语言学教案Chapter 4 Syntax 9页

Chapter4SyntaxQUESTION:Whatis“syntax”?Syn-(together)+-tax(toarrange)arrangementSYNTAX:thestudyoftherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences4.1ThetraditionalapproachBasicassumptions:(1)Sentence:asequenceofwords(2)Studyofsentenceformation(syntax)studyofwordscategories:partsofspeech,functions(e.g.subject,object),propertiesofunits(e.g.noun:categoriesofnumber,gender,case;verb:categoriesoftense,aspect,voice)Representative:Bloomfield4.1.1Number,genderandcaseNUMBER:singular,plural,dual(classicalGreek,Arabic),trial(Fijian)GENDERlBiologicalgenderE.g.actor&actress;hero&heroinelGrammaticalgenderE.g.unacteur&unefemmeacteur;lebureau&latableCASEEnglishpronouns:threecasesofnominative(e.g.he),accusative(e.g.him)andgenitive(e.g.his)Englishnouns:twocasesofgeneral(e.g.John)andgenitive(e.g.John’s)NOTE:nominative,accusative,dativeandablativelNominativecaselAccusativecaseE.g.Inominativesawhimaccusative.lDativecaseE.g.Igaveabooktohimdative.lAblativecaseE.g.Heopenedthedoorwithakeyablative.4.1.2TenseandaspectC.f.Tense&aspectlTense:auniversalconcept;relativetothetimeofutterance(deictic)lAspect:alinguisticconcept;irrelativetothetimeofutterance(notdeictic),butrelativetothetimeofanothereventdescribedTense:past(√morphology),present(√morphology),future(Xmorphology)Futuretense:will/shall+infinitive,begoingto+infinitive,presentprogressiveaspectE.g.Theprofessorwillarriveatteno’clock.PERSPECTIVE(完成体):completionofanaction,e.g.Hereadabook.IMPERFECTIVE(未完成体):durationwithoutcompletion,e.g.Hewasreadinga\nbook.TENSEInEnglish4.1.3ConcordandgovernmentCONCORD(一致关系)/AGREEMENT(协同关系)E.g.determinerandthenounitprecedes,e.g.theseguys;afewquestionsGOVERNMENTE.g.Shegavehimabook.governorgoverned4.2ThestructuralapproachBASICASSUMPTION:linguisticunitsareinterrelatedwitheachotherinastructure(orsystem),notisolatedbits.Representatives:Saussure,Americanstructuralists4.2.1SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSIGNIFIED(所指):conceptSIGNIFIER(能指):soundimageSyntagmaticE.g.a.Theboykickedtheball.b.*Boytheballkickedthe.c.*Theballkickedtheboy.Paradigmatic/AssociativeE.g.The__________issmiling.NOTE:Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsareapplicableateveryleveloflinguisticanalysis.STRUCTURESYSTEMSyntagmaticrelation/horizontalrelation/chainrelationParadigmaticrelation/verticalrelation/choicerelation4.2.2ImmediateconstituentanalysisC.f.Linearstructure&hierarchicalstructureTherelationbetweenasentenceanditscomponentelementsisgenerallyknownasarelationbetweenaCONSTRUCTION(结构体)anditsCONSTITUENTS(成分).E.g.Theboykickedtheball.(1)Howtodoit?IMMEDIATECONSTITUENTSIMMEDIATECONSTITUENTANALYSISNotationE.g.(a)((Poor)(John))((ran)(away))(b)PoorJohnranaway\nQuestion:howtomakethecuts?Criterion:substitutabilityC.f.traditionalanalysis&ICanalysis(2)ItsadvantagesTorealtheinternalstructureofasentence,andsomepossibleambiguitiesofastructureTwo-wayambiguity(a)Leavethebookontheshelf(b)LeavethebookontheshelfThree-wayambiguity(a)mysmallchild’scot(b)mysmallchild’scot(c)mysmallchild’scotAlabeledtreediagram(a)(Ishereally)thatkind?DetNNP(b)(Ishereally)thatkind?AdvAdjAPIsJohncoming?\n(3)Itsproblems1)Notallthesentencescouldbetreatedasthebinarydivisions.2)Howtointerpretthediscontinuousconstituents?3)HowtointerpretstructuralambiguitiesbyICanalysis?4.2.3EndocentricandexocentricconstructionsENDOCENTRICCONSTRUCTIONE.g.nounphrases(NP),e.g.thethreesmallchildren;verbphrases(VP),e.g.willleaveSUBORDINATECONSTRUCTIONCOORDINATECONSTRUCTIONE.g.boysandgirlsEXOCENTRICCONTRUCTIONE.g.ontheshelfQUESTION:Isverb+object(e.g.readthebook)exocentricorendocentric?Howaboutthegerund(e.g.readingthebook)?4.3Thegenerativeapproach4.3.1DeepandsurfacestructuresDEEPSTRUCTURESURFACESTRUCTUREChomsky,N.1957,Syntacticstructure[M].TheHague:Mouton.PhrasestructurerulesSNP+VPVPV+NPNPDet+NDetthe,a,etc.Nman,ball,etc.Vhit,took,etc.SNPVPDetNVNPthemanhitDetNaballTheTRANSFORMATIONALcomponent,hastransformationalrules,whichchangethedeepstructuresgeneratedbythephrasestructurecomponentintosurfacestructures.E.g.PassivetransformationalruleNP1+Aux+V+NP2John+will+finish+thepaper(tomorrow)NP2+Aux+be+en+V+by+NP1thepaper+will+be+en+finish+by+John(tomorrow)DativeMovementNP1+V+NP2+to+NP3NP1+V+NP3+NP2\nJohn+gave+abook+to+MaryJohn+gave+Mary+abookThemorpho-phonemiccomponentisresponsibleforthecorrectspellingandpronunciationofthewordsinthesurfacestructure.will,be,en,finish“AffixHopping”Atransformationalrule:finish:enedandpronouncedas/t/copy:enedandpronouncedas/d/write:enenTheloveofGodTheloveofGodisasurfacestructurewithtwodeepstructures:Godlovessomebody.andSomebodylovesGod.Thedeepstructuresundergotransformationslikenominalization,object-deletion,andsubject-deletion.4.3.2ThestandardtheoryandafterImprovement:Asemanticcomponentisadded,whichservestodescribetheidealspeaker-hearer’sknowledgeofhislanguage.categoriesBASEcomponentSyntacticcomponentlexicontransformationalcomponentSemanticcomponentPhonologicalcomponentCategoriescontainrewritingrules,similartophrasestructurerulesinthefirstmodel.C.f.categories&phrasestructurerulesPhrasestructurerules:therulesinsertwordsdirectly.E.g.Nman,ball,etc.Categories:rulesinsertfeaturespecificationforthewords.E.g.N[+N,+Common,-Count,+Abstract]V[+V,+----NP,+----thatS’]Lexicon:thefeaturesofeachwordarespecified(i)N[+N,±Common](ii)[+Common][±Count](iii)[+Count][±Animate](iv)[-Common][±Animate](v)[+Animate][±Human](vi)[-Count][±Abstract]sincerity[+N,+Common,-Count,+Abstract][+N,+Abstract]elapse[+V,+----#]eat[+V,+----NP,+----#]grow[+V,+----#,+----Adjective]believe[+V,+----NP,+----thatS’]ProblemsofthestandardtheoryTheprinciplethattransformationdoesnotchangemeaningdoesn’tholdwiththe\npassivetransformation.Ex.IhavebeentaughtphysicsbyEinstein.Einsteinhastaughtmephysics.Surfacestructurealsohassomebearingonsemanticinterpretation.Improvement:theextendedtheoryFurtherImprovementTRACETheory(语迹理论)TRACE:afterthemovementofanelementtherewillbeatraceleftintheoriginalposition.E.g.Beaversbuiltdams.Damsarebuilttbybeavers.SignificanceofTraceTheoryE.g.(a)Who1saidMarykissedhim1?(b)*Who1didhe1sayMarykissed?Apronounwillnotbeboundbyitsantecedent,i.e.nottobecoreferentialwiththelatter,inthelowestNPorS,butmaybecoreferentialwithitinalargerstructure.(c)who1[st1saidMarykissedhim1](d)*who1[she1saidMarykissedt1](e)John1saidMarykissedhim1.(f)*He1saidMarykissedJohn1.4.3.3Government,binding,etc.Chomsky,N.1981.LecturesonGovernmentandBinding[M].Dordrecht:Foris.Agrammarincludes:lexicontwosystemsarulesystemsyntax(categoricalcomponent&transformationalcomponent)phoneticformcomponentlogicalformcomponentboundingtheorygovernmenttheoryaprinciplesystemθ-theorybindingtheorycasetheorycontroltheoryNOTE1:lexiconisnotpartofsyntax,butstillpartoftheebasecomponent.NOTE2:Chomskyhasgivenupthetermsof“deepstructure”and“surfacestructure”for“D-structure”and“S-structure”inthattheremaybedifferentlevelsofdeepstructureandsurfacestructureandD-structureandS-structureareonlytwoofthem.Moveα:anyelementmaybemovedtoanotherplace,ormoregenerallychangedinsomeway,aslongastherelevantconditions(i.e.principles)aresatisfied.GOVERNMENTInthegenerativeapproach:morerigorouslyandcoverswiderareaofrelations,not\njustovertheformofwords.E.g.speakthelanguageSpeakgovernsthelanguageVPVNPDetNspeakthelanguageCONSTITUENTCOMMAND/C-COMMAND(C统制):αc-commandsβifαdoesnotdominateβandeveryγthatdominatesαalsodominatesβ.γαβC-command:therelationbetweenanelementandanotherofthesamelevelandunderthesamenodeinatreediagram,andanyothersunderthelatterelementaswell.ABCDEFHowtobeagovernor?1)αmustc-commandβ.2)αmustbeahead.QUESTION:DotheexocentricconstructionslikeprepositionalphrasesandEnglishbasicsentenceshaveanyhead?Howaboutverb+objectconstructions?E.g.ontheshelf3)αmustberelatedtoβdirectly.Question:Doesspeakinspeakaboutthelanguagegovernthelanguage?WHYdoweproposethenotionGOVERNMENT?BindingTheoryA.Ananaphorisboundinitsgoverningcategory.B.Apronominalisfreeinitsgoverningcategory.c.Anr-expressionisfree.ANAPHOR“Tobebound”Governingcategory(管辖语域)/Localdomain(局部语域)/Bindingdomain(约束语域)Apronominalreferstopronounsotherthanreflexivesandreciprocals.R-expression:alltheotherreferentialr-expressionsexceptanaphorsandpronominals.E.g.(a)John1likeshimself1.(b)They1hiteachother1.\n(c)John1doesn’tlikeBill’s2criticismofhimself2.(d)John1likeshim2.(e)Bill1saysJohn2likeshim1.(f)Bill1saysJohn2likestheman3.ProblemOne:Ananaphormaycoincidewithapronominal.E.g.(a)John1pulledtheblankettowardshimself1.(b)John1pulledtheblankettowardshim1.ProblemTwo:theanaphorisboundoutsidethegoverningcategory.E.g.(a)John1thoughtthatMary2knewthatpaperhadbeenwrittenbyAnn3andhimself1.(b)John1thoughtthatMary2knewthatpaperhadbeenwrittenbyAnn3andhim1.SOLUTIONSusumuKuno(1987):anaphoricreferenceisnotsimplyamatterofreference,italsoinvolvesthepointofviewtakenbythespeaker:whetherhetakesthelogophoricity(主人公视角)ornot.IFhedoes,ananaphorwouldbeused,otherwiseapronominalwouldbechosen.QUESTION:ChinesepuzzleE.g.(a)小张1暗暗埋怨自己1。(b)小张1越想越觉得自己1做得不对。(c)小张1说小李2知道自己1下午没空。(d)小张1认为小李2太狂妄，总是瞧不起自己1。(e)小张1认为小李2太自卑，总是瞧不起自己1。CONCLUSION:自己maybeinthemiddleofdevelopmentfromanordinarypronountoareflexive.TheMinimalistProgramKick[+V,+---NP]Cry[+V,+---]Put[+V,+---NPPP]Think[+V,----thatS’]4.4.2Systemic-functionalgrammarSystemicFirth:languageelementsformintosystems,andtheuseoflanguageinvolvesanetworkofsystemsofchoices.Note:paradigmaticrelationandsyntagmaticrelationFunctionalMalinowski:languageisasocialphenomenon,andthestudyoflanguageSystemic-FunctionalIdeationalexperiential——transitivitylogicalInterpersonal——moodTextual——themeTheme,Subject,andActorüTheme\nüSubject:afunctionofthemoodsystemFiniteverbaloperatorIndicativeDeclarativeS+FF+S(yes/nointerrogative)InterrogativeS(wh-)+F(wh-interrogative)Wh-+F+S(wh-interrogative)ImperativeüActorSixprocessesMATERIALprocessMENTALprocessRELATIONALprocessBEHAVIOURALprocessVERBALprocessEXISENTIALprocess