AvramNoamChomsky•(1928-),founderofTG,arevolutiontostructuralism.TraditionalGrammar&ModernLinguistics•prescriptivevs.descriptive•writtenvs.spoken•Latin-basedframeworkvs.universalframeworkLinguisticpotential&actuallinguisticbehavior(Halliday)LP(语言潜势)：withI,thereisswiderangeofthingsaspeakercandointheculturalheisin.thesetofpossibilityfor"doing〃isLPfromafunctionalIview・ALB:whataspeakeractuallysaysonaparticularoccasiontoaparticularindividualiswhathehasselectedfromthemanypossiblethingshecouldhavesaid.Thisactualselect!onofthingsfromwhatonecouldhavesaidisALB.etic&emic(唯素的和唯位的)etic:thelinguistcunitscontaining"・etic：suchasphonetic,morphetic,whichareusedtodescribelinguisticfactsindetailwithoutdistinctivefeatures,andareusedtodescribethings.emic:thelinguisticunitscontainingsuchasphonemic,morphemic,whichareusedtodescribeabstractlinguisticruleswithdistinctivefeaturesandarefirstusedtodescribephonernes.EXERCISESDefinethefollowingterms:1.Linguistics2.Language1.Arbitrariness4.Productivity5.Displacement6.Duality7.DesignFeatures8.Competenee9.Performance10.Langue11.ParoleAnswerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible・Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:1.Languageisgenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Explainitindetail.2.Whatarethedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Illustratethemwithexamples・3.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?4.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?5.Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,notthewritten?6.WhatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenIangueandparole?7.Howdoyouunderstandcompeteneeandperformsnee?8.Saussure'sdistinctionbetweenIangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompeteneeandperformanee.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?9.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?\nIntermsofmannerofarticulation•Stops（塞音）:airstreamfirstobstructedandthenreleased,[pj»[t][d],and[k][g]•Fricatives（擦音）：partialobstructionandlocalfriction,[f][v][z][][][][][h]•Affricates（塞擦音）：firstcompleteobstruction,thenfricationwithpartialobstruction,[[]•Liquids（流咅）：airflowfirstobstructedthenallowedtoescapebetweenthetongueandtheroofofthemouth,[I][r]•Nasals（鼻音）：airallowedtopassthenose,[m][n][]•Glides（滑音）：verynarrowpassagebetweenthelipsandcausingslightnoisefromthelocalobstruction,[w][j]Intermsofplaceofarticulation•Bilabial（双唇音）：lipsbroughttogethertocauseobstruction,[p][m][w]•Labiodentai（唇齿音）:thelowerlipisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth,[f][v]•Dentai（齿音）：betweenthetipofthetongueandtheupperteeth,[][]•alveolar（齿龈音）:thetipofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth-ridge,[t][d][z][n][I][r]•Palatal（上腭音）：obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthehardpalate,[][][][][j]•Velar（软腭咅）：backoftonguebroughtintocontactwiththesoftpalate,[k][g][]•glottal（喉音）:vocalcordsarebroughttogether,[h]accordingtothepositionoftongue（whichpartoftonguemaintainedthehighest）Frontvowels:[i:][i][e][][]Centralvowels:[:][][]Backvowels:[u:][:][][]thecriteriaofopennessofmouthClosevowels:[i:][j][u:]Semi-closevowels:[e][:]Semi-openvowels:[][:]Openvowels:[][][][]Diphthongs:[ei][ai][i][au][u][i][e][u]分亨到:QQ空间腾讯微博腾讯朋友收藏0支持0反对0举报Amyl006Amyl006当前离线积分31考元142元威望0点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册时间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4实习会员实习会员，积分31,距离下一级还需-11积分串个门加好友打招呼发消息沙发发表于2010-10-416:32:29|只看该作者胡壮麟的语言学课件第二章Chapter2\nPhoneticsandPhonologyFocuses:语音学的定义；三大分支；辅音的发音部位和发音方法；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。咅系、咅位、咅位变体、自由变体；最小对立体、对立分布、互补分布；超语段咅位学：音节；重音、语调、声调等。PHONETICS1.Phonetics:thestudyofthespeechsoundsthatoccurinallhumanIges,howspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived・Threebranches:ArticulatoryPhonetics:theproductionofspeechsoundsAcousticPhonetics:thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsoundsAuditoryorPerceptualPhonetics:theperceptionofspeechsounds2.Speechorgans(thosepartsofhumanbodiesinvolvedintheproductionofspeech):thelungs,thetrachea,thethroat,thenose,themouthThreeimportantareas:Pharyngealcavity-…thepharynx(咽)Theoralcavity-―themouthNasalcavitythenoseThediagramofspeechorgansLips唇Teeth齿Teethridge(alveolar)齿龈HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)Uvula小舌TipoftongueBladeoftongue舌面Backoftongue舌背VocalcordsPharyngealcavity咽腔Nasalcavity鼻腔3.PhonetictrainscriptionIPA（InternationalPhoneticAlphabet）:Astandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.Thebasicprinciple：onelettertorepresentonespeechsound,andthatthesamesymbolshouldbeusedforthatsoundinanyIgeinwhichitappears.Thepresentonemainlyderivesfromonedevelopedinthe1886,revisedin1993,corrected（updated）twicein1996andin2005.BroadandNarrowTranscriptionDiacritics（发音符号/辨音符）:thesetofsymbolsinIPA,whichareaddedtothe\nletter-symbolstobringoutfinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo.pit[phit]Broadtranscription（宽式音标）:Thetranscriptionofsoundswithletter-symbolsonly,spit[spit]Narrowtranscription（严式音标）:Thetranscriptionofsoundswithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics,pit[phit]1.Class市cationAdichotomy:Vowels:producedwithnoobstructionwhatsoeverofthevocaltract,sonoturbuleneeoratotalstoppingoftheaircanbeperceived・Consonants:producedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.ClassificationofconsonantsIntermsofmannerofarticulation（发音器官之间的关系）：A.stops/plosives:[p][t][d][k][g]B.fricatives:]：v,s,z,0h]C.affricates:[,]D.liquids:lateral[I],retroflex[r]E・nasals:[m,n,rj]F.glides/semivowels:[w,j]Intermofplace（声道变化）ofarticulation:A.bilabial:[p,b,m,w]B.labiodental:[f,v]C.dental:[0Z]D.alveolar:[t,d,s,z,n,I,r]E.palatal:[j]F.velar:[k,g,rj]G.glottal:[h]Intermsofthestateofthevocalcords:A.voiced:consonantsproducedwhenthevocalcordsareclosed,andtheair-streamcausesthemtovibrateagaineachother.B.voiceless:consonantsproducedwhenvocalcordsareapart,andairpassesthrougheasily.A.VD:/b,d,g,v,z,m,n,r）zI,rjB.VL:/p,t,k,f,0,s,h,w,ClassificationofvowelsAdichotomy:Monophthongs:individualvowelsDiphthongs:vowelswhichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions・[ei,ai,au,au,+,ia,ea,ua]Cardinalvowels（基本元音）:asetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofrefereneeforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistingIanguages・Classificationofmonophthongs\nIntermsofthepositionofthetongue:Intermsoftheopennessofthemouth:A.close:B.semi-close:C・semi-open:D.open:Intermsoftheshapeofthelips:A.unrounded:allthefrontvowels,centralvowels,and[a:].B.rounded:allthebackvowelsexcept[a:]・Intermsofthelength:A.short:[]t[L[L[],[],[],[],[],[].B.long:[],[],[],[],[]IntermsofthestateofthelarynxA.tense:allthelongvowelsB.lax:alltheshortvowels1.coarticulation（协同发音）:theprocessofsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationswhensoundsshowtheinflueneeoftheirneighbors・anticipatorycoarticulation（先期）：thesoundsbecomemorelikethefollowingsound,e.g.lambPreservativecoaritculation（后滞）：thesoundsbecomemoreliketheproceedingsound.e.g.mapPhonology1.Phonology:thesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsofIanguages・theprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinIges,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.wenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividualIgeinordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.ThenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentIanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages・2.Phonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectofIge—-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phonetics:ofgeneralnature;allthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanIges;answerquestions:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology:discoverhowspeechsoundsinaIgeformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.3.PhonologicaltheoryAphone（咅素）：aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedorft,e.g.[bt]&[bt],\n[spt]&[spt].Aphoneme（音位）:aphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext.Allophones（音位变体）：thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phoneticsimilarity:Theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblanee.Eg:[ph,p]arebothvoicelessbilabialstopsdifferingonlyinaspiration・Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）：Ifphoneticallysimilarsoundsare2distinctivephonemes,theyformaphonemiccontrast（ie,theydistinguishmeaning）.Eg:/p/and/b/canoccurinthesameenvironmerits（[pin]and[bin]）Complementarydistribution:Ifphoneticallysimilarsoundsareallophonesofthesamephoneme,theydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution（ie,theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments）.Eg:①Theclear[I]alwaysoccursbeforeavowelwhilethedark[\\]alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword・Sothetwoallophonesareincomplementarydistribution.②[p]and[ph]nevercontrasteachother;theyare2allophonesofthesamephoneme/p/,theyoccurindifferentenvironments・Whenonepronouncesawordwhichbeginswith/p/,theychoosetheaspiratedallophone[ph],andifthe/p/occursafterthesound/s/,theywillchoosetheunaspiratedallophone[p]・Minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpairPill/bill;pill/till1.SomephonologicalrulesSequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionruleSequentialrulestherulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularIanguage,e.g."kbiI"mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[I]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream・a)thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/w/・Assimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.\n鼻音化：can,tan齿音化：tenth,ninth软频鼻音化：sink,mink,pancake,youcangonowDeletionruleDeletionrule-一-ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic・Distinctivefeatures:Suprasegmentalfeatures(超切分特征):thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonationStress:AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant・Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel・Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.[mn].Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.But[I],[n]and[m]mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin"apple,hidden,communism".StressWordstressSentencestressWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:import;increase;rebel;record…noun:import;increase;rebel;record・•・Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsist!ngofthesameelements:compound:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdog...nounphrase:blackbird;greenhouse;hotdog...Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof・ingformsandnouns:modifier:dining-room;readingroom;sleepingbag..・doer:sleepingbaby;swimmingfish;flyingplane...Sentencestresstherelativeforcegiventothecomporientsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed・Othercategorieslike\narticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed・Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday・ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.EnglishisnotatoneIanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)IntonationEnglishhasthreetypesofintonation:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,"'That'snotthebookhewants."Functionsofintonationsinverbalcommunicationgroupingofwords:indicatingthepossiblegroupingsofwordsinphrases,resultingindifferentmeaningsofthesephrasese.g.smallboy'sschoolemphasizingwords:emphasizingacertainwordwithinaphraseorsentence.e.g.JohnkissedMary.differentiatingmeanings:afallingpitch-thedeclarativesentenee;arisingpitch—questionse.g.heiscomingtothepartytonight?exercises1.Terms:1)phone2)phoneme3)allophone4)narrowtranscription5)suprasegmentai2.Whatarethecontrastiveandcomplementarydistributionsintheisolationofphonernes?Giveexamples・3.Underlinethewordsthatcontainasoundasrequired:1)alowvowel:pipe,gather;leave,cook2)abilabialconsonant:cool,leap,push3)anapproximant:lucky,boots,words4)afrontvowel:god,neat,pit,lush5)avelar:god,fast,chat,lake4.brieflyexplainwhatphoneticsandphonologyareconcernedwithandwhatkindofrelationshipsholdbetweenthetwo.\n1.intonationhasfourgrammaticalfunctions.Stateanytwoofthem,givingexampleswherenecessary・举报Amyl006Amyl006当前离线积分31考元142元威望0点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册时间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4实习会员实习会员，积分31,距离下一级还需-11积分串个门加好友打招呼发消息板凳发表于2010-10-416:33:49|只看该作者胡壮麟的语言学课件第四章ChapterFourSyntaxFOCUSES:SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsImmediateconstituentanalysisEndocentricandexocentricconstructionsDeepstructureandsurfacestructureSystematic-functionalgrammar1.IntroductionSyntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaysdifferentconstituentsarecombinedtoformsentencesinaIanguage,orthestudyoftheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsinsenteneestructures・Approachedtosyntax:thetraditionalapproachthestructuralapproachThegenerativeapproachThefunctionalapproach1.Syntacticrelations:therelationbetweenwordsinasentencepositionalrelationsrelationsofsubstitutabilityrelationsofco-occurreneePositionalRelation:thesequentialarrangementofwordsinaIanguageForIanguagetofulfillitscommunicativefunction,itmusthaveawaytomarkthegrammaticalrolesofthevariousphrasesthatcanoccurinaclause・\nTheboykickedtheballNPlNP2SubjectObjectIfthewordsinasentencefailtooccurinafixedorderrequiredbytheconventionofaIanguage,onetendstoproduceanutteranceeitherungrammaticalornonsensicalatall.Forexample:Theboykickedtheball*Boytheballkickedthe*TheballkickedtheboyTheteachersawthestudentsThestudentssawtheteacherRelationofSubstitutabilityclassesorsetsofwordssubstitutableforeachothergrammaticallyinsentenceswiththesamestructure.Thesmiles・manboygirlgroupsofmorethanonewordwhichmaybejointlysubstitutablegrammaticallyforasinglewordofaparticularset.RelationofCo-occurreneewordsofdifferentsetsorclausesmaypermit,orrequiretheoccurreneeofawordofanothersetorclasstoformasentenceoraparticularpartofasentenee.不同i司类白勺不同i司丿匚集合允许另一个词类获集合的词出现构成一个句子获句子的某一特定部分。1.TraditionalApproachAsentenceisasequeneeofwords,agreatdealofthestudyofwords,suchastheclassificationofwords,thecategoriesofthenoun:number,gender,caseandcountability;theverb:tense,aspect,voice,etc.Category:classesandfunctions,liken.v.sub・pred・N£VEetc・Syntacticcategory:aword,aphraseoraclausethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchassubjectinasentence.1）Nouns:NumberGenderCaseNUMBER:agrammaticalcategoryfortheanalysisofwordclassesdisplayingsuchcontrastsassingular,dual,plural,etc・InEnglish,numberinnouns,onlytwoforms:singularandplural,suchasdog:dogs.Numberintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs,suchasHelaughs:Theylaugh,thisman:thesemen.GENDER:agrammaticalcategorydisplayingsuchcontrastsas"masculine,feminin巳neuter^'"animate,inanimate^etc・fortheanalysisofcertainwordclasses.Whenworditemsrefertothesexofreal-worldentities,wearetalkingaboutnaturalgender.Theoppositeisgrammaticalgender.\nThoughthereisacorrelationbetweennaturalgenderandgrammaticalgendectheassignmentmayseemquitearbitraryinmanycases,forinstanee,inLatin,igniszfire?ismasculine,whileflamma'flame'isfeminine.Englishgendercontrastcanonlybeobservedinpronounsandasmallnumberofnouns,and,theyaremainlyofthenaturalgendertype・he:she:itprince:princessauthor:authoresscase:aninflectionalcategory,basicallyofnouns,markingtheirroleinrelationtootherpartsofthesentence・InLatingrammarsixdistinctions:"nominative（主格）”，“accusative（宾格）”，“vocative^乎格）”，“dative（与格）”，“genitive（属格）”“ablative（离格）”，etc.InEnglish,caseisaspecialformofthenounwhichfrequentlycorrespondstoacombinationofprepositionandnoun,anditisrealizedinthreechannels:（a）inflection,（b）followingapreposition,（c）wordorder;asmanifestedinteacher:teacher'swith:toamanJohnkickedPeter:PeterkickedJohn2）VerbsTenseAspectmoodTense:Aninflectionalcategorywhosebasicroleistoindicatethetimeofaneventinrelationtothemomentofspeaking.16tensesTense:alinguisticconceptvaryingfromItoITime:auniversalconcept,everyIiscapableofexpressionAspect:averbalcategorydistinguishingthestatusofevents.Englishhastwoaspectswhichcombinefairlyfreewithtenseandmood:theperfect:Ihave/had....Iwill/would/have....theprogressive:Iam/wasdoing…Iwill/wouldbedoing…Mood:agrammaticalcategorydistinguishingmodality什青态).modalityindicatingakindofspeechactorthedegreeofcertaintywithwhichsthissaid・3)Relationbetweencategories:whendifferentcategoriesappeartogetherinthesamesentence,someofthemmustcontroltheotherscozoftheirdifferencesintypesandfeatures.CONCORD(AGREEMENT):asyntacticrelationbetweenwordsandphraseswhicharecompatible,inagivenconstruction,byvirtueofinflectionscarriedbythem・Thissyntacticrelationshipmaybeanaphoric,aswhenapronounagreeswithitsantecedent,Whoseisthispen?—Oh,it'stheoneIlost・oritmayinvolvearelationbetweenaheadanditsdependent,aswhenaverbagreeswithits\nsubjectandobject:Eachpersonmayhaveonecoin.Agreementofnumberbetweennounsandverbs:Thismanruns.Thebirdflies.Thesemenrun.Thesebirdsfly.1.Structuralapproachlinguisticunitsinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure,notasisolatedbits・1)Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations(组合关系和聚合关系)SR:therelationbetweenelementsthatformpartofthesameform,sequengconstruction,etc.(Saussure)Wordorder:SVO,VSO,SOV,OVS,OSV,andVOS.English:SVOtypePR:arelationbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure.VERTICALrelationsorCHOICErelations.2)immediateconstituentanalysis直接成分分析CONSTITUENT:aterminstructuralsentenceanalysisforeverylinguisticunit,apartofalargerlinguisticunit.Severalconstituentstogetherformaconstruction.e.g.Thegirlatetheapple・Iftwoconstituents,inthecaseoftheexampleabove,B(thegirl)andC(atetheapple),arejoinedtoformahierarchicallyhigherconstituentA("S",hereasentence),thenBandCaresaidtobeimmediateconstituentsofA・IMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSIS(ICanalysis):theanalysisofsentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents:wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheirownimmediateconstituents.A(Sentence)BCThegirlatetheappleThistreecontainsthreeNodes・Thetop-mostnode,A,isthemotherofthetwolowernodes,BandC.BandCaredaughtersofthesamemother,andsowerefertothemassisternodes.ThesimpletreeintheaboverepresentsaconstituentofcategoryAwhichiscomposedoftwoparts,oneofcategoryBandtheotherofcategoryC,occurringinthatorder.Theimmediateconstituentsthemselvescanbeconstructionsofspec讦ictypes,forinstance,thenominalphrase"ThegiiTcanbefurtheranalysedinto"The(Determinerj+girl(Noun)".Thus,"Thegirl"istheconstruct!onofanominalphrase,whereas"The"and"girl"areitsconstituents.Whenatreediagramisusedtorepresenttheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit(e.g.aphraseorsentence),syntacticcategoriesareusedtolabelthenodes;themostcommonofthesearelistedinthefollowing:PhrasallevelNP=nounphrase\nAP=adjectivephraseVP=verbphrasePP=prepositionphrasePhrasestructurerulesThegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase:NP(Det)+N+(PP)e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.TheXPruleSpecifiersSemantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary・SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinN巳qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.ComplementsComplementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentitiesandlocationswhoseexisteneeisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase・e.g.appear,break,put...;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin"Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome・Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup."That/讦/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause・Sentences(theSrule)SNPVPTreediagramInflrealizedbyatenselabelInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryBracket!ngIncontrasttotreediagram,BRACKETINGisnotsocommon,butitisaneconomicnotationinrepresentingtheconstituentstructureofagrammaticalunit.(((The)(girl))((ate)((the)(apple))))[[[The][girl]][[ate][[the][apple]]]]Advantages:demonstrateclearlytheinternalstructureofasentence,andaccountforambiguities.e.g.more|expensive||clothesmore||expensive|clothes1)EndocentricandExocentricConstructionsThesyntacticconstructionsanalyzedareoftwomaintypes:endocentricandexocentricconstructions,dependingontheirdistributionandtherelationbetweentheirconstituents・EnC:onewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalenttothatofoneormoreofitsconstituents,i.e.,awordoragroupofwords,whichservesasadefinableCENTREorHEAD・Usuallynounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrasesbelongtoendocentrictypesbecausetheconstituentitemsaresubordinatetotheHead.\nExC:theoppositeofEnC・agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,nodefinable"Centre"or"Head"insidethegroup・basicsentence,prepositionalphrase,predicate(verb+object)construction,andconnective(be+complement)construction.Theboysmiled.(Neitherconstituentcansubstituteforthesentencestructureasawhole.)Hehidbehindthedoor.(Neitherconstituentcanfunctionasanadverbial.)Hekickedtheball.(Neitherconstituentstandsfortheverb-objectsequence.)Johnseemedangry.(Afterdivision，theconnectiveconstructionnoIongerexists.)Endocentricconstructions:COORDINATION:acommonsyntacticpatterninEnglishandotherIanguagesformedbygroupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor•・Thesetwoormorewordsorphrasesorclauseshaveequivalentsyntacticstatus,eachoftheseparateconstituentscanstandfortheoriginalconstructionfunctionally.CoordinationofNPs:[NPthelady]or[NPthetiger]CoordinationofVPs:[VPgotothelibrary]and[VPreadabook]CoordinationofPPs:[PPdownthestairs]and[PPoutthedoor]CoordinationofAPs:[APquiteexpensive]and[APverybeautiful]CoordinationofSs:[SJohnlovesMary]and[SMarylovesJohntoo].Suchastructureisusuallyconsideredtobedoublyheaded,sincebothoftheconjoinedelementsfunctionasheadsofthelargerunit.Thatis,inacoordinatesentence,two(ormore)Sconstituentsoccurasdaughtersandco-headsofahigherS・Oneproperty:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.[NPAman,awoman,aboy,acatandadog]gotintothecarSUBORDINATION:theprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother.ThusthesubordinateconstituentsarewordswhichmodifytheHead,asshownintheunderlinedpartsoftheconstruct!ons.Consequently,theycanbecalledmodifiers・twodogsHead(Mybrother)candrink(wine)•HeadSwimminginthelake(isfun).Head(Thepepperwas)hotbeyondenduranee.HeadSubordinateclauses\nClausescanbeusedassubordinateconstituents,thethreebasictypesofsubordinateclausesare:complementclausesadjunct(oradverbial)clausesrelativeclausesJohnbelieves[thattheairplanewasinventedbyanIrishman]・(complementclause)Elizabethopenedherpresents[beforeJohnfinishedhisdinner],(adverbialclause)Thewoman[thatIlove]ismovingtothesouth,(relativeclause)1.Thetransformational-generativeapproachChomsky,1957,syntacticstructure1)syntacticcategory:alexicalcategoryoraphrasalcategoryperformingaparticulargrammaticalfunctionLexicalcategory：N.V.Adj.Adv.Phrasalcategory:NP,VRPP,AP2)Deepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease・Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Consideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous・ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.Deepstructure-一-formedbytheXPruleinaccordaneewiththehead'ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure-―correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesenteneewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesenteneeasitispronouncedorwritten.TheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:WhatIanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:YoucanspeakwhatIanguages・Youcantalkaboutwhat.3)SyntacticmovementandmovementrulesSM:themovementofanyconstituentinasentenceoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewpositionaux-movementDo-insertionwh-movement2.functionalapproach\nthePragueschool布拉格学派Mathesius马泰休斯Communicativedynamism:theextenttowhichthesentenceelementcontributestothedevelopmentofthecommunication.ThethemecarriesthelowestdegreeofCDwithinthesentence,whiletherhemecarriesthehighestdegreeofCDwithinthesentenee.1.systemic-functionalgrammarHallidayideationalfunction:Languageservesfortheexpressionofthespeaker'sexperieneeoftherealworld.interpersonalfunction:Languageservesfortheestablishmentandmaintenanceofsocialrelations.textualfunction:Languagehastoprovideformakinglinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.2.SyntacticFunctiontherelationshipbetweenalinguisticformandotherpartsofthelinguisticpatterninwhichitisused・Namesoffunctionsareexpressedintermsofsubjects,objects,predicators,modifiers,complements,etc.1)SubjectInsomelanguages,SUBJECTreferstooneofthenounsinthenominativecase・inLatin,wheresubjectisalwaysinnominativecase・InEnglish,thesubjectofasenteneeisoftensaidtobethedoeroftheaction,whiletheobjectisthepersonisthepersonorthingacteduponbythedoer.Thisdefinitionseemstoworkforthesesentences:MaryslappedJohn•AdogbitJohn.butisclearlywronginthefollowingexamples:Johnwasbittenbyadog.Johnunderwentmajorheartsurgery.Inordertoaccountforthecaseofsubjectinpassivevoice,wehavetwootherterms"'grammaticalsubject"(John)and"logicalsubject"(adog).Anothertraditionaldefinitionofthesubjectis"whatthesentenceisabout"(i.e.ztopic).Again,thisseemstoworkformanysentences?suchasBillisaverycraftyfellow・butfailsinothers,suchas(Jackisprettyreliable,but)BillIdon'ttrust.AsforBill,Iwouldn'ttakehispromisesveryseriously.Allthreesentencesseemtobe"about"Bill;thuswecouldsaythatBillisthetopicofallthreesentences・Thesesentencesmakeitclearthatthetopicisnotalwaysthegrammaticalsubject・Itseemsthatwecannotreliablyidentifythesubjectofasentencewitheithertheagentorthetopic.Rather,weusegrammaticalcriteriatodevelopaworkabledefinition.Whatcharacteristicsdosubjectshave?\nWordorderSubjectordinarilyprecedestheverbinthestatement:Sallycollectsstamps.*CollectsSallystamps.Pro-formsThefirstandthirdpersonpronounsinEnglishappearinaspecialformwhenthepronounisasubject,whichisnotusedwhenthepronounoccursinotherpositions:Helovesme.Ilovehim.Wethrewstonesatthem.Theythrewstonesatus.AgreementwiththeverbInthesimplepresenttense,an-sisaddedtotheverbwhenathirdpersonsubjectissingular.Howevecthenumberandpersonoftheobjectoranyotherelementinthesentencehavenoeffectatallontheformoftheverb:Sheangershim.Theyangerhim.Sheangersthem・ContentquestionsIfthesubjectisreplacedbyaquestionword(whoorwhat),therestofthesentenceremainsunchanged,asinJohnstole/wouldstealMrs・Thatcher'spicturefromtheBritishCouncil.Whostole/wouldstealMrs.Thatcher'spicturefromtheBritishcouncil?Butwhenanyotherelementofthesentenceisreplacedbyaquestionword,anauxiliaryverbmustappearbeforethesubject・Ifthebasicsenteneedoesnotcontainanauxiliaryverb,wemustinsertdidordo(es)immediatelyafterthequestionword,asin:WhatwouldJohnsteal,ifhehadthechanee?WhatdidJohnstealfromtheBritishCouncil?WheredidJohnstealMrs.Thatcher'spicturefrom?TagquestionA"TAGQUESTIONisusedtoseekconfirmationofastatement.Italwayscontainsapronounwhichrefersbacktothesubject,andnevertoanyotherelementinthesentence・JohnlovesMary,doesrfthe?MarylovesJohr\doesn'tshe?*JohnlovesMary,doesn'tshe?1)Predicateamajorconstituentofsenteneestructureinabinaryanalysisinwhichallobligatoryconstituentsotherthanthesubjectwereconsideredtogether.Itusuallyexpressesactions,processes,andstatesthatrefertothesubject・Theboyisrunning.Peterbroketheglass・Janemustbemad!Aspredicateincludesconstituentssuchasverb,object,complement,etc.,peoplefinditillogical\ntouseaclass-term,namely,theverb,ingrammaticalanalysisofafunctionalnature・1)ObjectOBJECT:traditionally,subjectcanbedefinedasthedoeroftheaction,objectmayrefertothe"receiver"or"goal"ofanaction,anditisfurtherclassifiedintoDIRECTOBJECTandINDIRECTOBJECT.Motherboughtadoll.Mothergavemysisteradoll・Ind.Obj.Dir.Obj.InEnglish,"object"isrecognizedbytracingitsrelationtowordorder(aftertheverbandpreposition)andbyinflections(ofpro­nouns).Mothergaveadolltomysister.Johnkickedme.Modernlinguists(e.g・Chomsky,Halliday)suggestthatobjectreferstosuchanitemthatitcanbecomesubjectinapassivetransformation.Johnbroketheglass・仃heglasswasbrokenbyJohn.)PetersawJane.(JanewasseenbyPeter.)Althoughtherearenominalphrasesinthefollowing,theyarebynomeansobjectsbecausetheycannotbetransformedintopassivevoice・Hediedlastweek.Thematchlastedthreehours・HechangedtrainsatTianjin.(*TrainswerechangedbyhimatTianjin.)Theboysareplayingfootball.(Subj.andObj.)theSummerPalace(Mod讦ierjHecameherelastmonth.(Adv.)HechangedtrainsatTianjin.(Comp.)1.Recursiveness递归性arulethatcanreapplytoaformthatisitselfpartlyorwhollyderivedbyit.e.g.anNPcancontainaPRsuchasthefishinthepool,andaPPcanagaincontainanNPandtheNPcancontainanotherPRsuchasthefishinthepoolinthegardenImetamanwhohadasonwhosewifesoldcookiesthatshehadbakedinherkitchenthatwasfullyequippedwithelectricalappliancesthatwerenew.Recursiveness,togetherwithopenness,isgenerallyregardedasthecoreofcreativityofIanguage・JohrfssisterJohn'ssister'shusbandJohn〃ssister'shusband〃suncleJohn〃ssister'shusband'suncle'sdaughter,etc・thathouseinBeijingthegardenofthathouseinBeijingthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingabirdonthetreeinthegardenofthathouseinBeijingCONJOINING:theprocesswhereoneclauseiscoordinatedorconjoinedwithanother.Thesentencesmadeupinthiswaycanbeunderstoodasinstancesofcoordination・Theconjunctionsusedinthiscaseareand,but,andor.Johnboughtahatandhiswifeboughtahandbag・\nGivemelibertyorgivemedeath.Embedding:themeansbywhichoneclauseisincludedinthemainclauseinsyntacticsubordinationThreebasictypesofsubordinateclauses:Relativeclause:Isawthemanwhohadvisitedyoulastyear.Complementclause:Idon'tknowwhetherProfessorLineedsthisbook・Adverbialclause:Ifyoulistenedtome,youwouldn'tmakemistakes.exercisesDefinesyntaxco-occurreneeconstituentendocentricexocentriccategoryrecursivenessembedding2.Putbracketsaroundtheimmediateconstituentsineachsentence.1)Theboywascrying.2)shutthedoor.3)openthedoorquickly.4)thehappyteacherinthatclasswasbeamingaway.5)heboughtanoldcarwithhisfirstpaycheque.3・Tellifeachofthefollowingisendocentricorexocentric.1)takearest2)anextremelydifficultjob3)ladiesandgentlemen4)atpresent5)swimminginthelake4.ExplainthemaincharacteristicsofsubjectsinEnglish.举报Amyl006Amyl006当前离线积分31考元142元威望0点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册时间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4实习会员实习会员，积分31,距离下一级还需-11积分串个门加好友打招呼发消息地板发表于2010-10-416:34:46|只看该作者胡壮麟的语言学课件第5章ChapterFive\nSemanticsFocuses:SemantictriangleLeech's7typesofmeaningSenserelationComponentialanalysisSentencemeaning1.Definition:Semantics:thestudyofmeaning;Morespecifically,thestudyofthemeaningoflinguisticunits,wordsandsentencesinparticular.Thebasicareaofstudy:themeaningofsignsrelationsbetweendifferentlinguisticunits2.Approachestomeaning:Whatisthemeaningofsputnik?Ididrftmeantohurtyou.Lifewithoutfaithhasnomeaning.Fameandrichesmeannothingtothetruescholar.意义：语言文字或其他符合所表达的内容。e.g.节约就是不浪费的意思。价值；作用。e.g.人生的意义Namingtheory(Plato)TheconceptualistviewContextualism(Bloomfield)BehaviorismTruthconditionsNamingtheory(Plato)命名论Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.N.:objectsoreventsadj.:propertiesofthoseobjectsoreventsV.:actionsAdv.:thepropertiesofthoseactionsPlato(柏拉图)：词义就是事物、行为和属性的名称，或者说词语有指义或命名的功能。Russell(罗素)：一个词的意义就是一个对象，即一个词意指着某客体，也就是代表着一个客体。Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred...\n1)Somewordsmayhavedifferentmeaningsindifferentcontexts.2)Thesamereferencemayhavedifferentnames・Theconceptualistview概念论(ideationaltheory)thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e・betweenIanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.1.形式与意义直接相关，用实线连接。意义通过符号形式来表达，形式是语义的载体。2.意义是在各观事物的基础上概括而成的，是客观事物在头脑中的概括反映，两者也有直接联系，用实线连接。3.形式和所指之间没有必然的联系，故而两者间用虚线连接，所以同一事物可以用不同的形式来表示。Thecontextualism语境论Iamnearthebank."black":blackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;Thecontextdeterminesthemeaning.Situationalcontext:Thesetting;Thespeakerandhearer;Theactivities;Otherparticipants;Externalobjectsandevents.Linguisticcontext:theprobabilityofwordsorexpress!onsco-occurrenceorcollocation.ThelinguisticmodelofcontextualismLanguageisalwaysusedinacertaincontext.ImportantfiguresofcontextualismMalinowski:Foralargeclassofcasesthemeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage・Firth:Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps・Halliday:Meaningisthebridgebetweenlinguisticformsandsituation.AproblemwiththecontextualismContextissuchacomplicatedconcept,consistingofsomanyfactors・如：世界知识、语言知识、集体知识、参与者、背景、正式程度和基调、媒介、语篇因素、表现等。（胡壮麟2002：“语境研究的多元化”）Behaviorism行为主义论Behaviorists:/zthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer".themeaningofthesentenee"TmThirsty":JillJack\nSr……sRS=Jillseesanappler=dillsays"I'mThirsty"s=JackhearsJillsays"I'mthirsty"R=JackpickstheappleforJill川IJackSr……sRMeaningconsistsintherelationshipbetweenspeechindicatedbythesmalllettersrsandthepracticaleventsrepresentedbythecapitalizedlettersSandRthatprecedeandfollowthemrespective!y・ImportantFiguresofBehaviorism:Watson：词的意义就是对词的有条件的反应。Bloomfield（布龙菲尔德）:意义就是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。（meaningasspeakerJsstimulusandhearer,sresponse）Problems:在许多不同的情景中，语词和词句的意义是相同的。意义不能等同于听话人的反应，因为：（1）对同样的话语可以有不同的反应。（2）对不同的语言有同样的反应。（3）对话语没有反应。（4）人们往往要先搞清话语的意义才可能作出反应。Truthconditions真值条件*ThekingofFranceisbald.*Thedeclarationofindependencewassignedin1976.*Knowingthemeaningofasentenceistoknowtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse.*Knowingthemeaningofawordorexpressionistoknowthepartitplaysinthetruthorfalsehoodofthesenteneecontainingit.1.Leech's7typesofmeaning1974,Semantics:TheStudyofMeaning・7typesofmeaning:ConceptualmeaningConnotativemeaningSocialmeaningAffectivemeaningReflectedandmeaningCollocativemeaningThematicmeaningConceptualmeaning概念意义（'denotative,logicalorcognitive，meaning）.desk:apieceoffurniturewithawritingsurfaceandusuallydrawersorothercompartments\nBird:warm-bloodedegg-layingvertebratescharacterizedbyfeathersandforelimbsmodifiedaswingsConcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.一个词本身所代表的字面意义或核心意义。twosides:sense（意义）andreferenee（所指）Sense:concernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform;thecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized・意思、涵义、意义、或系统意义：指与语境无关、仅涉及语言内部成分之间关系的意义，它是意义的中心.thesenseof"dog":Acommon4-leggedflesh-eatinganimal,esp・anyofthemanyvarietiesusedbymanasacompanionorforhunting,working,guarding,etc.Referenee（所扌旨）:whatalinguisticformreferstointhephysicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenorvlinguisticworldofexperience.指称意义、照应关系、所指意义、参照、或外指意义：即表明词语跟语言外部世界的关系的意义。Lookatthepicture・Init,Maryissaying,"Oh!Ilovethisdogverymuch!"Whatdoesthe"dog"referto?ThedoginfrontofMary!RefereneeVs.ContextLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Linguisticsformswiththesamerefereneemightdifferinsense.Meaning=sense+referenceSemanticsVs.PragmaticsDifferences:意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性；而所指会因人、时、地而异，具有变化性、模糊性。一般说来，意义是抽象化了的定义，多具有非物质化特征；而所指会具有物质化的特征。有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有所指。Connotative(associated)meaning内涵意义e.g.old(andwornout)blue(anddown・hearted)sweet(lovely)孩子(幼稚，不懂事)Thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent・通过语言所指所传达的意义Amultitudeofadditional,norvcriterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristics\nbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.Varyfromagetoage,fromsocietytosociety,fromindividualtoindividualInvolvingthe'realworld'experieneeoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Unstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperieneeoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.附加在概念意义上的意义，社会、阶级、阶层、集团或个人都可以给一个词附加上内涵意义。woman:frail,pronetotears,emotional,inconstant;compassionate,hard-workingSocialmeaning社会意义domicile:veryformal,officialresidenee:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:babyIanguageSocialmeaning:Anexpressionconveysaboutthecontextsorthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse,mainlystylisticmeaningofanutterance.所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义Dialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass・Time:theIanguageofthe18thc.,etc・Provinee:Ianguageoflaw,ofscienee,ofadvertising,etc・Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:Ianguageofmemoranda*lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.Affective(emotive)meaning感情意义IhopeforthesakeofpeaceandstabilitythatClintonwillprovehimselfmorestatesmanthanpolitician.干部，当官的Reflect!ngthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener;orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.感情意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义Reflectivemeaning(联想意义)Cock：intercourse,ejaculation,erection,\nsexwhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.这是一种能引起听者或读者联想的意义，当你听到或读到它们时，会马上联想起别的事情来。Collocativemeaning搭酉己意义pretty:girl,boy,womar\flower;garden,colour,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner;typewriter,etc・clearcase,clearconscieneewhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword・通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。Thematicmeaning主题意义MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize・ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith・Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped・Whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.通过词序和各种强调方式表达出來的意义。两个句子，一个用主动结构，一个用被动结构，尽管所指的事实或所谈的内容相同，但句子的意义不完全一样。1.MajorsenserelationsSynonymy（同义词）Antonymy（反义词）Polysemy（多义性）Homonymy（同音异义）Hyponymy（下义关系）Synonymybuy/purchasethrjfty/economical/stingyautumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/undergroundthesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1）Dialectalsynonyms:usedindifferentregionaldialectse.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol一gasoline...2）Stylisticsynonyms:differinginstyle.e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commenee3）Synonymsdifferingintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,...4）Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse...of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5）Semanticallydifferentsynonyms.e.g.amaze,astound,…\nAntonymyhusband-wife,pass—fall;true—false;present—absent;married…singleWordsareoppositeinmeaning.Gradableantonymse.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-shortGradableantonyms:thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,good—badlong…shortbig—smallFeatures:Canbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery・Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow・Complementaryantonymse.g.alive-dead,male-femaleComplementaryantonyms:thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.alive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyRelational(Converse)antonymy：buy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterRelational(Converse)antonymy：exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.Polysemy多义词e.g."table":ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc・Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.Thesamewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Homonymy(同音异义)\nnight/knightLead(n.)-lead(v.)ball(n.球卜ball(n.舞厅)Homonymy：thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone：whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reignHomogragh：whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.)Completehomonym：whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.bank,watch,scale,fastHyponymy(下义关系)fruit:apple,orange,pearfurniture:desk,chair,bedHyponymy：thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespec讦icword・Inelusiveness：Aisincludedin/akindofB.roseandflowerSuperordinate(上义词):thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms(下义i司):thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co・hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate・5.Senserelationsbetweensentences(1)XissynonymouswithY(2)XisinconsistentwithY(3)XentailsY(4)XpresupposesY(5)Xisacontradiction(6)XissemanticallyanomalousXissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife・X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.XisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice・IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.XentailsY(X蕴涵Y)X:Johnmarriedablondheiress・Y:Johnmarriedablond.\nX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailment:arelationofinclusion.IfXentails£thenthemeaningofXisineludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.(下义词蕴涵着上义词，上义词和下义词之I'可存在着蕴涵关系。)Entailment:arelationshipbetweentwoormoresentences.Ifknowingthatonesentenceistruegivesuscertainknowledgeofthetruthofthesecondsentence,thenthefirstsentenceentailsthesecond.Itisconcernedwiththemeaningofthesentenceitself.Itdoesnotdependonthecontextinwhichasentenceisused.蕴涵是两个或更多句子(命题)之间的一种关系。如果已知第一个句子真实给11!关于第二个句子真实性的某些信息，那么第一个句子蕴涵笫二个句子。它涉及的是句子本身的意义,不依赖于句子使用的上下文。A.johnpickedatulip.B.johnpickedaflower.A.Isawaboy.B.Isawaperson.XpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.Paulhasgivenupsmoking・Pauloncesmoked・Presupposition:asemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.APresupposesB,thatis,BisprerequisiteofA.A:ThequeenofEnglandisold.B:Englandhasaqueen.Intermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.IfAisfalse,Bisstilltrue;IfBistrue,Aiseithertrueorfalse.IfBisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutA.Informula:A—B-A-*BXisacontradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphan'sparentsareprettywell-off.Xissemanticallyanomalous*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions・*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple・6.Componentialanalysiswife:[+HUMAN][ADULT]\n[+MALE][-MARRIED]father：[+MALE][+ASCEND][-DESCEND][+LINERL]awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning,basedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.aprocessaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimaldistinctivefeaturesorproperties,whicharealsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.Onewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters,withbeforethem,plussignindicatesthepreseneeofacertainproperty,andminussignindicatestheabseneeofit.walk:[+NATURAL][-HURRIED][+FORWARD][+ONEFOOTALWAYSONGROUND]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT；+ANIMATE,-MALE]kill:[CAUSE][DIE]rise:[BECOME][MORE][HIGH]raise:[CAUSE][BECOME][HIGH]father:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)xisaparentofy,andxismale.take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxtohavey.give:CAUSE(x,(〜HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxnottohavey.StrongPointsprovidesaninsightintothemeaningofwordsandawaytostudytherelationshipsthatarerelatedinmeaning.Showthehyponymyrelationbetweenwords:man:[+ADULT][+HUMAN][+MALE]bachelor:[+ADULT][+HUMAN][+MALE][UNMARRIED]Definethenaturalcategories:[+HUMAN]有关人类的名词[-ANIMATE]非动物名词explainrelationshipbetweensomesentences:Johnisabachelor.蕴涵：Johnisaman.WeakPoints水可以用H2O來定义，而语义却不能用同样严格的方法借助义素來定义(熊学亮2003：98),因为：1.我们无法确定什么样的词语可以用作义素。义素自身可能被进一步分解。如是，义素和词语互相定义不但是把一种语言译成另一种语言册游戏，还仍然有可能是语义学理论最终回到循环论证的老路上去。2.定义所用的所有义素可能不足以穷尽词语的内涵。如：Bachelor:[+MALE+ADULT-MARRIED]然而这种定义仅涉及该类人的一般情况，有时并不能与真实世界屮的事实相提并论。\n如：教皇、和尚、长期与另一男或女同居的男人、一部分离婚者等。因此有关的语用、社会、文化、意识等方面的因素也应该是词义定义时要考虑的辅助对象。1.分解寓意既不与真实世界挂钩，也不与认识世界挂钩，只不过是有一•种符号体系(如元语言)去代替、阐述或说明另一种符号体系(如自然语言)的意义的做法，给人一“两头不着边”的感觉。(熊学亮2003：98-100)2.总体上说，无论是语义特征本身，还是语义特征分析法，都是主观性的。因此，目前作为一种科学方法，语义特征分析法在理论上还没有形成一整套成熟的操作规程。6.SentenceMeaningThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.Thecatischasingthemouse.Themouseischasingthecat.Ihavereadthatbook・ThatbookIhaveread・ThedaughterofQueenElizabeth'ssonisthesonofQueenElizabeth'sdaughter.Compositionality组合性themeaningofasentencedependson:themeaningsoftheconstituentwords:thewaytheyarecombined.句子意义由成分词的意义及其组合方式所决定，这一观点通常叫做组合性。Anintegratedsemantictheory1963,Katz&PostalTwoparts:Dictionary;projectionruleDictionary:a)grammaticalclassification:hit-Vtr;ball-一Nc(grammaticalorsyntacticmarker)b)semanticinformation:bachelor:whoneverasetofprojectionrules(投射原则)alexicalitemhasspecificinformationaboutsyntacticcategorieswhichitprojectsontothestructureofthesentence.Itisresponsibleforcombingthemeaningsofwordstogether.词性具有句法分类方面的信息，而且会将这些信息投射到句子结构中去。give:有两个名词片语作补语，它可以把这个信息投射到下列句子中去。shegavetheaccountantthefile・Selectionrestrict!ons:semanticrestrictionsonwhichlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers,"regret"requiresahumansubject.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.\nGreencloudsaresleep!ngfuriously.Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple・Accordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality,eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences.Proposition:Apropositioniswhatisexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement・命题是陈述句被用于陈述事件时所表达的意义。e.g.Johnhaspassedhisdrivingtest.HisparentswillbuyhimaPorsche・IfJohnhaspassedhisdrivingtest,hisparentswillbuyhimaPorsche・Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.Itiseithertrueoffalse,thetruthvalueofacompositepropositionissaidtobethefunctionof,orisdeterminedby,thetruthvaluesofitscomporientpropositionsandthelogicalconnectivesusedinit.命题的一个极为重要的性质是有真值，它要么真要么假。复合命题的真值是成分命题真值和所用逻辑连词來决定着。5usuallogicalconnectivesthenegativeconnective〜（否定连词not）theconjunctive&（合取连词and）thedisjunctiveconnectiveV（析収连i司either...or）theimplicational（conditional）connective—（蕴含连词）theequivalentconnective=（等彳克连词ifandonlyif,onlywhen,exactlywhen）•Propositonallogic:Negation（否定）:p:Johnisadoctor.-p:Johnisnotadoctor.-p=pp&qShecannotsinganddance.Shecannotbothdanceandsing.Shecannotdanceorsing.Conjunction（合取关系）Studentswhodonotarriveintimeorhavenotcompletedalltheirassignmentswillberefusedadmissiontotheexam.Implication蕴涵关系IfArmhaspassedherdrivingtest,herparentshaveboughtheraPorsche・AnnhaspassedherdrivingtestandherparentshaveboughtheraPorsche・AnnhasnotpassedherdrivingtestandherparentshaveboughtheraPorsche.AnnhasnotpassedherdrivingtestandherparentshavenotboughtheraPorsche.Equivalence等同关系Marywillpasstheexamifherresultonthewrittentestissatisfactory・Marywillpasstheexamifandonly讦herresultonthewrittentestissatisfactory.6.PredicationAnalysis述谓结构分析\nawayproposedbyG.Leechtoanalyzethesentencemeaning.Inthisframework,thebasicunitiscalledpredication（述i胃结申勾）,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument（s）（述元,主冃）andpredicate（i胃词）.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Examples（1）Tomesmokes.（2）Tomissmoking.（3）Tomhasbeensmoking.（4）Tom,smoke.（5）DoesTomsmoke?\n(6)Tomedoesnotsmoke.MoreExamples(1)Isthebabysleeping?(2)Itishot.(3)Kidslikeapples.(1)BABY(SLEEP):one-placepredication(2)(BEHOT):no-placepredication(3)KID,APPLE(LIKE):two-placepredicationexercises:Define:2)sense4)hyponymy6)hyponymy1)conceptualmeaning3)reference5)proposition7)superordinate8)compositionality9)entailment10)presupposition2.whatrelationshipdotheyhavebetweeneachother?1)tree—maple2)flour™flower3)lend…borrow4)male-female5)big—small3.illustratethediffereneebetweensenseandreference・4.howisbehaviorismdifferentfrommentalisminthestudyofmeaning.1.accountforthedifferencebetweenthefollowingtwosentencesintermsofpresupposition.a)Johnadmittedthattheteamhaslost.b)Johnsaidthattheteamhaslost・2.ExplainwithexamplesthevarioustypesofantonymsinEnglish・3.Basedonthemodelofcomponentialanalysis,analyzethefollowingwords:teacher;typewriter;chopsticksteacher:[+HUMAN][+KNOWLEDGEABLE][+INSTRUCTIVE][+RESPECTABLE]typewriter:[+MACHINE][+TYPEWRITING]Chopsticks:[+PAIR][+EAT][+TOOL]举报Amyl006Amyl006当前离线积分31考元142元威望0点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册时间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4实习会员实习会员，积分31,距离下一级还需-11积分串个门加好友打招呼发消息5#发表于2010-10-416:35:47|只看该作者\n胡壮麟的语言学课件第3章ChapterThreeFocuses:1.thedefinitionofword2.classificationofwords3.typesofmorphemes4.inflectionandword-formation5.lexicalchanges1.Whatisword?1)word?aunitofexpressionthathasuniversalintuitiverecognitionbynativespeakers,whetheritisexpressedinspokenorwrittenform.aminimalfreeform:asmallestformthatcanoccurbyitselfThreesensesof"word"(1)Aphysicallydefinableunit:aclusterofsoundsegmentsorlettersbetweentwopausesorblanks,egPhonological:Orthographic:Itiswonderful.Threewordsarerecognized・However,incasualspeechorwriting,itoftenbecomes:Phonological:Orthographic:It'swonderful.Aretheytwowordsorthree?(2)bothageneraltermandaspecificterm:boy,boys:oneortwo?walk,walks,walking,walked:oneorfour?(3)Agrammaticalunit:thegrammarofaIgecontainsasetoflayers,andwordisoneofthem:sentenceclausephrasewordmorpheme2)IdentificationofwordsStability:stablelinguisticunitsinrespectoftheirinternalstructure.chairman,butnot*manchairRelativeuninterruptibility:newelementsarenottobeinsertedintoawordAminimumfreeform:thesmallestunitthatcanconstituteacompleteutteraneebyitself,eg-IsJanecomingtonight?・-Possibly・Hi.Wonderful.3)Classificationofwords(1)intermofvariability:Variablevs.InvariableWords:Variablewords(grammaticallydifferentforms):write,writes,writing,wrote,written;cat,cats.Invariablewords(noinflectiveendings):since,when,seldom,through,etc.(2)Intermsofmeaning:Grammaticalvs.LexicalWords:\nGrammatical/Functionwords(expressgrammaticalmeanings):conjunctions,prepositions,articles,pronouns.Lexical/Contentwords(havinglexicalmeaning):nouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs・(1)lntermsofmembership:Closed-classvs.Open-classWords:Closed-classwords:Newmemberscannotnormallybeadded,egpronouns,preposition®conjunctions,articles,auxiliaries・Open-classwords:Newmemberscanbeadded,egnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs・(2)Wordclass:PartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.Noun,verb,adj,adv,prep,pron,conj,inter;article,etc.Somenewtermsinwordclass:1)Particle:infinitiveto,negativenot,subordinateunitsinphrasalverbs"getby"："lookback：etc.2)Auxiliary:do,haveModalverbs:can,will,may,must,etc・3)Pro-forms(代词形式)：substitutesforotherterms・Pronoun:he,she,I,they,everyonePro-adjective:Yourcarisred.Soishis.Pro-verb:HespeaksEnglishbetterthanhedid.Pro-adverb:HehopestowinandIhopesotoo.Pro-locative(代处所词):Hewentthere.4)Determiner(限定词):allthearticles,demonstratives,andquantifiersthatappearbeforethenounanditsmodifjers.Predeterminers:all,both,half,one-third,three-quarters,double,twice,threetimesCentraldeterminers:this,that,these,those,every,each,some,any,no,neither,my,our,your,his,her;its,theirPostdeterminers:(ineludecardinalnumbers,ordinalnumerals,generalordinals)next,last,past,other,additional,many,several,few,little,alotof,whendifferentsub-classesofdeterminersoccurtogether,theyfollowtheorderofpre-determiners+central-determiners+post-determiners.Eg.alltheirtroubleallthefiveboys1.MORPHOLOGY1)Morphology:thestudyofword-formatior\ortheinternalstructureofwords,ortherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Inflectionalmorphology:themanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes.InflectionNominalforms:boys,boy'sVerbforms:wants,wanted,wantingAdjective/adverbforms:smaller,smallestDerivationalmorphology:theprocessofwordvariationsignalinglexicalrelationships,compound:twoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform.derivation:addanaffixtoanaffixtoanalreadyexistingformtocreateaword.CompoundTwoormorefreerootscombinetomakeanewword・\nNouncompounds:daybreak,playboy,haircut,windmillVerbcompounds:brainstorm,lipread,babysitAdjectivecompounds:gray-haired,insect・eating,dutyfreePrepositioncompounds:into,throughoutEndocentric&exocentricEndocentric:oneelementservesasthehead,therelationshipof"akindof";egself-control:akindofcontrolarmchair:akindofchairExocentric:thereisnohead,sonotarelationshipof"akindofsomething：egscarecrow:notakindofcrowbreakneck:notakindofneckWrittenformsofcompoundsSolid:blackboard,teapot,bodyguardHyphenated:wedding・ring,wave-lengthOpen:coffeetable,washingmachineFreevariation:businessman,business-man,businessmanwinebottle,wine-bottle,winebottlenoone,no-one,nooneDerivationClass-changing:N>V:lengthen,hospitalize,discardN>A:friendly,delightful,speechlessV>N:worker,employee,inhabitantV>A:acceptable,adorableA>N:rapidness,rapidityA>V:deafen,sweetenAdj>Adv:exactly,quicklyClass-preserving:N>N:nonsmoker,ex-wife,bookletV>V:disobey,unfastenA>A:grayish,irrelevant1)Morpheme语素ThesmallestmeaningfulunitofIanguage,aunitthatcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.e.g.un・accept-able;days;jumpedAllomorph语素变体：thedifferentvariantsofamorphemearecalledallomorphs・e.g.thepluralmorpheme"・s〃：dogs;pests;houses[Z][iz]Typesofmorphemes(1)Freevs.Boundmorphemes:Freemorphemes:occuralone,constitutewordsbythemselves,\neg.boy,girl,table,nation.Boundmorphemes:cannotoccuralone,appearwithatleastanothermorpheme,eg-s,dis-,un-.root,affixandstemroot:thebaseformofawordthatcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity,egfriendasinunfriendliness・Rootsmaybefree:canstandbythemselves,eg.nation+-al;bound:cannotstandbythemselves,eg.-ceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive.Affix:thetypeofmorphemethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme,prefix(dis-,un・)andsuffix(-en,-ify).Stem:amorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixmaybeadded,eg.friend+-s;write+-ing,possibility+-es.(2)inflectional&derivativemorpheme(bound)IM:providefurthergrammaticalinformationabouttheexistinglexicalitem・e.g.worked;bigger;DM:createanentirelynewword.e.g.antislavery1)LexicalchangeFormationofnewwordsPhonologicalchangeMorphosyntacticchangeSemanticchangeOrthographicchangeFormationofnewwords★Invention/CoinageMostlybrandnames:Kodak,Coke,nylon,Xerox,Lycra★Blendingtransfer+resistor>transistorsmoke+fog>smogmotorist+hotel>motelbreakfast+lunch>brunchmodulator+demodulator>modemdance+exercise>dancerciseadvertisement+editorial>advertorialeducation+entertainment>edutainmentinformation+commercial>infomercial★Abbreviations(Clipping)Back-clippings:adfvertisement),lab(oratory),piano(forte),Fore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(tele)phone,(earth)quake・Fore-and-aftclippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).\n★AcronymAIDS,Aids:AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromeASAP:assoonaspossibleCD-ROM:compactdiscread-onlymemorydink(y):doubleincome,nokidsWASP:whiteAnglo-SaxonprotestantAl:artificialintelligeneea.s.a.p.:assoonaspossibleECU:EuropeanCurrencyUnitHIV:humanimmunodeficiencyvirusPC:personalcomputerPS:postscriptRSVP:repondezs'ilvousplait("pleasereply'inFrench)★Back-formation逆构词法AnunusuallyabnormaltypeofwordformationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimaginedaffixfromaIongerformalreadyintheIanguage・e.g.television■一>televiseeditor-editpeddler・peddle★Analogicalcreation类推造字Fromirregulartoregular:work:wrought>workedbeseech:besought>beseechedslay:slew>slayed?★Borrowing借词法French:public,art,college,music,poet,prose,story,studyLatin:admit,dient,conviction,custody,Greek:acme(顶点),bathos(突降法),catastrophe,SpanishandPortuguese:tank,tobacco,tomato,vanillaItalian:bandit,broccoli,piano,pizzaDutch:apartheid,booze,boss,brandy,Hebrew:amen,babelArabic:admiral,zeroIndian:bungalow,verandaChinese:chopsuey(绘菜)，chow(吃儿chowmein(炒面)/ginseng(人参),ketchup(orcatchuporcatsup番茄需)'kungfu,tea,tofu(viaJapanese),typhoonTypesofborrowingwordsLoanwords:借词aupair(以做家务来换取食宿的人),encore(再来一个),sputnik(人造卫星)Loanblend混合借词coconut:coco(Spanish)+nut(English)Loanshift转移借词(meaningisborrowed,theformisnative)bridge:meaningasacardgameborrowedfromItalianponte\nLoantranslation,orcaique(equivalenttranslation)freeverse<Lverselibreblackhumor<Frhumournoirfoundobject<FrobjettrouvePhonologicalchange:changeinsoundleadingtochangeinmeaningLossofsound:lossofsoundinfastspeech,eglibrary,laboratoryAdditionofsound:English:rascal>rapscallionMetathesis换位：changingthesequeneeofsoundbrid>bird,ox/ax>askAssimilation:impossible,immovableirregular,irresponsibleillogical,illegalMorphosyntacticchangeMorphologicalchange:thirdpersonsingularpresenttense:・(e)th:do(e)th,goeth,hath,findeth>-(e)s:does,goes,has,findsthecampusoftheuniversity>theuniversity'scampusSyntacticchange:Hesawyounot.>Hedidn'tseeyou.Fusion/blending:equallygood+justasgood>equallyasgoodSemanticchangeBroadening:holiday:holyday(religion)>dayforrestbird:youngbird>anykindtask:tax>workNarrowing:meat:food>girl:youngperson>youngwomandeer:beast>aspecialkindofanimalMeaningshift:bead:prayer>theprayerbead>small,ball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwoodClassshift:conversiontootherwordclassesengineer:persontrainedinengineering>toactasanengineer（N>V）Folketymology（俗词源）:achangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheonginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinflueneeofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous・e.g.history>herstoryManhattan:manwithhatonMBA:marriedbutavailable\nPhD:perhapshavedivorcedgolf:GentlemenOnly;LadiesForbiddenOrthographicchangeChangeofspelling:lesus>Jesussate>satSunne>Sun4）Lexicongeneralsense:vocabularytechnicalsense:analysisandcreationofwords,idiomsandcollocationsLexeme（词位，词素）：thesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofaIanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersmallerunits;anabstractunitandmayoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittentextse.g.thelexemespeak:speak,speaks,speaking,spoke,spokenFeaturesofEnglishlexicon:borrowconstantlyfromotherIges;arapidexpansionofknowledgeandtechpeoplealwaysdesirefororiginality;thenumofverbaltabooshasbeengrowing;socialchangesisconstantlytakingplaceIdioms:Semanticunity:meaningcannotbepredictedbyaddingupthemeaningofconstituentwords・dosbbrownStructuralstability:cannotalterorsubstituteitscomponentwordsofonesownwillProverbs:intheformofsentence,succinetinIgeandpregnantinmeaning.Anarmytravelsonitsbelly.兵马未动，粮草先行.Fishbeginstostinkatthehead.鱼要腐烂头先臭.（上梁不正下梁歪）.Exercises:1.define:1)morpheme2)inflectionalmorphemes3)boundmorphems4)morphology5)inflection6)stem2.Labelthemorphologicalcategoryofthemorphemeunderlinedineachofthefollowingexpressions:1)I'vebeenthere.2)transform3)oxen4)recur3.Illustratethedifferencebetweenrootandstem・\n1.WhatarethemethodsfortheadditionofnewwordsintheEnglishlanguage?Explainthevariousword-formationprocessesandgiveanexampleforeachprocess・2.Whatarethethreesemanticchangesinhistoricallinguistics?Giveexamplestoshowyourpoint.5.1)broadening:aprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsoriginallyspec讦icsensetoarelativelygeneralone.holiday:holydayinreligion…adayforrest1)narrowing:theoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense・meat:food-—theediblefleshofanimals2)meaningshift:thedepartureofawordfromitsoriginaldomainasaresultofitsmetaphoricalusage.bead:prayer™theprayerbead™smallball-shapedpieceofglass,metalorwood4.1)compounding:addonebasetoanother;orjointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleone1)derivation:grammaticalorlexicalinformationisaddedtothebase2)conversion:awordisalteredfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofanymorpheme3)abbreviation:alongwordisshortenedbyclippingeitherthefrontorthebackpartofit4)back-formation:ashorterwordisderivedbydelectinganimaginedaffixfromaIongerformalreadypresentintheIanguage5)blending:tworootsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstrootandthefinalpartofthesecondroot,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetworoots.6)borrow!ng:举报Amyl006Amyl006当前离线积分31考元142元威望0点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册吋间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4实习会员实习会员，积分31,距离下一级还需-11积分串个门加好友打招呼发消息6#发表于2010-10-416:36:41|只看该作者胡壮麟的语言学课件第7章Chapter7Language,CultureandSocietyFocuses：TherelationbetweenIanguageandmind:Sapir-WhorfhypothesisLanguagevariationIanguageplanning1.LanguageandCulture1)Culture:\nthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andIanguage・localorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms.EugeneNida:5sub-culture1)ecologicalc2)linguisticc3)religiousc4)materialc5)socialc1)TherelationshipbetweenL&CListhecarrierofc,anditisanessentialpartofagivencandtheinflueneeofconagivenIisintrinsicandindispensable.CfindsabetterrepresentationthroughIuse.Lispartofcassociallyacquiredknowledge・Ldoesreflectthecofasociety,butonlyincertainaspects,espinitshierarchyofvocabularyanditsdiscoursepatterns・AImayboastanabundanceoftermsincertaindomains,whichmayindicatethefocusofc.changesincresultinnewtypesofdiscourse・Thepopularityofcertaintypesofdiscoursemayreflectculturalconcerns.SomeculturaldifferencesinIanguageuseGreetingsandtermsofaddressThanksandcomphmentsColorwordsPrivacyandtaboosRoundingoffnumbersWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphorCulture-loadedwords烫手的山芋vs.hotpotato雨后春笋vs.springlikemushroom大鱼大肉、鱼肉百姓、酒肉朋友meatandpotatoes,meatanddrinktosomeonekillthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggs"vs."杀鸡取卵”Coldwordsvs.冷言冷语Constantdroppingwearsthestone.滴水穿石Diamondcutdiamond.棋逢对手Killamanwhenheisdown.落井下石2009年中国主流报纸十大流行语六十大庆国进民退气候打黑甲流3G被钓鱼\n潜伏偷菜2008年中国主流报纸十大流行语北京奥运金融危机志愿者汶川大地震神七改革开放30年三聚氧胺降息扩大内需粮食安全2007年中国主流报纸十大流行语十七大嫦娥一号民生香港回归十周年CPI（居民消费价格指数）上涨廉租房奥运火炬手基民中tl关系全球气候变化。2006年中国主流报纸十大流行语和谐社会社会主义新农村青藏铁路自主创新社会主义荣辱观(八荣八耻)中非合作论坛长征精神消费税非物质文化遗产倒扁2005年屮国主流报纸十大流行语保持共产党员先进性教育“十一五”规划神舟六号(神六)节约型社会和平发展一篮子货币\n油价上涨同一个世界同一个梦想连宋大陆行取消农业税Interculturalorcross-culturalcommunication:communicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent・)Incross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesign讦icantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspectivessuchasIanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthatcancausefrustrationsincommunicationsandcontacts・Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:OurIgewillmouldourviewoftheworld・Culturaloverlap:theidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchas"Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?"CulturaldiffusionThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenonisknownasculturaldiffusion.Onetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords・Thepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercultures.Theattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)Twopoints:1)linguisticdeterminism:Lgemaydetermineourthinkingpatterns2)linguisticrelativity:similaritybetweenIgeisrelative.fortwodifferentspeechcommunities,thegreatertheirstructuraldifferentiationis,themorediversetheirconceptualizationoftheworldwillbe.Twoversions:astrongone:emphasizethedecisiveroleofIastheshaperofourthinkingpatterns.aweakone:thereisacorrelationbetweenl,candthought,butthecross-culturaldifferencesthusproducedinourwaysofthinkingarerelative,ratherthancategorical.3)cultureinIanguageteaching：threeobjectivestoteachcinIteaching:TogettheSsfamiliarwithculturaldifferencesTohelptheSstranscendtheirowncandseethingsasthemembersofthetargetcwillToemphasizetheinseparabilityofunderstandingIgeandunderstandingcthroughvariousclassroompracticesLinguisticevideneeofculturaldifferences:TermsofaddressGreetingsThanksandcomplimentsPrivacyandtaboosColorwords\nCulturaloverlapanddiffusionThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomespartofcultureB.LoanwordsinJapanese,Chinese,English・肥皂剧、卡通、布丁、苹果派、雀巢、巴士、排挡、耐克、因特网、KTV、EMAILTyphoon,gongfu,etc.1.LanguageandSociety1)TherelationshipbetweenLanguageandsocietyLisamirrorofsociety,throughwhichwecanunderstandsocialactivitiesofacertainsocietybetter.Lisbothascientificsystemandasocialactivity.Itisthemajorbondofpeople'scommunicationinsociety.TheselectionofIisrestrictedbystructuralrulesandinvolvessomesociallyinstitutionalizednormsinusage.Inthissense,thechoiceofoneformoveranotherisbothstylisticallyandsociallygoverned.ThereforesomesocialfactorsarebelievedtoinflueneeourIbehaviorinasocialcontext・Somemajorfactors:class;gender;age;ethnicidentity;educationbackground;occupation;religiousbelief2)Sociolinguisticsthesub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenIgeandsociety,betweentheusesofIgeandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersofIgelive.Micro-studies:Tolookatsocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit,oraworm's-eyeviewofLinuse・Macro-studies:TolookatsocietyasawholeandconsiderhowLfunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferentiation®abird'seyeviewoftheIgeusedinsociety.Languagevarieties(语言变体)Igechangesalongsocialchanges,fromregiontoregion,fromonesocialgrouptoanother,fromindividualtoindividual.Theproductsofsuchchanges:IvarietiesDialectRegisterLinguafrancaPidginsandcreolesDialect:AvarietyofIgeusedrecognizablyinaspecificregionorbyaspecificclass.Regionaldialects:varietiesofaIgespokeninageographicalarea,suchas:BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish・Socialdialect(sociolect):thelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.distinguishedbygender,age,ethnicgroup,religion,classLanguageandGender♦Comparedwithmen,womentendtousesuchadverbs：horridly,abominably,immensely,excessively,amazingly,so,most,etc.Theoveruseofthesewordsimplythattheusersaresentimental,shallowandnotobjectiveenough.\ne.g・Oh!MydearMr.Bennet，wehavehadamostexcellentball・...Janewassoadmired・Everybodysaidhowwellshelooked・Mr.Bingleythoughtherquitebeautiful,…Iwassovexedtoseehimstandupwithher.…Iamquitedelightedwithhim.Heissoexcessivelyhandsome!"PrideandPrejudice"W:Youalwaysleaveyourpapersaboutdear!H:Really?Didn'tIputtheminplaceyesterday?Inasense,theoveruseofthewordsofabsolutenessorextremitymaycausechangesinthemeaningofawordatleastintheeyeofaman.*Womenhavetheirownvocabularyforemphasizingcertaineffects:females:sogood,suchfun,exquisite,lovely,divine,precious,adorable,darling,fantastic・neutral:great,terrific,cool,neat*Asidefromspecificlexicalitems,therearedifferencesbetweenthespeechofwomenandthatofmenintheuseofparticlesthatgrammariansoftendescribeas“meaningless"・Male:Shit,damn,darnit,thehellFemale:Ohdear,dearme,goodnessme,mygoodness,*Womenusemoretagquestions・*Womenusemorestatementquestionswitharisingintonationattheend.*Women'slinguisticbehaviorismoreindirectandmorepolite・Theupperclass:America,cakeThelowerclass:theStates,pastryTemporaldialects:varietiesofIgeusedataparticularstagesinitshistoricaldevelopment.e.g.classicalChinesemodernChineseIdiolects:varietiesofIgeusedbyindividualspeakers,withparticularitiesofpronunciation,grammar,andvocabulary.e.g・Shakespeare'sIgeLunxurfsIgeRegisterfiu域)Lvariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations・(Igevariesaccordingtouse)Registersdifferinvocabulary,phonology,grammar,andsemantics・e.g.pickled,high,drunkentoxicated(theleastformal…themostformal)Registersmayalsovaryalongcertaindimensions.E.g.intimate,distant;formal,informal;serious,jocularHalliday:registersdeterminedby3factors:Thefieldofdiscourse:whatishappening,whatistalkingabout.E.g.Thefieldsofreligion,linguistics,advertisingThemodeofdiscourse:themediumofIgeactivitywhichdeterminestheIgeroleinasituation.\nE.g.SpeechandwritingThetenorofdiscourse(话语体式)：therelationsamongtheparticipantsinaIgeactivity.E.g.colloquial,formalAlectureonlinguisticsinaschoolofforeignIgescanbeanalyzedas:Field:linguisticsMode:oarl(academiclecturing)Tenor:participantsDegreeofformality—Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Frozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.Linguafrancas(通用语)AlinguafrancaisavarietyofIgethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.Forthisreason,alinguafrancamustbeanagree-uponcommontongueusedbypeoplethrowninsocialcontactforvariouspurposes.Broadlyspeaking,linguafrancaisanyotherIgeusedasatradeorcommunicationmedium・ThestandardChineseIgeinChinaisalinguafranca.Englishisalsoalinguafrancausedforinternationalcommunicativepurposes・Pidgin(洋泾浜语)：Definition:aspecialIgevarietythatmixesorblendsIgesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentIgsforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Pidgin:notanativeIanguageofanyone.learnedinformallyincontact・usedesp・astradeIanguage・involvesthemixtureoftwoormoreLs.Eg.NigerianPidginEnglish;VietnamesePidginFrench;NewGuineaPidginGerman,etc・上海话中的洋泾浜英语"蹩脚”（BILGE,船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）“大兴”（DASHY,浮华的，华而不实的，引申为假的、冒牌的、劣质的）"肮三"（ONSALE,二手货贱卖，引申为垃圾货、形容人的品质低劣）“瘪三”（BEGSIR,乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一："赤佬"是英语"CHEAT"（欺骗）和中文"佬"的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）；Creole（克里奥尔语）：Definition:WhenapidginhasbecometheprimaryIgeofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativeIge・Features:thestructureoftheoriginalpidginisexpanded,thevocabularyvastlyenriched,newsyntactic-semanticconceptsdeveloped・E.g.aFrench-basedcreoleisspokenbythemajorityofthepopulationofHaiti.English-based\ncreolesareusedinJamaica・LanguagechangeCausesofIchangeLexicalchangeSoundchangeSyntacticchangeCausesofIchange:historicalcausesocialcausepragmaticandpsychologicalcausescientificandtechnologicaldevelopmentpoliticalcausetheincreaseofinternationalcontactHistorically,Englishhasbeenchangingthroughoutitshistory.EnglandwasconqueredbytheFrench-speakingNormansin1066.FormanyyearsaftertheNormanConquest,Frenchwasusedforwritingmostimportsntdocuments,andEnglishwascomparativelylittleusedforwriting.BeforetheNormanConquest,theWestSaxondialectusedbyKingAlfredhadachievedaprominentpositioninEngland,andthisWestCountryvarietywasincreasinglyregardedasthestandardformtobeusedinwritingEnglish.AftertheConquest,however,nosinglevarietyofEnglishpossessedanyparticularprestige,andconsequentlyeverywriterofEnglishwasinclinedtousehisorherownlocalvarietyandtospellitinwhatevermannerheorsheliked・Thus,variouskindsofwordswentintoEnglish,suchascrown,country,duke,court,judge,jury,crime,battle,arms,soldiers,siege.socialcause:Lgechangemayresultfromthechangefromonesocialgrouptoanotherortheinteractionofonesocialgroupwithothergroups・socialcentersandprestigegroupschangeconstantly,asdemonstratedbymigrationpatterns,whetherfromruralareastocities,frominnercitiestosuburbs,orfromcitytocity.Thegreatestchangecanbefoundinthelowermiddleclass,andlower-middle-classteenagersinparticular.Becauselower-middle-classspeakers,especiallyteenagerswhoarejustbeginningtoentertheeconomicsystem,feelthatalinguisticfeaturesuchasr・fulnessinAmericanEnglishisamarkerofsocialacceptability,theycultivateitsomuchthatinself-consciousspeechtheyactuallyuseitmorethantheclasstheyaremodelingthemselveson.Speakersalmostalwaysthinktheyspeakamoreprestigiousandconsistentvariety.Lgechangemayresultfromtheconstantpragmaticandpsychologicalneedtousedifferentrhetoricdevicestofacilitatecommunication.TheavoidanceofparticularwordsforsocialreasonsseemstooccurinallIgsandeuphemismsariseintheirplace.Admittedly,Englisheuphemismsplayaneffective,orsometimesacrucialroleineasingoffawkwardsituationsorelevatingembarrassingatmosphere・Theuseofeuphemismsislargelymotivatedbypeople'sconsiderationofpoliteness.Conditionedbystandardsofsocialmorality,almostallIgescontain,atleast,afewwordsorphrasesthatareincludedinthelistoftaboos・suchasdeath,diseaseandphysiologyarenotsupposedtobetouchedexplicitly.E.g.die:passaway,departone'slife,paythedebtofnature,giveupthespirit,jointhemajority,kickthebucket・elderlypeople:seniorcitizens.thepoor:theunderprivileged,sanitaryengineer:garbagecollector.\nScientificandtechnologicaldevelopment:Newtechnicaltermskeepcomingintopeople'sdailylife.E.g,advaneeinscieneeandtechnology:telegram,telephone,lumberjack,cybernetics,bionics,sociolinguistics・spaceexplorationandaviation:satellite,launchingpad,cosmonaut,spacesuit,etc・politicalcause:ThespecialpoliticallifeoftheUShasproducedsomewordsuniqueonlytotheAmericans,suchasassemblyman,Senate,Congress,senator,congressman,runningmate,lynch.Furthermore,politicalmovementsoffeminismandpoliticalcorrectionhavebroughtaboutnewwordsandexpressions.Somepeopleprefertheuseofchairpersoninsteadofchairman.Theincreaseofinternationalcontact:CommunicationwithspeakersofotherIgescouldleadtolgechange.Duringthesixteenthcentury,EnglishborrowedmanywordsfromFrenchandItalianbecauseEnglishmenwereincontactwithspeakersoftheseIges.InKoreanwefindmanywordsborrowedfromChineseandJapanesebutfewbeforethiscenturyfromEuropeanIges.RussianhasborrowingsfromMongol,butnonefromtheAmericanIndianIges・LexicalChange:ThereisaconstantchangeinthevocabularyoftheIanguage・Newwordsmaybeadded.Somewordsmaybecomeobsolete.Andanewdimensioninmeaningmaybeattachedtoanexistingword・Allthisisachievedmostlyinthefollowingprocesses-BorrowingCreationofNewWordsSh讦tsinMeaningSoundChange:Thetendencytowardgreatereaseofarticulationismostoftenheldresponsible・Infact,wordssuchastableandface,whichhadatthetimeofborrowing,underwentasoundchangeinEnglishduringthefifteenthcentury・Thevowelwasraisedandfrontedto[ei]・Alongwithnativename,gate,bake,wefindfaceandtablegoingthroughthesamechangeinpronunciation.Changein"agreement"ruleChangeinnegationruleProcessofsimplificationLossofinflectionsSyntacticalchange:SomedifferencesbetweenthesenteneestructuresinOldEnglishandthoseinModernEnglishinvolvewordorder.Perhaps,themostevidentchangeintheformofEnglishsentenceswasthelossofalargenumberofinflectionalaffixesfrommanypartsofspeech.Itinvolvestheloss,theadditionandthemodificationofrules・LanguagepolicyandIanguageplanningLanguagePolicy:whatagovernmentdoeseitherofficiallythroughlegislation,courtdecisionsorpolicytodeterminehowIgesareused,cultivateIgeskillsneededtomeetnationalprioritiesortoestablishtherightsofindividualsorgroupstouseandmaintainles・Languageplanning:adeliberateefforttoinflueneethefunction,structure,oracquisitionofaIgeorIgevarietywithinaspeechcommunity.Itisalsousedbyavarietyofnon-governmentalorganizations,suchasgrass-rootsorganizationsandevenindividuals.Standardlanguage:asuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofaIge.Usedbythegovernrnent,thejudiciarysystem,themassmedia,andineducationalinstitutions.E.g.Chinesemandarin\nNationalIanguage:thefullsetofallregional,social,andfunctionalvariantsofahistoricallyandpoliticallydefinedlinguisticcommunity.Itisconsideredasanationalidentity・Officiallanguage:usedinofficialsituationsinnationoraninstitution.ChoosingacodeDiglossiaBilingualismmultilingualismDiglossia(双言制):thesituationwhereinsomespeechcommunitiestwoverydifferentvarietiesofthesameIgeareusedsidebyside,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay,thetwoarestandardizedtosomedegree・Themorestandardone:High-varietyTheotherone:Low-varietySwitzerland:HighGermanasthestandard(public,official)SwissGermanasthevernacular(informal,daily)E.g・inArabic-speakingcountries・Thehighvariety:usedinlectures,religiousspeechesandformalpoliticaltalks.Thelowvariety:usedinlocaldialectofcolloquialArabic・Bilingualism(双语制):thesituationwhereinsomespeechcommunitiestwoIgesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay,andIgeswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.e.g.Quebec:EnglishandFrenchWelsh:WelshandEnglishCode-Switching:BilingualsoftenswitchbetweentheirtwoIgsinthemiddleofaconversation."Hi,你好呀！Thismorning,我们对你的case进行了discuss,我们发现,这对我们没什么benefito所以我们不得不遗憾地告诉你:与这件事相关的所有Project都将被cancel掉。”"事实证明，Download已经不吃香了，Portal也正在逐渐没落。ISP与ICP都没有什么很Power的招数了。MyGod,我们的前途究竟在哪里?Pageview^Impression,我们真正缺乏的是如何让访问者Onceagain的内容与形式。”“我是beast……那你呢……”“我比你少一个A,……所以我是Best。”辛楣吃晚饭回来，……问鸿渐道：“你在英国到过牛津、剑桥没有？他们的tutorialsystem是怎么一回事？”这种同情比笑骂还难受，鸿渐咬牙來个中西合璧的咒骂：“ToHell滚你妈的蛋!”什么年代吹着什么样的风我拿我的麦克风唱出oldschoolshowyallreadytoroll70的年代复古我最highdiscofever从来不肯saygoodbye歌曲：快乐崇拜歌手：潘玮柏vs张韶涵为顺应社会规约交际者通过语码转换可以避免社会性的尴尬\n（Twofliesarecopulatinginfrontofaboyandhismother）Child:Doyouknowwhatthesetwofliesaredoing?Mother:No.C:IlsfontL'amour[法语意为"Theyaremakinglove".]M:Ok,Ok.C:Youknow,ifl'dsaidthisinArabic,youwouldhavelefttheroomimmediately.（三位研允生在他们坐火车去国内某地开会的途中）A去澳大利亚都看了些什么？B啊看到的东西太多了，比如美丽的城市，清净的乡村，对了，黄金海岸的沙滩和海水太美了！C有没有去看Stripper?BFranklyspeaking,yes.Itwasreallyadifferentexperienee.Andtheperformershaveexcellentfigures.Oh,amazing...交际者可以利用语码转换实现趋吉避讳、创造幽默、标志身份等种种心理动机（C请Y替她去监考）C:星期天你要不要监考？Y:监考？监什么考？C:自学考试。我星期天上午正好有课，所以想请你帮个忙。Y:Sorry,Icanpthelpyou,becauseIhaveanappointment.C:That,sOKoY:那你再问问其他专业的研究生，看怎么样。C:好吧，谢谢你！方便功能Eg.辛楣吃晚饭回来，……问鸿渐道：“你在英国到过牛津、剑桥没有？他们的tutorialsystem是怎么一回事？”引用功能Eg.今天是作文的日子，孙小姐进课堂就瞧见黑板上写着：“BeatdownMissS.MissS.isJapaneseenemy!”强调功能Eg.……哲学家碰见问题，第一步研究问题：这成不成问题，不成问题的是假问题Pseudoquestion,不用解决，也不可解决。冋避功能Eg.柔嘉不耐烦道：“没有结！要穿，你自己去买。我没见过像你这样nasty的人！……”社会地位标志功能Eg.鸿渐拿了几件，看都是“成化”、“宣德”、“康熙”,也不识真假，只好说：“这东西很值钱罢?”“Sure!值不少钱呢,Plentyofdough□并且这东西不比书画。买书画买了假的,一文不值,只等于wastepaper。瓷器假的，至少可以盛菜盛饭。我有时请外国friends吃饭，就用那个康熙窑油底蓝五彩大盘做Saladdish,他们都觉得古香古色，菜的味道也有点old-time。”汉语规范受到英语和方言的冲击趋洋的非常心态•你中午call我，一齐去食lunch,点啊？•你个computer如果肯贴上写少money,换一个mon就搞扌店。\n•请每天早上6点半给我一个morningcalk•做秀、派对、克力架、芝士Multilingualism:asituationwherethreeormoreIgsareusedbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakerssuchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.Suchas:Singapore,Israel,Malaysia,India,Nigera,etc.Linguistictaboosandeuphemismstaboo:wordsoractivitiesthatareconsideredinappropriateforz/politesocietyw.euphemism:awordorphrasethatreplacesataboowordorisusedtoavoidreferencetocertainactsorsubjects.举报Amyl006Amyl006当前离线积分31考元142元威望0点精华0帖子28阅读权限5注册时间2009-10-1最后登录2010-10-4实习会员实习会员，积分31,距离下一级还需-11积分串个门加好友打招呼发消息7#发表于2010-10-416:37:38|只看该作者胡壮麟的语言学课件第9章Chapter9DiscourseanalysisFocuses:1.discourse2.cohesion3.coherenee4.schema1.DiscourseNumerousapproachestostudyIge,twodistinetperspectives:IgeassystemandIgeasactivity・Igeassystem:trytodescribethewholeofit,whichismadeupofthreelayers(sub-systems):meaning(thesemanticsystem),wording(thesyntacticalsystemandthemorphologicalsystem)andsounding(thephonologicalsystem).Igeasactivity:studyingthewayIgeisusedforreal-lifecommunicationandsocialinteraction(e.g.chatting,lecturing,writinganemail).Theyobservethatthereisaninteractionbetweenactivityandsystem.1)weneedtodrawonourknowledgeofIgeasasystemtocommunicate;2)weareconstantlypickingupnewstuff,whichweaddtoourstoreofthatknowledge.Lgeasactivityinsocialinteractionistechnicallytermeddiscourse.ItisageneraltermforexamplesofIgeuse,i.e.Igewhichhasbeenproducedastheresultofanactofcommunication.ItreferstothelargerunitsofIgesuchasparagraphs,conversations,andinterviews.\nThelinguisticform(orrecord)ofdiscourseiscalledtext.Thesametextmayfunctionasdifferentdiscoursesindifferentsituations.E.g."whataniceday"onasunnyspringdayandsayingsoonabitterlycoldwinterdayaredifferentdiscourses,yettheyhavethesametext・Discourseis:IgeabovethesentenceorabovetheclauseacontinuousstretchofspokenIgelargerthanasentence,oftenconstitutingacoherentunitastretchofIgeperceivedtobemeaningfulunified,andpurposive;Igeinuse(viewed)associalpracticedeterminedbysocialstructuresStructuralortextualdefinitionofdiscourse:Discourseisaparticularunitoflanguage(abovethesentence).Functionaldefinitionofdiscourse:Discourseisaparticularfocusoflanguageuse.StructuralapproachtodiscourseFindtheconstituentsthathaveparticularrelationshipswitheachotherandthatcanoccurinarestrictednumberofarrangements;Problems:unitsinwhichpeoplespeakdonotalwayslooklikesentences,orgrammaticallycorrectsentences・Example1:Jackistallandkindanddon'thardlysayanything.Lovechildren.Respecthiswife,Odessa,andallOdessaAmazonsisters(Celie'sDiary)(----"TheColourPurple",AliceWharton)Example2:Colourlessgreenideassleepfuriously(Chomsky);Solvingtheproblem:adoptLyons'sdistinctionbetweensystem-sentencesandtext一sentences・SSarewell-formedabstracttheoreticalsentencesgeneratedaccordingtotheexistinggrammarrules;TSarecontext-dependentutterancesorpartsofutteranceswhichoccurineverydaylife.Thediscourseanalysiswillbeconcernedwithtext-sentences・FunctionalapproachtodiscourseRomanJakobson:Igeperformssixfunctions:Addressor(emotive);Context(referential)Addressee(conative);Contact(phatic);Message(poetic);Code(metalinguistic)-Utterancesmayhavemultiplefunctions;Themajorconcern:discourseanalysiscanturnoutintoamoregeneralandbroaderanalysisofIgefunctions.Oritwillfailtomakeaspecialplacefortheanalysisofrelationshipsbetweenutterances・2•DiscourseanalysisDAandpragmaticssharetheinterestinIgeuse,yettheyhavedifferentconcerns.Pragmaticsstudies"intendedspeakermeaning".A:Ihaveafourteen・year・oldson.B:Well,that'sallright.A:Ialsohaveadog・B:Oh,Kmsorry.\nPragmaticswouldtellusthatbothAandBareperformingindirectspeechacts:Amakesarequest,whichBaccepts;thenAmakesanotherrequest,whichBdeclines・Althoughtheconversationlooksdisconnectedatfirstsight,wecanmakeperfectsenseofitbyimaginingafamiliardialogbetweenawould-betenantandalandlord・Ifwechangetheconversationintothis:A:Ihaveafourteen-year-oldson.B:Niceday,isn'tit?A:Ialsohaveadog・B:Kmfine.Howeverhardyoutry,youprobablycannotbutgiveupandsay,"thisdoesn'tmakeanysense"・Inotherwords,thefirstconversationiscoherentwhilethesecondoneisnot.Thequestionis,howdoyouknowthis?Obviously,pragmaticscannothelpyouhere・Nowlet'sconsiderwrittenIanguage・SLOWCHILDRENATPLAYYouprobablyneednottakemuchtroubletofigureoutthatthissignismeanttocautioncardriverstoslowdownsoasnottoendangerchildrenatplay・However,itisnotaltogetherimpossibletosee"slow"asamochfierof"children；meaning"mentallyretarded".Butyouwillprobablydismissthisinterpretationasirrelevantevenifitcomestoyourmind.Why?Soourquestionmaybeformulatedlikethis:whenyoulistentoorparticipateinaconversation,orwhenyoureadsthwritten(beitaroadsign,astory,aletter,orapieceofnews,)howdoyou"makesenseof“whatyouhearorread,i.e.howdoyoutellcoherentdiscoursefromdisjointedgibberish(舌L语)?toanswerquestionslikethis—athrivingbranchoflinguistics:discourseanalysis・Intechnicalterms,discourseanalysisisthestudyofhowsentencesinspokenorwrittenIgeformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.Itdealswith:howthechoiceofarticles,pronouns,andtensesaffectsthestructureofthediscourse;therelationshipbetweenutterancesinadiscourse用ndthemoves(话步)madebyspeakerstointroduceanewtopic,changethetopic,orassertahigherrolerelationshiptotheotherparticipants3.CohesionandCoherenceIntextlinguistics,atextisacommunicativeact,whichcanbeeitherspokenorwritten.Itisbelievedthattherearecertainstandardsbywhichwetelltextsfromnon-texts・Sometextlinguistsproposethatthereareasmanyasseven"constitutiveprinciplesoftextuality"andthree"'regulativeprinciples"whichatextmustfulfill,cohesionandcoherence3.1Cohesion衔接Fromthechapteronsyntaxwelearnthatcomponentsthatmakeupasentencemustbeconnectedaccordingtosyntacticalrules.Similarly,therearecertainrulesthatgovernthewaysentencesareconnectedinatext・Theserulesarestudiedintermsofcohesion.Cohesion：thegrammaticaland/orlexicalrelationshipsbetweenthedifferentelementsofatext・Thismaybetherelationshipbetweendifferentsentencesorbetweenpartsofasentence.Cohesionconcernsthesurfacestructureofatext.Itcanbedefinedasthenetworkoflexical,grammatical\nandotherrelationsthatlinkvariouspartsofatext・Fivecohesivedevices:ReferenceSubstitutionEllipsisConjunctionLexicalcohesionReferenee“reference”insemantics：therelationshipbetweenawordandwhatitpointstointherealworld・Inourdiscussionofcohesion,thatsortofrefereneeiscalled“presentedreferenee给出的指称(i.e.itintroducessthnewtothetext),asdistinctfromupresumedreference"假定指称(i.e.mentionedinsuchawaythatweneedtoretrievetheiridentityfromsomewhereelseinthetext).Ihaveadaughter.(Daughterisapresentedrefereneeitem,asthereaderdosenotneedtohaveanypreciousknowledgeaboutwhatIhave.)Sheisverynice.(Sheisapresumedrefereneeitem,asthereaderneedstoretrievetheidentityofshetofollowthetext.)Onlypresumedrefereneecreatescohesioninatext,asitcreatestiesbetweenthepresumedreferenceitemanditsreferent.Thecommonestpresumedrefereneeitemsare:Thedefinitearticlethe;Demonstrativepronounsthis,that,these,those;Pronounshe,she,they,it,etc・Substitutionthereplacementofoneitemwithanother.Itisoftenusedtoavoidrepetition.—Doyoulikeplayingtheguitar?―Ido.SubstitutioncanbeNominal,e.g・one,ones,thesame・ThiswatchdoesrVtwork・Goandfetchmeanotherone.Kmgoingtokeepthoseboxes・TheonesIwanttogetridofareinthegarage・Johnresignedandstartedhisowncompany.I'ddothesameifIhadthechanee.Verbal,e.g.do,doesClausal,e.g.so,notA:Willitbeafinedaytomorrow?B:Ithinkso.Ellipsisaspecialformofsubstitution(substitutionbyzero).Somethingisleftunsaid,yetitisreadilyunderstood・nominalellipsis:Takeoneofthesetickets・Istillhavesevenleft・verbalellipsis:Johnboughtsomechocolates,andJoansomebiscuits.A:AreyouwatchingTV?B:Yes,Iam.clausalellipsis:\nA:Whyareyouleaving?B:Becauseit'slate・Conjunctionthelogicalrelationsbetweenpartsofthetext.Itisoftenrealizedintheformofconjunctiveitems.Itcanexpressfourtypesoflogicalrelation:Additive添力U(and,or;also,furthermore,inaddition,besides,likewise,similarly,incidentally,bytheway,bycontrast,forinstance,inotherwords,etc.)Adversative相反(but,yet,however,though,instead,ontheotherhand,nevertheless,atanyrate,asamatteroffact,rather,etc.)Causal因果(so,consequently,hence,itfollows,for;because,thatbeingso,underthecircumstances,forthisreason,etc.)Temporals时IKI(then,next,previously,finally,atlast,afteramoment,etc.)LexicalcohesionLexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselect!onoflexicalitems・Agivenlexicalitemcannotbesaidtohavecohesivefunctionperse,butitmayenterintoacohesiverelationwithotherlexicalitemsinatext.twotypes:reiterationandcollocation.Reiteration重现：repetitionoflexicalitems.Areiterateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuper-ordinate,orageneralword.Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn'ttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimself讦hedoesn〃ttakecare・(synonym)Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesrfttakecare.(super-ordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesn'ttakecare・(generalword)collocation：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexedthefatmanofBombayThereisastrongcollocationbondbetween"smoking"and"pipe".Similarly,讦youreadtheword"mouse"intext,youwillnotbesurprisedtocomeacrosssuchwordsas"cheese："tail"and"rodent〃nearbyinthetext・3.2CohereneeInterestinglyenough，theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat"makesense〃.Considerthefollowingpassage:IboughtaFord・AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElyseeswasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed・Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat・Catshavefourlegs・Thecatisonthemat・Mathasthreeletters・Thepassageappearstobestrewnwithcohesiveties(e.g・Ford-car,black,Black,mycat-cats),yetprobablynoonewouldcallitacoherenttext.Fromthisexampleweseethattheremustbeother\nfactorsthancohesionthatenableustojudgeifastretchofaIanguagemakessense・Thesefactorsarestudiedintermsofcoherenee.Coherenee:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeople'sabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperieneeortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofageisinlinewithsomeexperieneeortheir"commonsense；itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext・Whenyoureadtheconversationcitedatthebeginningofthischapter,forexample,youwillfindyourselftryingtoimagineasituationthatwouldfullyaccommodateit.INotherwords,youtrytofillinthe"gaps"intextsbydrawingonyourexperieneeorencyclopedicknowledge・Cohereneeissthunderlyingthetext-・semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequenee.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcohereneeintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage・GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge・Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge・Heisnowalawyer.Theabseneeoftheconjunctions"and"inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcohereneeatall.Weknowfromourexperieneethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw・Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherenee,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible・4TheschematheoryAsmentionedabove,werelyonourreallifeknowledgetointerpretdiscourses・Buthowdoweapplysuchknowledgetotheperceptionofcoherenee?Somelinguistshaveproposedtheschemetheoryasananswer.Aschemaisamentairepresentationoftypicalinstancesofdiscourse.Youmayimagineittobeavideofilestoredinyourbrain.uaskingtheway":yousayhellotoastranger,askhimorherthewaytosomeplace,gettheanswerandsaythankyou.Therearenumerousvideofileslikethis,ornumerousschemata,jnyourbrain,whichareactivatedwhenyouencounterdiscourses.Thoughwemaynotbeawareofit,theexistenceofschemataisagreathelpinourunderstandingoftexts・所谓图式是指围绕某一个主题组织起来的知识的表征和贮存方式。人的-生要学习和掌握大量的知识,这些知识并不是杂乱无章地贮存在人的大脑中的，而是围绕某一主题相互联系起来形成一定的知识单元，这种单元就是图式。比如，我们见到某种动物的图片，就能很快想起它的名称、性情、生活习性等很多有关该动物的知识。这说明该动物的外观特征是与它的名称、性情、生活习性等有关知识是联系在一起贮存在人的大脑中的。所以说，图式实际上是一种关于知识的认知模式。图式理论研究的就是知识是怎样表征出来的，以及关于这种对于知识的表征如何以其特有的方式有利于知识的应用的理论。Considerthefollowinginstructionsfromabottleofcoughsyrup:Fillmeasurecuptoline・Repeatevery2to3.Ofcourseyoudonothavetokeepfillingthemeasurecupeverytwotothreehours・Nordoyouhavetorubthesyrupinyourhaireverytwotothreehours・Youknowyouaresupposedtodrinkitbecauseyouhaveaschemaofsuchinstructionsonmedicinebottles.Schematamayalsohelptoclearupambiguity・Forexample,ifweencounterthesentence\nTheycaughtmanysolesthatday.Weknowthatsoleherereferstoakindoffish,ratherthanapartofthefoot/shoe,becausetheword"caught"activatestheschemaoffishermencatchingfish.However;schematamayalsobeabarriertounderstandingwhentheyhavebecomestereotyped.Considerthefollowingquizitem:Awomaniswalkingonthebeach,butshehasleftnofootprintsbehindher.Why?Ifyoufailtofigureoutthatthewomaniswalkingbackward(orcomeupwithsuchspookyanswersas"she'saghost")，youprobablyhaveaschemainwhichonecanonlywalkforward!Whenthingslikethishappen,themindwilladjusttheoldschemaorcreateanewschemasoastoadapttothenewexperienee.5.Informationstructure:themeandrhemeConsiderthefollowingexcerptfromatext:TheGreenwoodBoysareagroupofpopularsingers.Atpresent,theyarevisitingallpartsofthecountry.Theywillbearrivingheretomorrow・Ofcoursetheshortpassagereadssmoothandnatural.Nowsupposewechangeitintothis:TheGreenwoodBoysareagroupofpopularsingers・Allpartsofthecountrytheyarevisitingatpresent・Tomorrow,heretheywillbearriving.Thesentencesremaingrammatical,yetthepassagereadssomewhatawkward,doesrVtit?Doesthathavesomethingtodowithwordorderinsentences?itisoftentakenforgrantedthatEnglishhasafixedwordorder.Takethedeclarativesentenceforexample・itsstructureas"SVOA〃・…Subject+Verb+Object+Adverbial.However,thiskernelsentencestructuremaybealteredtobringelementstothefrontofthesentence(thismovementiscalled"fronting"）.So,apartfromMichaelwroteaverygoodnovellastyear,wecancreateAverygoodnovelMichaelwrotelastyear.LastyearMichaelwroteaverygoodnovel.WhatMichaelwrotelastyearwasaverygoodnovel.Michael,hewroteaverygoodnovellastyear.Butwhywouldweliketochangethebasicstructureofasentence?Toanswerquestionlikethis,weneedtotakeafunctionalapproachtoEnglishgrammar.Inthispart,weshalldiscusstwoofthemostimportanttermsinfunctionalgrammar:themeandrheme.1）Clause,themeandrhemeThemeandrhemeareusuallydiscussedatthelevelofclause・Aclauseisagrammaticalunitthatcontainsasubjectandapredicate.Itmaybeasentenceorpartofasentence.E.g.theclausesheisveryyoungcaneitherstandaloneasasimplesentenceorbepartofacomplexsentence--一Althoughsheisveryyoung,shespeaksthreeIanguages.Asshownbytheaboveexampleofthevariationsofasentence,awriterorspeakercandecidewheretostarttheclause.Thebeginningofeachclauseisitstheme主位.Itisthestarting・pointforthemessage.Therestoftheclausetellsthereaderorhearersomethingaboutthetheme・That"restoftheclause"iscalledrheme述位.Thethemeistheframeworkorpointofdepartureofamessage.Therhemeiswhatisspeakerorwriterwantstoconveyaboutthetheme・InEnglishthethemeismarkedinintonationasaseparatetoneunit,frequentlyfollowedbyabriefpause・Italwaysoccursintheinitialpositionoftheclause・Themeandrhemearealsodiscussed\nintermsofgivenandnewinformation:usually,themeisgiveninformation,whilerhemeisnewinformation.InEnglish,whatisnewtendstoappearattheendofaclause・Thefollowingsentenceshavedifferentthemes:Kmwritinghandoutsformystudents・Formystudents,Kmwritinghandouts・HandoutsKmwritingformystudents.2）Typesofthemethreetypesoftheme:Textualtheme（discoursemarksandconjunctions话语标记和连词），egHoweveoshewouldnotlistentome.Now,thatissomethinginteresting.Interpersonaltheme（vocative呼语），e.g.Dad,lookatthatcat!Interpersonaltheme（finiteverb,modaladjunct情态动i司，wh-theme,etc.）,e.g•Canyousolvethismathematicalproblem?DidyouwatchthenewHollywoodmovie?Whosedeskisthis?Ideationaltheme（subject,complement,etc.）,e.g.TomSawyeristheheroofanovelbyMarkTwain.Overthebridgeflewtheplane.Morethanoneofthesetypesofthememayoccurinthesamesentence,formingwhatiscalledmultiplethemes.Whenmultiplethemesoccur,theyusuallyfollowthesameorder:textual+interpersonal+ideational.Whilethetextualandinterpersonalthemesmaybeabsent,theideationalthemeisalwayspresent.Infact,thedemarcationlinebetweenthemeandrhemealwaysfallattheendoftheideationaltheme・主位可以根据本身结构的复杂程度分成“单项主位”(simpletheme).“复项主位”(multipletheme)和“句项主位”(clausaltheme)三种。如果主位是一个独立的整体，不可以再分成更小的功能单位，这就称为单项主位。复项主位是由多种语义成分构成的主位。它总是含有一个表示概念意义的成分，另外还可能含有表示语篇和人际意义的成分。如果这三种成分都出现在同一个主位中，它们的排列顺序通常是语篇成分先于人际成分，人际成分先于概念成分。句项主位指的是由整个小句充当主位。传统语法所说的主从复合句中的主句和从句都可以成为句项主位。主位结构与信息分布的关系语言是一种交际工具，它除能表情达意外，还传递信息。但在语言信息传递过程屮，各语言成份的信息价值是不同的，构成句子的成份虽然都是信息的载体，但荷载的信息值不同。信息结构是把语言组织成为“信息单位”(informationunit)的结构，也可以说是已知信息与新信息相互作用从而构成信息单位的结构。对于听话者来说，有些信息内容是已知的，即已知信息(Given)；有些则是未知的，即新信息(New)。这些荷载已知的、新的信息的语言单位在语言的线性排列屮不是任意的，其分布能体现不同的交际价值。在话语/语篇交际屮，人们传递信息的顺序是从已知到未知，即将新的信息内容置于句末的语调群核心，而已知信息的交际价值较小，大多放到句子的前面。句末是信息中心的中性位置。\n正由于此，人们在说话或写作中倾向于将新的或比较重要的内容放在句子的末尾。这就是人们在话语交际中遵循的“尾重原则”。“尾重原则”是对说话者和作者运用语言而言。对于交际对象即听者或读者来说，语句的末尾部分赋予听者或读者较高的注意价值。语言学家称其为“无标记焦点”(又称“末尾焦点(end・focus)”)。在话语使用中，处于句子末尾的内容往往得到一定强调或突出，或借助一定语调能唤起听或读者的某种情感，或表达说话者的某种态度，产生某种特定的效果。主位结构与信息分布具有紧密的联系，主位所载的信息往往是已知信息。但是，由于主位与已知信息、述位与新信息并没有绝对的对应关系，因而我们不能把语言成分出现的前后顺序看作研究信息分布的唯一标准。但是在实际翻译屮，很多人不注意这些问题，从而使译文与原文的信息侧重点发生了改变。以下例子中，“T”表示主位，“R”表示述位。在实际翻译屮，主位部分出现的问题。(1)原文：Giu:What'sthatawfulnoiseupstairs?Beth:Itwokemeupatfiveo'clockinthemorning.译文：吉尔：楼上是什么声音那么吵啊？贝丝：我早上五点就被吵醒了。解析：首先，对贝丝的话进行主位、述位分析：Beth:It(T)[Given]//wokemeupatfiveo'clockinthemorning(R)[New].在原文中，处于句首的是单项主位(simpletheme),即上文已经出现过的已知信息“it(noise声音)”，而述位部分是新信息。译文：贝丝：我(T)〃早上五点就被(它)［已知信息］吵醒了。在译文中，原文单项主位已知信息“它”被放到句子后面述位部分，得到了进一步的强调，这与原文的语意侧重点明显不同。因此，在翻译的时候最好根据原文把信息值最低的已知信息“it(noise声音)”放在句子主位的位置，作为话题的出发点。改译如下：改译：贝丝：早上五点就把我吵醒了。(分析：(它)仃)［已知信息］//早上五点就把我吵醒了(R)［新信息］。)(2)原文：Kevin:DoyoustillhavethosedocumentsIemailedyoufromChina?David:TheonesIneverread.Yes,Ihavethem.译文：凯文：我从中国用电子邮件寄给你的那些文件，你还留着吗？大卫：我一直没读那些。有啊，我留着呢。解析：首先，对大卫的原话进行主位、述位分析：David:Theones(T)［Given］//Ineverread(R)［New］.Yes,Ihavethem.在原文中，处于句首的是有标记性单项主位(markedsimpletheme),即上文已经出现过的已知信息atheones(thosedocuments那些文件)”,而述位中置于句尾焦点(end-focus)的是新信息“neverread(—直没读)”。译文：大卫：我(T)//一直没读那些［已知信息］。有啊，我留着呢。在译文中，“那些”被放到句尾重心的位置，被当作是新信息起到了强调作用，会让读者产生误解，以为只有没读的文件还留着，而读过的文件可能就没有留下来。［点评：分析有一定道理，原译确实在衔接上不自然，有歧义］因此，在翻译的时候，应该把原文单项主位，即信息值最低的已知信息“theones(thosedocuments那些文件)”放到主位的位置，作为话题的出发点，把新信息“一直没读”放到句尾重心来加以强调。因此，改译如下：\n改译：大卫：那些啊，我一直没读。有啊，我留着呢。(分析：大卫：那些啊［己知信息］//我一直没读［新信息］。有啊，我留着呢。)可修订为：那些文件啊，我没看过。不过，我可留着呢。(1)她三天才来看我一次，你一天就来三次译文：Youcometoseemethreetimesaday,butsheonlycomesonceeverythreedays解析：首先，对原文进行分析：她三天才來看我一次仃)，//你一天就来三次(R)o本句所含的信息有两个，所强调的应该是后面“你一天就来三次”，含有责怪你来的太多，而不是她来太少。译文：Youcometoseemethreetimesaday(T),//butsheonlycomesonceeverythreedays(R).而译文正好相反，把原文的主、述位正好弄反了，强调了她。众所周知，英文里转折词BUT后面才是新信息，是作者所要表达的真正意图。改译：Shecomestoseemeonlyeverythreedays,butyoudothreetimesaday.(分析：Shecomestoseemeonlyeverythreedays(T)zbutyoudothreetimesaday(R).)在实际翻译中，述位部分出现的问题。原文：B：Yoga,developedbytheancientsagesofIndia,isasystemofpersonaldevelopmentencompassingbody,mindandspiritthatdatesbackmorethan5000years・A：“瑜伽”从印度演化而来，那这个词是不是有特殊的含义呢？译文:A：Doestheword"Yoga"itselfcarryacertainspecialmeaning,withitsevolutionfromIndia?解析：首先，根据上下文，对原文进行分析：A：“瑜伽”从印度演化而来[已知信息],那这个词是不是有特殊的含义呢[新信息]?在原文中，根据上下文可以看出：瑜伽'从印度演化而来”是已知信息，其信息价值较低，因此不应该被放在句尾重心部分；而新信息是“是不是有特殊的含义”，其信息价值最高，通常情况下翻译后应该被放在句尾重心加以强调。译文：A：Doestheword"Yoga"itselfcarryacertainspecialmeaning[New],withitsevolutionfromIndia[Given]?在译文中，在译文中，主位和原文主位相一致。但述位部分出现了差异：瑜伽’从印度演化而來(withitsevolutionfromIndia)"被放到述位中末尾焦点的位置，当作是新信息起到了强调作用；相比之下，真正应该得到强调的新信息“是不是有特殊的含义(carryacertainspecialmeaning)"却放到了已知信息的前面。原文和译文的侧重点存在明显差异。因此，在翻译的时候，应该把信息值最低的已知信息“'瑜伽'从印度演化而来”提前，把新信息“是不是有特殊的含义”放到句尾重心来加以强调。因此，改译如下：改译：A：Doestheword"Yoga"withitsevolutionfromIndia[Given]carryacertainspecialmeaning[New]?修订为:Doestheword"Yoga",withitsevolutionfromIndia,carryacertainspecialmeaning[New]?原文：下刘姥姥听见这般咅乐，且又有了酒，越发喜的手舞足蹈起来。译文：Nowthemusic,ontopofthewine,setGrannyLiuwavingherarmsandbeatingtimewithherfeetforcheerdelight・解析：原文里刘姥姥是话题，“越发喜的手舞足蹈起来”是描述她髙兴的情形，属于新信息，给大家一种视图，脑海里内视她高兴的情形。有动态在里面。译文：Nowthemusic,ontopofthewine(T),//setGrannyLiu[Given]wavingherarmsandbeatingtimewithherfeetforcheerdelight(R).\n而译文里music成了话题，GrannyLiu成了间接宾语，没有了动态的感觉在内。改译：GrannyLiu,listeningtothebeautifulmusic,drinkingthedeliciouswine,delights[G?]towaveherarmsandbeattimewithherfeet.(分析：GrannyLiu,listeningtothebeaut讦ulmusic,drinkingthedeliciouswine(T),//delightstowaveherarmsandbeattimewithherfeet(R).)Anotherimportantdistinotionisthatbetween"unmarked"and"marked"ideationalthemes・Unmarkedideationalthemesare:subjectinadeclarative;finiteverbplussubjectinayes/noquestion;wh-elementinawh-question;lexicalverb(togetherwithyouorlet'sifpresent)inanimperative.Sometimesotherconstituentsare"promoted"tothethemeposition,formingmarkedideationalthemes・Themostcommontypeofmarkedideationalthemeistheadjunct(adverboradverbialclauseorsentencetomodifythemeaningoftheverb).Forinstanee:Unmarkedthemesindeclarativesentences(ideationaltheme=subject):No,Ithinkitisprettyeasy.Markedthemesindeclarativesentences(ideationalthemeHsubject)Andwhenyougetdownthereyoufindhehasn'tactuallygotany.Insidehimwasrisinganurgetodosomething,takesomeaction.Unmarkedthemesinyes/noquestions,wh-questionsandimperatives:Wouldyoulikeacupoftea?Butdon'tyouseeit'simpossibletogetthereintime?Nowthatyou'vedoneyourhomework,whynotgooutandplaywithyourfriends?Lookatthatfunnyman!Letmehavealook.6ConversationAnalysisConversationanalysis(CA)isanImportantbranchofdiscourseanalysis.Itistheanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylife.Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewheretospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.Ofinterestaresuchissuesasturns,adjacencypairsandpreferredsecondparts.1)Turn-taking话轮Itistypicalforpeoplewhoengageinconversationtotaketurnsatspeaking.Usuallyonlyonepersonspeaksatatime;whenmorethanonepersonwantstotalkatthesame,oneofthemusuallystopsuntiltheotherperson(s)has/havefinished.Thustheturnisconsideredthebasicunitofconversation.Eachturnhasacompletionpoint,alsoknowasthetransitionrelevaneeplace,atwhichtherighttospeakmayberelayedtothenextspeaker.Thenextspeakermayeitherbeselectedbythepreviousspeakerorself-selected.Self-selectionmayoccurwhenthecurrentspeakerchoosestocontinuetospeakatthetransitionrelevaneeplace.Speakersmayindicatethattheirturnsare"complete"invariousways・Theymaypauseattheendofacompletephraseorsentenceorusecertainwordsorphrases,sayatagquestion,toencourageotherparticipantstotakepartintheconversation.Otherparticipantsmayindicatethattheywanttotakethespeakingturn,alsoinanumberofways・Theycanmakerepeatedshortsounds,orusebodyIanguageandfacialexpressions.Sometimestheymaysimplycutin,causingoverlappingoftheirturnsandtheturnofthecurrent\nspeaker;forexample,A:Didn'tyou(knowwh-B:(Buthemust'vebeentherebytwoA:Yes,butyouknewwherehewasgoing.(Thesymbol/z(“indicatessimultaneoustalk.)1)Adjacencypairs相邻语对asequeneeoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers・Thesecondutteraneeisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.Forexample,question-answecgreeting-greeting,offer-acceptanee,apology-minimization,complaint・apology,accusatiorvdenial.Anadjacencypairisapairofconversationalturnsbytwodifferentspeakerssuchthattheproduct!onofthefirstturn(calledafirst-pairpart)makesaresponse(asecond-pairpart)ofaparticularkindrelevant・Forexample,aquestion,suchas"what'syourname?",requirestheaddresseetoprovideananswerinthenextconversationalturn・Afailuretogiveanimmediateresponseisnoticeableandaccountable・Manyactionsinconversationareaccomplishedthroughadjacencypairsequences,forexample:offer-acceptance/rejectiongreeting-greetingcomplaint-excuse/remedyrequest-acceptance/denialSometimes,anadjacencypairmaybeembeddedintoanotheradjacencypair,likethis,Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucan't.Inthisexample,thefatherdelayshisanswertohisson'squestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.Giventhelimitofhumanmemory,thenumberofembeddedpairscannotbeinfinite.Threeorfourembeddedpairsmaybecommon.e.gA:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?B:Whatfor?A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend・B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Well...uh...50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.I'llberightback.2)Preferredsecondparts优先结构Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts・Forinstance,aquestionmaynotbefollowedbyadirectanswer,butbyanotherquestion,apartialanswer,astatementofignorance,oradenialoftherelevaneeofthequestion.Aninvitationmayeitherbefollowedbyacceptsneeorrefusal.However,somesecondpartsarepreferredandsomearedispreferred・3)Pre-sequence前序列Certainspeechactsperformedinconversation,suchasinvitation,requestandannouncement,areusuallyprecededbywhatiscalledpre-sequences.Pre-sequeneereferstothespecificturnthathasthefunctionofprefiguringthecomingaction.Thefollowingisapre-invitaion:\nA:Areyoufreetonight?B:Yeah,why?A:Comeovertomybirthdayparty.Bshowsthatheknowsitisapre-invitationbyasking"why".Thenextexampleisapre-request:A:Doyouhavesomehotchocolate?B:Mhm・A:CanIhavehotchocolatewithwhippedcream?B:Sure.Alsocommonarepre-announcements,forexample,A:Iforgottotellyouthetwobestthingsthathappenedtometoday・B:Yeah?Whatwerethey?A:IgotaB+onmymathtest...andIgotanathleticaward.