英语语言学教程课后整理 11页

Whatislinguistics?Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.----Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.Prescriptive&Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)Prescriptive----Ifalinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)Descriptive----Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Synchronic&Diachronic共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)Langue&Parole(F.deSaussure)语言对话语Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.Competence&Performance(Chomsky)语言能力对语言运用（定义）Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofthislanguagePerformance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Traditionalgrammar&Modernlinguistics传统语法对现代语言学（区别）Traditionalgrammar----prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkModernlinguistics-----descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframeworkThedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)Arbitrariness（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联Productivity/Creativity（能产性）Duality（双层性）Displacement（移位性）Culturaltransmission（文化传承）Phonetics语音学(定义和分类)Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguage.Threebranchesofphonetics（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）Articulatoryphonetics----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.Classificationofvowels（元音）Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels（单元音）Diphthongsorglidingvowels（双元音）Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:\n。Phone(音素),phoneme（音位）,andallophone（音位变体）（区分判断）Aphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,andsomedon’t。Aphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontextAllophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）,Complementarydistribution（互补分布）andMinimalpair（最小对立体）.vComplementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].(课上强调)Theclear[l]alwaysoccursbeforeavowelwhilethedark[l]alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword.Sotheallophones(音位变体)aresaidtobeinComplementarydistribution.Somerulesinphonology（音位学）Sequentialrules(序列)Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Assimilationrule(同化)Assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilarDeletionrule(省略)ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented。E.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.Suprasegmentalfeatures（超切分特征）----thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):判断题（具体书上看）Syllable：音节stress（重音）tone（低音）intonation（语调）Chapter3Morphology(形态学)Morphologytorefertothepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure.Openclasswordandclosedclassword(开放词类和封闭词类)Openclasswords----contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs.Closedclasswords----grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.\n（数次，感叹词半开放半封闭词类）Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning（词素—最小的意义单位）FreeandBoundmorphemes(自由词素和粘附词素)Freemorpheme—awordbyitself(独立自由运用)Boundmorpheme---attachedtoanotherone（必须依附于自由词素，否则不能构成词）Allomorphs（词素变体）---thevariantformsofamorpheme.e.g.aboy,anhourWordstructureRoot(词根)constitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentofitsmeaning.Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”…Stem(词干)Astemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“Undesirable”inundesirablesBase词基Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.vAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;vAbaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;vRoot,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;vUndesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;vDesirableinundesirableisonlyabase.Compound（复合词）vWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…vWhenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…vCompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…vThemeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Chapter4Syntax（句法）Whatissyntax?Syntax----abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Majorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det(determiner限定词),Deg（degreewords表程度的词）,Qual（qualifier频度副词）,Aux（Auxilarity助动词）,Conj（conjunction连词）.Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined：Meaning、InflectionDistribution（Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.）Phrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead（中心语）----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier（标志语）----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement（补语）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsTheXPrule（词组层面上）\nX’TheoryXPà(Specifier)X’X’àX(complement)Doinsertion（DO的插入）Doinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInfl（屈折变化）position.\nDeepstructure&surfacestructure（深层结构和表层结构的定义和区分）Deepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.Chapter5Semantics（语义学）Semantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.Whatismeaning?----ScholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaningSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningvNamingtheory(Plato)唯名论vTheconceptualistview概念论vContextualism(Bloomfield)语境论vBehaviorism行为论Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.（P63）OgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);\nThereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.Contextualism(Bloomfield)语境论Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Behaviorism行为论Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.ThestoryofJackandJill:Lexicalmeaning(词汇意义)Senseandreference（意义和指称）arebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.MajorsenserelationsvSynonymy同义现象v Antonymy反义现象vPolysemy多义现象vHomonymy同行异义vHyponymy下义关系Synonymy同义现象Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,e.g.amaze,astound,…thedifferencebetweenPolysemyandHomonymy（一词多义与同行意义的区别）\nPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaningHomonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshasthesameformvHomophone（同音异义）----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…vHomogragh（同形异义）----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…vCompletehomonym（完全同形异义）----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…Hyponomy（上下异义）--thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate（上座标词moregeneral）Hyponyms（下义词morespecific）Antonyms(反义现象)Gradableantonyms（级别反义词）-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…Complementaryantonyms（互补反义词）----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…Relationalopposites（关系反义词）----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-belowSenserelationsbetweensentences（句子之间的意义关系）v(1)  XissynonymouswithY（XY同义）X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.（IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.）v(2)  XisinconsistentwithY（XY对立）X:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.（IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue）v(3)  XentailsY（X包含Y）X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.（IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.）v(4)  XpresupposesY（X预设Y，Y是X的先决条件）X:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.（IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.）v(5)  Xisacontradiction（X是一个矛盾）Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.v(6)  Xissemanticallyanomalous（X语意破格）Themanispregnant.\nAnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysis(成分分析法)Predicationanalysis(述谓分析法)Componentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,vMan:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]vBoy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]vWoman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]vGirl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Predicationanalysis(1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords(2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning(3)Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.Anargument（变元）isalogicalparticipantinapredicationlargelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicate（谓词）issomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Chapter6Pragmatics（语用学）thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunicationPragmaticsvs.semantics（语用学和语义学的区别）Semantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),.e.g“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandthe\nintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…Context（语境）-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.….Twotypesofutterances（话语）（会判断）Constatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.（知道定义，会判断）Thelocutionaryact（言内行为）anactofsayingsomethingi.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Theillocutionaryact（言外行为）anactperformedinsayingsomething:InsayingX,IwasdoingY(Theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact（言后行为）anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)（舍尔对言语行为的分类）选择题vAssertives/representatives(陈述)vDirectives(指令)vCommissives(承诺)vExpressives(表达)vDeclarations(宣布)Principleofconversation(PaulGrice)（会话原则）Cooperativeprinciple(CP合作原则)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.FourmaximsofCPThemaximofquality（数量原则）----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity（质量原则）----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired\nforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation（关系原则）----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner（方式原则）----Avoidobscurityofexpression.----Avoidambiguity.----Bebrief.----Beorderly.Chapter7Languagechange（语言变化）SoundchangesMorphologicalandsyntacticchangesVocabularychangesChapter8Languageandsociety（语言与社会）Whatarethevarietiesoflanguage?什么是语言的变体Thevarietiesoflanguagearetheactualmanifestationsofthegeneralnotionofthelanguageandtheyareassumedtoberelatedbothtothelanguageusersandtotheusetowhichlanguageisput.Varietiesrelatedtotheuserareknownasdialectsandvarietiesrelatestouseasregisters.Register(语域)inarestrictedsense（狭义）,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoone’soccupation.Inabroadersense（广义）,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Hallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourseFieldofdiscourse（语场）:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Tenorofdiscourse（语旨）:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)Modeofdiscourse（语式）:themeansofcommunicationItisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline…)PidginandCreole（皮钦语和克里奥尔语）Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.\nWhenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.Chapter9LanguageandcultureWhatisculture？（广义狭义）Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Sapir-WhorfhypothesisEdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.Strongversion&weakversionvStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;vWeakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.----ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:vThereisnowadaysrecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.vMorethaninWhorf’sdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.