英语语言学重点知识 19页

语言教学设计Lecture1LanguageandLearningUnit1LanguageandLearningMainconcerns:nViewsonlanguagenViewsonlanguagelearningnWhatisagoodlanguageteacher,andhowcanonebecomesuch?1.1Howdowelearnlanguage?Task1onpp.1-2nHowmanyforeignlanguagescanyouspeak?nDidyoufindlearningaforeignlanguageeasy?nWhatdifficultiesdidyouexperience?Why?nWhichskilldidyoufindmoredifficulttolearn?nDidyoufocusonknowledgeorskills?Why?nWhydidyoulearntheforeignlanguage(s)?nDidyoufinditinterestingtolearntheforeignlanguage(s)?nWhatwereyourmostcommonlearningactivities?nDidyoulikethewayyoulearnedtheforeignlanguage(s)?ConclusionsofthetasknPeoplelearnaforeignlanguagefordifferentreasons;nPeoplelearnlanguagesindifferentways;nPeoplehavedifferentunderstandingsaboutlanguagelearning;andnPeoplehavedifferentcapabilitiesinlanguagelearning.1.2ViewsonlanguageTheanswertothequestion‘Whatislanguage?’isthebasisfor:syllabusdesign,teachingmethods,teachingprocedures,andteachingtechniques.Adefinitionoflanguageisalways,implicitlyorexplicitly,adefinitionofhumanbeingsintheworld.RaymondWilliams Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.EdwardSapirnAset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.NoamChomsky Theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.R.A.HallnDavidCrystal:Thesystematic,conventionaluseofsounds,signs,orwrittensymbolsinahumansocietyforcommunicationandself-expression.Task2(p.2)Whatislanguage?Sampledefinitionsof“language”(p.177)Language:nisasystem/setofsymbols;nis(primarily)vocal;nisarbitraryandconventional;nconsistsofasetofrules(andisrule-governed);nisrelatedtoculture;nisusedforhumancommunicationorinteraction.Itcanbedefinedinthreeways:nitisafinitesystemofsoundunitswhicharecombinedaccordingtoacertainorder(asyntax)inordertoformaninfiniteamountofinformation;itisanarbitrarysystemofsymbols;awordisarbitrarilylinkedtoanobject;itisasystemthatletsusexpresscurrenteventsaswellasrealandimaginaryonesbetheyinthepast,presentorfutureThreedifferentviewsoflanguagenThestructuralview,nThefunctionalview,nTheinteractionalviewThestructuralviewThestructuralviewseeslanguageasalinguisticsystem.Thesystemoflanguage=thesystemofsounds+thesystemofwords+thesystemofgrammarThestructuralviewSystemofLanguage3sub-systemsThestructuralviewThestructuralviewThefunctionalview(Thefunctional-notionalview)Thefunctionalviewseeslanguageasalinguisticsystemandasameansfordoingthings.Functionsoflanguagee.g.noffering,nsuggestion,nadvising,napologizing,netc.Toperformfunctions,rulesandvocabularyareneededtoexpressnotions.Notionse.g.npresenttime,pasttime,andfuturetime;ncertaintyandpossibility;nagentandinstrument;nrelationshipbetweenpeopleandobjectsTheinteractionalviewTheinteractionalviewseeslanguageasacommunicativetool19\n(tobuildupandmaintainrelationsbetweenpeople).Twothingsareneededforcommunication:nRulesoflanguageform(grammar&vocabulary)nRulesoflanguageuseinacontext(Isitappropriatetousethislanguageiteminthiscontext?)Viewsonthenatureoflanguagehaveanimpactontheteaching/learningmethodofaperson.1.3ViewsonlanguagelearningViewsonlanguagelearninginvolvetwoquestions:nWhatarethepsycholinguisticandcognitiveprocessesoflanguagelearning?nWhataretheconditionsforthelearningprocessestobeactivated?nTheProcess-orientedtheoriesandnTheCondition-orientedtheoriesTheProcess-orientedtheoriesTheProcess-orientedtheoriesconcernhowthemindprocessesnewinformation.e.g.nhabitformation,ninduction,nmakinginference,nhypothesistesting,ngeneralizationTheCondition-orientedtheoriesTheCondition-orientedtheoriesconcernthenatureofthehumanandphysicalcontextinwhichlanguagelearningtakesplace.e.g.nnumberofstudents,nwhatkindofinputlearnersreceive,nlearningatmosphereTheBehaviouristtheoryandTheCognitivetheoryTheBehaviouristtheorynWatsonanRaynor:astimulus-responsetheoryofpsychologyTheBehaviouristtheoryAccordingtothetheory:Formsofbebavioursuchasmotions,habits,etc.areseenaselementsthatcanbeobservedandmeasured.TheBehaviouristtheoryn“Youcantrainananimaltodoanything(withinreason)ifyoufollowacertainprocedurewhichhasthreemajorstages,stimulus,response,andreinforcement.”(Harmer.1983:30)TheBehaviouristtheoryTheBehaviouristtheorynSkinner:Languageisalsoaformofbehaviour.nUSA:TheAudio-LingualMethod(the“listen-and-repeat”drillingactivities).Mistakeswereimmediatelycorrected.TheCognitivetheoryChomsky’squestion:Ifalllanguageisalearnedbehaviour,howcanachildproduceasentencethathasneverbeensaidbyothersbefore?e.g.五岁女孩：“中国队加油！外国队漏油！”(2005.05.05晚上9:30)TheimpactofChomsky’stheoryonlanguageteachingØOneinfluentialideaisthatstudentsshouldbeallowedtocreatetheirownsentencesbasedontheirunderstandingofcertainrules.ØThisideaisclearlyinoppositiontotheAudio-LingualMethod.1.4Whatisagoodlanguageteacher?kind,dynamic,authoritative,speakingclearly,creative,patient,well-informed,hardworking,resourceful(havingtheabilitytofindawayroundthedifficulty),attentive,warm-heartedwell-prepared,flexible,intuitive,accurate,enthusiastic,humourous,caring,disciplined,professionally-trained(Parrot.1993)1.5Howcanonebecomeagoodlanguageteacher?Teaching:isitacraft,orisitanappliedscience?nIfwetaketeachingasacraft,thenwewouldbelievethatanoviceteachercanlearntheprofessionbyimitatingtheexperts’techniques,justlikeanapprentice.nIfwetaketeachingasanappliedscience,thenwewouldbelievethatknowledgeandexperimentationarenecessary.AcompromisebetweenthetwoviewsbyWallace(1991)nStage1:LanguagetrainingnStage2:3sub-stages:1)learning;2)practice;3)reflectionnStage3:Goal(professionalcompetence)nWhatdoesthedoublearrowbetweenStage1andStage2mean?nInwhichstagedoesthiscoursetakeplace?nWhyarePracticeandReflectionconnectedbyacircle?SummaryofUnit1nViewsonlanguagenThestructuralview,thefunctionalview,andtheinteractionalviewnViewsonlanguagelearningnTheProcess-orientedtheoriesandtheCondition-orientedtheoriesnTheBehaviouristtheoryandtheCognitivetheorynQualitiesofagoodlanguageteachernEthicdevotion,professionalquality,andpersonalstylenThethreestagesofbecomingagoodlanguageteacherEndofUnit1Thankyou!CommunicativePrinciplesandActivitiesCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)Frameworkofthislecture:ØLanguageuseinreallifev.s.traditionalpedagogy;19\nØCommunicativecompetence;ØTheimplementationoflanguageskills;ØCommunicativeactivities.2.1Languageuseinreallifevs.traditionalpedagogynTheultimategoalofforeignlanguageteachingis:toenablethelearnerstousetheforeignlanguageinworkorlifenTherefore,weshouldteach:thatpartofthelanguagethatwillbeused;inthewaythatisusedintherealworld.Gapsbetweentheuseoflanguageinreallifeandthetraditionalforeignlanguageteachingpedagogy:(pp.14-15)nInreallife:?nThetraditionalpedagogy:?nTheconsequence:?nTask1.nInreallife:Languageisusedtoperformcertaincommunicativefunctions.nThetraditionalpedagogy:focusesonformsratherthanonfunctions.nTheconsequence:Thelearnershavelearnedalotofsentencesorpatterns,buttheyareunabletousethemappropriatelyinrealsocialsituations.nInreallife:Weuseallskills,includingthereceptiveskillsandtheproductiveskills.nThetraditionalpedagogytendstofocusononeortwolanguageskillsandignoretheothers.nTheconsequence:Thelearnerscannotusethelanguageinanintegratedway.nInreallife:Languageisalwaysusedinacertaincontext.nThetraditionalpedagogytendstoisolatelanguagefromitscontext.e.g.thepassivenTheconsequence:Thestudentsarepuzzledabouthowtousethelanguageinaparticularcontext.2.2FosteringcommunicativecompetenceThegoalofCLTistodevelopstudents’communicativecompetence.CommunicativeCompetencevs.LinguisticCompetencenLinguisticCompetence=grammaticalknowledgeorknowledgeaboutthelanguageformnCommunicativeCompetence=Knowledge&abilityfor:rulesofform/grammar+rulesofuseLanguagecompetenceandcommunicativecompetencea.Chomsky’stheory:competencesimplymeansknowledgeofthelanguagesystem:grammaticalknowledgeinotherwordsb.Hymes’stheory:“thereare“rulesofusewithoutwhichtherulesofgrammarwouldbeuseless”.Besidesgrammaticalrules,languageuseisgovernedbyrulesofuse,whichensurethatthedesiredorintendedfunctionsareperformedandthelanguageusedisappropriatetothecontext.AccordingtoHymes(1979),communicativecompetenceincludesfouraspects:(pp.15-16)nknowingwhetherornotsomethingisformallypossible(grammaticality:grammaticallyacceptable);知道形式上是否可能nknowingwhethersomethingisunderstandabletohumanbeings(feasibility);知道是否可行nknowingwhethersomethingisinlinewithsocialnorms(appropriatenessinasocialcontext);知道是否得体nknowingwhetherornotsomethingisinfactdone(whatthelanguageperformanceentails).知道实施的条件Tosumupncommunicativecompetenceincludedfouraspects:grammaticallyacceptableunderstandablesocialnormsactuallyuseCommunicativeCompetenceincludesknowledge/awarenessof:nwhentosaynwheretosayntowhomtosaynwhattosaynhowtosayFeaturesofCLT(p.16)nCLTstressestheneedtoallowstudentsopportunitiesforauthenticandcreativeuseofthelanguage;nCLTfocusesonmeaningratherthanonform;nCLTsuggeststhatlearningshouldberelevanttotheneedsofthestudents;nCLTadvocatestask-basedlanguageteaching(TBLT);nCLTemphasizesafunctionalapproachtolanguagelearningandcultureawarenessofthetargetlanguage.1.authenticandcreative2.meaningratherthanform3.relevanttotheneeds4.task-basedteaching5.functionalapproachRichardsandRodgers’(1986:72)threeprinciplesofCLT(p.16)19\nnCommunicativeprinciple;nTaskprinciple;nMeaningfulnessprinciple2.3TheimplementationoflanguageskillsThetranslationofcommunicativecompetenceinlanguageteachingpracticeistodevelopthelearners’skills,namely,listening,speaking,readingandwriting.InlisteningandspeakingStudentsshouldhavethechancetolistentoandproducewhatismeaningful,authentic,unpredictable,andreactiveifeverpossible.nIntraditionalpedagogy,listeningandspeakingweretreatedasskillsdifferentfromwhattakesplaceinreality.nTherefore,listeningandspeakingskillsneedtoberedefinedintermsoftherealcommunicativeuse.nStudentsshouldhavethechancetolistentoandproducewhatismeaningful,authentic,unpredictable,andcreativeifeverpossible.InreadingnSincecommunicativecoursesfocusonmeaningratherthanonform,thereadingskillisredefinedtofocusonthepurposeofreading.nTraditionallythepurposeofreadingistolearnlanguage,namelyvocabulary,grammar,etc.,andreadingisregardedasaprocessofdecoding,structuralanalysis,etc.nInCLT,readingistoextractthemeaningorthemessages,andthestudentsusedifferentskills,e.g.skimmingandscanning(seeUnit10),fordifferentreadingpurposes.Inwritingnstudentsshouldmakethewritingmoremeaningfulandauthentic,thatistopracticewritingtoexpresstheirownfeelingsordescribetheirownexperience.nInCLT,studentshavethechancetowritetoexpresstheirownfeelingsordescribetheirownexperiences,thusmakingthepracticeofwritingmeaningfulandauthentic.Inshort,CLThasexpandedthearea:ØLanguagecontent(toincorporatefunctions);ØLearningprocess(cognitivestyleandinformationprocessing);andØProduct(languageskills).2.4CommunicativeactivitiesLittlewood(1981):ØFunctionalcommunicativeactivities;ØSocialinteractionalactivities.Littlewood.1981.CommunicativeLanguageTeaching.CambridgeUniversityPress.Functionalcommunicativeactivities(p.18)e.g.Identifyingpictureslanguagefortheactivity:nWhatcolour…?nHowmany…?nWhere…?Socialinteractionalactivities(pp.18-19)e.g.Role-playingthroughcueddialoguesnReadingandwritingarealsocommunicativeskillswhichareworthnolessattentionthanlisteningandspeaking.RodEllis’(1990)sixcriteriaforcommunicativeactivities•Communicativepurpose;(informationgap)•Communicativedesire;(realneed)•(Focuson)Content,notform;(message)•Varietyoflanguage;(notjustonelanguageform,freetoimprovise/create)•Noteacherintervention;(donebySs;nocorrecting/evaluatinghowSsdoit;assessmentisbasedonthe‘product’oroncommunicativepurposeratherthanonthelanguage.)•Nomaterialcontrol.ForexamplespleaserefertoWangQiang’sbook(2000)pp.20-23SummaryofCLTnGapsbetweentheuseoflanguageinreallifeandthetraditionalforeignlanguageteachingpedagogy;nGoalofCTL:Communicativecompetence;nFeaturesofCLT,andRichardsandRodgers’threeprinciplesofCLT:ucommunicative,taskandmeaningfulnessprinciplesnCommunicativeactivities(Littlewood):ufunctionalcommunicativeactivities,andusocialinteractionalactivitiesnRodEllis’sixcriteriaforcommunicativeactivitiesEndofCLTThankyou!Goal:ExchangingpersonalinformationInput:QuestionnaireonsleepinghabitsActivity:1)Readingquestionnaire2)AskingandansweringquestionsaboutsleepinghabitsTeacherrole:MonitorandfacilitatortospecifywhatisregardedassuccessfulcompletionofthetaskLearnerrole:ConversationalpartnerSetting:Classroom/pairworkThecomponentsofatask：目标（Goals）19\n信息输入（InputData)语言信息（Verbaldata）非语言信息（Non-verbaldata）活动（Activities）结果（Outcome)语言结果（Verbaloutcome）非语言结果（Non-verbaloutcome）Taskorexercises?•Thelearnerwilllistentoanauraltextofweatherforecastandanswerquestionsafterwardsonwhethergivenstatementsaretrueorfalse.•Thelearnerwilllistentoaweatherforecast,identifythepredictedmaximumtemperatureforthedayandgivesuggestionsastowhattowear. ExerciseTaskFocusonFormMeaningAuthenticsituationNothavingHavingAssessmentmeansIntermsoflanguagestructureIntermsofcompletionoutcomeLanguagecontrollingStrictlycontrolledFreelyCorrectionCorrectedimmediatelyObserved,thencorrectedGoodlearningtasksshould:1enablelearnerstomanipulateandpracticespecificfeaturesoflanguage2allowlearnerstorehearse,inclass,communicativeskillstheywillneedintherealworld3activatepsychological/psycholinguisticprocessesoflearning4besuitableformixedabilitygroups5involvelearnersinsolvingaproblem,comingtoaconclusion6bebasedonauthenticornaturalisticsourcematerial7involvelearnersinsharinginformation8requiretheuseofmorethanonemacro-skill9allowlearnerstothinkandtalkaboutlanguageandlearning10promoteskillsinlearninghowtolearn11haveclearobjectivesstatingwhatlearnerswillbeabletodoasaresultoftakingpartinthetask12utilizethecommunityasaresource13givelearnersachoiceinwhatwaytheydoandtheorderinwhichtheydoit.14involvelearnersinrisk-taking15requirelearnerstorehearse,rewriteandpolishinitialefforts16enablelearnerstoshareintheplanninganddevelopmentofthetask17havebuiltintothemameansofevaluatingthesuccessorotherwiseofthetask•BesidesCLT,therehasbeenanotherlanguageteachingapproachwhichhasbecomemoreandmorepopularfromlate1980s,thatis,Task-basedLanguageTeaching(TBLT).Task-BasedLanguageTeachingTask-BasedLanguageTeaching•Whatistask?•WhatisTask-BasedLanguageTeaching?•Taskfeatures•Taskdesign:examplesandprinciples•TBLTclassmanagement6.ExamplesofTBLT•ThreepedagogicalgoalsforTBLT•MeritsanddemeritsofTBLT1.Whatistask1.1•Ataskisapieceofworkundertakenforoneselforforothers,freelyorforsomereward.Inotherwords,‘task’meansthewhatpeopledoineverydaylife,atwork,atplay,andinbetween.’(Long,1985:89;viaNunan,1989:5)1.2Ataskisanactivityoractionwhichiscarriedoutastheresultofprocessingorunderstandinglanguage(i.e.asaresponse).(Richards,PlattandWeber1986:289)任务=人们在学习、理解、体会语言之后所开展的活动。19\n1.3•Ataskrefersto‘arangeofworkplanswhichhavetheoverallpurposeoffacilitatinglanguagelearningfromthesimpleandbriefexercisetype,tomorecomplexandlengthyactivitiessuchasgroupproblem-solvingorsimulationsanddecisionmaking.Ithasaparticularobjective,appropriatecontent,aspecifiedworkingprocedure,andarangeofoutcomes.’(Breen,1987:23;viaNunan,1989:6)1.4•Definitioninbroadsense---bothpedagogicaltasksandcommunicativetasks•Definitioninnarrowsense---communicative/real-world/targettasks1.5Whatarenottasks?•Tasksdonotincludeactivitieswhichinvolvelanguageusedforpracticeordisplay,suchas•‘Describethepictureusingthewordsandphrasesfromthelistbelow’or‘AskyourpartnerifhelikesthefoodlistedhereusingtheformsDoyoulike…?Yes,Ido/No,Idon’t.wherethereisnooutcomeorpurposeotherthanpracticeofpre-specifiedlanguage.2.1FourcomponentsofataskApurposeAcontextAprocessAproduct3.Communicativetask•Ingeneral,Itoowillconsiderthecommunicativetaskasapieceofclassroomworkwhichinvolveslearnersincomprehending,manipulating,producingorinteractinginthetargetlanguagewhiletheirattentionisprincipallyfocusedonmeaningratherthanform.Thetaskshouldalsohaveasenseofcompleteness,beingabletostayaloneasacommunicativeactinitsownright.(Nunan,1989:10)Communicativetask•Ataskmeansagoal-orientedactivitywithaclearpurpose.Doingacommunicationtaskinvolvesachievinganoutcome,creatingafinalproductthatcanbeappreciatedbyother.(Willis,1998)Task&Activity•Whattaskdiffersfromactivityliesinthattaskreferstobehavioralblueprintspresentedtolearnerswhileactivityreferstobehaviorsgeneratedbytheblueprints.Taskisabasicunitfordesignoflanguageclassroomactivity.Itisbytaskdesignforthepurposeofcompletionoftaskthatlanguageknowledgelearningactivitycombineswithcommunicativeactivitysmoothly,languagelearningcombineswithlanguageusenaturallyandclosely.Task&Activity•Tasksdonotincludeactivitieswhichinvolvelanguageuseforpracticeordisplay,suchas‘Describethepictureusingthewordsandphrasesfromthelistbelow’or‘AskyourpartnerifhelikesthefoodlistedhereusingtheformsDoyoulike…?Yes,Ido/No,Idon’t.’wherethereisnooutcomeorpurposeotherthanpracticeofpre-specifiedlanguage.Role-playactivities•Veryofteninrole-playsituationsthereisnoactualoutcomeforstudentstoachieve,otherthantoenacttheirroles.Studentshavetothinkofsuitablethingstosaytoeachother,buttheyareunlikelytobeexchangingrealmeaning.JaneWillisTask&Exercise•TaskhasanonlinguisticoutcomewhileExercisehasalinguisticoutcome.•Skehan(1998)thinksthattheinformationgapisthemostimportantindistinguishingtaskandexercise.Taskusuallyhastheinformation,butanExercisedoesn't.Forexample,ateacher’sexplanationorastudent’scopyingactivitydoesn'tbelongtoatask,butanexercise.4.WhatisTask-BasedLanguageTeaching•Thetask-basedapproachaimsatprovidingopportunitiesforthelearnerstoexperimentwithandexplorebothspokenandwrittenlanguagethroughlearningactivitieswhicharedesignedtoengagelearnersintheauthentic,practicalandfunctionaluseoflanguageformeaningfulpurposes.（香港中小学英语大纲）WhatisTask-BasedLanguageTeaching•Atask-basedapproachseesthelanguageprocessasoneoflearningthroughdoing---itisprimarilyengaginginmeaningthatthelearner’ssystemisencouragedtodevelop.Successinthetaskisevaluatedintermsofachievementofanoutcome,andtasksgenerallybearsomeresemblancetoreal-lifelanguageuse.(LongandCrooks,1993)WhatisTask-BasedLanguageTeaching•Focusesontheconstruction,sequencing,andevaluationofparticulargoal-relatedactioncomplexesthatlearnerscarryouteitherbythemselves(seePrabhu’smodel1987)orjointly(seeKumaravadivelu1993)(Candlin&Murphy1987;Nunan1989)WhatisTask-BasedLanguageTeachingKeywords:•Learningactivities,learningthroughdoing•Authentic,practicalandfunctionaluseoflanguage;real-lifelanguageuse•Outcome,goal-related•Construction,sequencing,andevaluation•Individuallyorjointly19\nFeaturesofTBLT1.emphasisonlearningtocommunicatethroughinteractioninthetargetlanguage2.introductionofauthentictextsintothelearningsituation3.Provisionofopportunitiesforlearnerstofocusnotonlyonlanguage,butalsoonthelearningprocessitself4.Anenhancementofthelearners’ownpersonalexperiencesasimportantcontributingelementstoclassroomlearning5.Anattempttolinkclassroomlanguagelearningwithlanguageactivationoutsidetheclassroom(DavidNunan,1991)5.FeaturesofTBLTLittlewood,2001•Tasksareactivitiesinwhichstudentsworkpurposefullytowardsanobjective.•Theobjectivemaybeonethattheyhavesetforthemselvesoronewhichhasbeensetbytheteacher.•Theobjectivemaybelanguage–focused(e.g.todiscoveraruleofgrammarorcompleteanexercise),orcontent-focused(e.g.tocarryoutaprojectorreachadecisionthroughdiscussion).•Tasksmaybecarriedoutindividuallyor(moreoften)ingroups.•Tasksmaybecarriedoutincompetitionwithothersor(moreoften)incollaboration.•Theoutcomemaybesomethingconcrete(e.g.areportorpresentation)orsomethingintangible(e.g.agreementorthesolutiontoaproblem).FeaturesofTBLTCrooks,1993•Agoalorreasonfordoingitotherthantopracticelanguage.•Anactivity,or"doing"something.•Anon-linguisticproductasoutcome.•Thetargetlanguageisusedtocompletethetask.•Otherdesirablefeaturesincludecooperationwithothersandnegotiationofmeanings,and/orprocedures.1.Anemphasisonlearningtocommunicatethroughinteractioninthetargetlanguage.强调通过用目标语交流来学会交际2.Theintroductionofauthentictextsintothelearningsituation.将真实的语言材料引入学习的环境Communicativetaskdesign•Self-introduction?•Numbers?•Doyoulike…?/What’syourfavorite…?•Degrees?Examplesofcommunicativetasks1:Self-introductionPersonalinformation2:Self-introduction/Exchangingpersonalinformation3:Personalinformation4:Numbers6:Description7:Degrees5:NumbersTaskdesignprinciplesTheauthenticityprinciple•Thelinguisticdatathatlearnersworkwithshouldbeauthentic.Taskshouldprovidelearnerswithexplicitandauthenticinformationfromtherealworld.•Thelanguageenvironmentandlanguageformneedtobecoherentwiththepracticallanguagefunctionandregularpatternsothatlearnerscanexperienceandmasterlanguageinarealorsimulatedsituation.Tasksshouldbecombinedwithlearners’personalexperienceandsociallife.TaskdesignprinciplesTheform-functionprincipleTeachlanguageinwaysthatmakeformandfunctionrelationshipstransparent.Attentionmustbepaidtocombinationoflinguisticformandfunctionintaskdesign.TaskdesignprinciplesThetaskdependencyprincipleTasksshouldbedesignedintheorderfromsimplesttothemostcomplexandeasiesttothemostdifficult.Aseriesoftasksinaunitofworkorinasemesterformsakindofpedagogicalladder,eachtaskrepresentingarungontheladder,enablingthelearnertoreachhigherandhigherlevelsofcommunicativeperformance.TaskdesignprinciplesLearningbydoingprincipleTheteachersshoulddirectlearnerstolearnlanguagebyperformingspecifictaskactivities,toattainandenrichlearningexperiencesandstrategiesandtoconductlanguageactivitiesforthespecialpurposesandenjoythehappinessofsuccessthroughcompletingcertaincommunicativetasks.Learningbydoingmotivatesstudentstofulfilltheirpotentialandenhancetheirinterestandenthusiasminlearning.Learnersmasterthelanguagebyusingitcommunicativelyintheclassroom,althoughtheystillhavetolearngrammarandmemorizevocabulary.Taskdesignprinciples19\nScaffoldingprincipleProperconcernsandsupportsshouldbegiventolearnersinlanguageteaching,justasscaffoldforconstructingabuilding.Languagelearningisagraduallydevelopingprocessinwhichsufficienthelpgivenbyteacherissignificantforlearner’sprogress.Scaffoldingisaprocessof‘settingup’thesituationtomakethechild’sentryeasyandsuccessfulandthengraduallypullingbackandhandingtheroadtothechildashebecomesskilledenoughtomanageit(Bruner,1983:60).TBLTclassmanagement•Pre-taskstage---warming-up,input,pedagogicaltasks•While-taskstage---taskflowchart,model,communicativetasksperforming•Post-taskstage---taskssharingandevaluationPre-taskstage•Describetheoverallgoals•Input:verbaldata(e.g.adialogue,readingpassage,etc.)ornon-verbaldata(e.g.picture,video,etc.)---teachthenecessarytask-relatedinformation---pointoutimportanttask-relevantcues•Pedagogicaltasks:---allowforpracticeofmotorresponseWhile-taskstage•Describetheflowchartoftheauthenticcommunicativetasktobeperformed,includingthefinalproductortaskoutcomeandtimelimit.•Demonstratethetaskprocedureifnecessary.•Teachdecision-makingandproblem-solvingstrategies.•Studentscarryonthetaskwhileteacheractsasamonitor,counselor,etc.givingmoreattentiontothelessablestudents.Post-taskstage•Grouppresentationtosharethetaskproducts•Teacherevaluation•PeerevaluationExamplesofTBLT•Thisisaprimaryschoollessononthelanguagefunctionexpressinglikesanddislikes.•Supposethestudentsaregoingtohaveapicnic.Theyhavetodecidewhattobuyaccordingtotheirlikesanddislikes.Sothetaskisdesignedforthemtoworkoutashoppinglistcollaborativelywithindifferentgroups,inwhichthestudents’favoritefood,drinks,fruitsarelistedaswellasthequantitiesandthecostofthesefavorites.ExamplesofTBLTGoal:narrationofwhathappenedinthepastPre-taskstage:---Input(writtentextofadiary):readingcomprehensionofthetext;formatofanEnglishdiary.---pedagogicaltasks:questionsandanswersbasedonthetext;vocabularyandsentencestructurebuilding,etc.While-taskstage:---diarywritingcollaborativelyorindividuallyPost-taskstage:---taskoutcomesharingbydemonstratingthewrittenformsoftheEnglishdiaries.---evaluationofthepresenteddiariesfocusingonthepasttenseandtheformat.ExamplesofTBLT•Goals:investigationonenvironmentalpollution•Pre-taskstage---input(text:Bewarethedirtysea):textcomprehensionbyfillingthetableandnecessaryexplanations;writingtechniquesonfiguresandstatistics,comparisonandcontrast.•While-taskstage---investigationonthepollutionofLijiangRiverandasurveyreportonthecauses,effectsandsuggestedmeasurestobetaken.---Investigationcanbemadebymeansofinterviews,collectinginformationfromdifferentsources(newspapers,TVprograms,internet,libraries,etc.).•Post-taskstage---surveyreportsbydifferentgroupsonabulletinandevaluationbypeerstudentsandteacheraswell.ThreePedagogicalGoalsforTBLT•Accuracyconcernshowwelllanguageisproducedinrelationtothetargetlanguage•Complexityconcernstheelaborationorambitionofthelanguagewhichisproduced.Howfardolearnersrelyonprefabricatedphrasesandestablishedroutines,andhowfardotheyneedtoexpandtheirlanguageresourcestomeetthecommunicativechallenge?•Fluencyconcernsthelearner’scapacitytoproducelanguageinrealtimewithoutunduepausingorhesitation.Itislikelytorelyuponmorelexicalizedmodesofcommunication,asthepressureofrealtimespeechproductionaremetonlybyavoidingexcessiverule-basedcomputation.(Skehan1994)AdvantagesofTBLT•TBLThelpsmotivatestudents.---interest,risk-taking,carefree,etc.•TBLThelpsacquirethetargetlanguage.---linguisticfeaturesandintegrationof4skills•TBLThelpscombinethereal-lifeneedswithlearningsituation.---authenticity•TBLThelpsdeveloplearnerautonomy.---learningstrategies,problemsolving,cooperation,planning,evaluation,etc.19\n•TBLThelpsensurethelearner-centeredness.---learner’sownchoice,teacher’sroleDisadvantagesofTBLT•Thetaskschosenfordifferentclassesarelackofcoherence.•Inaccomplishingthetask,learnerstendtoneglectlanguageformsandheavilydependonthecommunicativestrategy.•TBLTwillbedifficulttoimplementifteachersandlearnersarelackofcreativity,initiative,cooperationandresources.•Sometimes,theclassroomisdifficulttocontrolsothatitlookslikeachaos.•EvaluationofTBLTcanbedifficult.Thingstobenoticed•While-taskstageisthemainpartthatneedstooccupymoretimethantheothertwostages.•Taskaccomplishmentsometimesrequirespre-classworkandafter-classwork.•Notallthecoursesandalltheperiodsshouldbetask-based.5)Theteacheralsobecomesawareoftheteachingaidsthatareneededforthelesson.6)Lessonplanninghelpsteacherstothinkabouttherelativevalueofdifferentactivitiesandhowmuchtimeshouldbespentonthem.Theteachersoonlearnstojudgelessonstagesandphaseswithgreateraccuracy.7)Theplan,withtheteacher’scommentsandcorrections,providesauseful,time-savingreferencewhentheteachernextplansthesamelesson.8)Lessonplanningisagoodpracticeandasignofprofessionalism.5)Knowingaboutthetextbook:Theteachershouldknowthetextbookwellintermsofitsphilosophyofteaching,organizationoflearningcontents,majortopics,recommendteachingmethodology,unitcomponentsandwaysofassessment.6)Knowingabouttheobjectives:Theteachershouldgettoknowwhatlearnersareexpectedtoachieveandabletodoafteronesemesterorayear’slearning.Macroplanningprovidesageneralguidanceforlanguageteachers,butitisnotenoughforgoodteaching.Teachersstillneedtoplaneachunitorlessonindetailinordertoteacheffectivelyandconfidentlyintheclassroom.Unit4LessonPlanningObjectivesoftheLecture-tounderstandwhylessonplanningisnecessary-tolearnthedifferencebetweenmacroplanningandmicroplanning-togettoknowthecomponentsofalessonplan-toknowtheprinciplesforgoodlessonplanning4.1Whyislessonplanningsoimportant?Lessonplanningmeansmakingdecisionsinadvanceaboutwhattoteach,howtoteachandthetimeassignmentofeveryteachingprocedure¡Teachingplanisnecessaryforbothnoviceandexperiencedteachers.Althoughpreparationdoesnotguaranteesuccessfullessons,walkingintoaclassroomunpreparedisoftenthebeginningofadisastrouslesson.¡Althoughthemainteachingcontentsmaybethesame,thestudents,thetimeandthemoodarealldifferent.WhyisLPessentialinlanguageteaching?1)Aclearlessonplanmakestheteacherawareoftheaimsandlanguagecontentsofthelesson.2)Ithelpstheteachertodistinguishthevariousstagesofalesson.3)Theteachercanalsothinkabouthowtofullyinvolvethestudentstoengageinthelesson4)Lessonplanninggivesteachers,especiallynoviceteachers,confidenceinclass.4.2MacroPlanning•Whatismacroplanning?Planningovertime,forinstance,theplanningforamonth,atermorthewholecourse2.Whatareinvolvedinmacroplanning?-knowingaboutthecourse-knowingabouttheinstitution-knowingaboutthelearners-knowingaboutthesyllabusMacroplanninginvolvesthefollowing:1)Knowingabouttheprofession:Theteachershouldgettoknowwhichlanguageareasandlanguageskillsshouldbetaughtorpractisedinthecourse,whatmaterialsandteachingaidsareavailable,andwhatmethodsandtechniquescanbeused.2)Knowingabouttheinstitution:Theteachershouldgettoknowtheinstitution’sarrangementsregardingtime,length,frequencyoflessons,physicalconditionsofclassrooms,andexamrequirements.3)Knowingaboutthelearners:Theteachershouldacquireinformationaboutthestudents’agerange,sexratio,socialbackground,motivation,attitudes,interests,learningneedsandotherindividualfactors.4)Knowingaboutthecurriculum/syllabus:Theteachershouldbeclearaboutthepurposes,requirementsandtargetsspecifiedinthesyllabus.4.3MicroPlanning•Whatismicroplanning?19\nPlanningforaspecificlesson,whichusuallylasts40or50minutes.2.Whatareinvolvedinmicroplanning?Alanguageteachinglessonplanusuallyhasthefollowingcomponents:•Teachingaims•Languagecontentsandskills,•Teachingstagesandprocedures4.4ComponentsofaLessonPlanAlanguagelessonplanusuallyhasthefollowingcomponents:①backgroundinformation,②teachingaims(whatlanguagecomponentstopresent,whatcommunicativeskillstopractice,whatactivitiestoconductandwhatmaterialsandteachingaidstobeused),③languagecontents(grammar,vocabulary,functions,topicsandsoon)andskills(listening;speaking;readingandwriting),④stages(themajorstepsthatlanguageteachersgothroughintheclassroom)andprocedures(detailedstepsineachteachingstage),⑤teachingaids,⑥endoflessonsummary,⑦optionalactivitiesandassignments,⑧layoutoftheBband⑨teacher’safter-classreflection.4.5.ComponentsofALessonPlan1)     Levelofstudents/classbeginners/pre-intermediate/intermediate/upper-intermediate/advanced2)     Aim(s)ofthelessonl    aparticulartopic(e.g.tolearnthenamesofcolours/topractiselanguageforbuyingclothes)l     astructure(e.g.“begoingto”;“will”)l    askill(e.g.understandingspokeninstructions/readingskill)3)    Assumedknowledgeofthestudentsconsideringwhatstudentsalreadyknowinrelationtothelesson4)    Anticipatedproblemsstudentsmayhavelanguageproblemofnewstructure,difficultyassociatedwithculturaldifferences,orunderstandingteacherinstruction)5)Teachingaidssuchasblackboard(mostcommon)/realobjects/flashcards/wordcards/worksheets/wallcharts/cassettetapes/magazinepictures/video,etc.6)   TeachingmaterialCoursebook,supplementarymaterials…7)  ProcedureThisisconcernedwiththeteachingsteps/stagesandactivitiesineachstage,includingwhentodo,howlongtotake,whattodoandwhy.Sequenceoflessonandintegrationofskillsshouldbeconsidered.8)  TypesofinteractionThisisconcernedwiththemanagerialtechniquesoftheclass,suchaswhatclassroominteractionpatternshouldbeemployedandwhy.9)     BoardplanThedesigningofthelayoutoftheblackboardanddrawitinthelessonplan. 10     ReflectionThinkaboutwhatwentwellinthelessonandwhatdidn’t. The3P’smodelThe3P’smodelreferstopresentation,practiceandproduction.¡Atthepresentationstage,theteacherintroducesnewvocabularyandgrammaticalstructuresinwhateverwaysappropriate.¡Atthepracticestage,thelessonmovesfromcontrolledpracticetoguidedpracticeandfurthertotheexploitationofthetextwhennecessary.¡Attheproductionstage,thestudentsareencouragedtousewhattheyhavelearnedandpractisedtoperformcommunicativetasks.Thefocusisonmeaningratherthanaccurateuseoflanguageforms.Thefivestepsmodel¡1.Lead-in¡2.elicitation¡3.input¡4.practise¡5.output4.6PrinciplesforGoodLessonPlanning¡Aim:therealisticgoalsforthelesson¡Variety:variousactivitiesandmaterialstoensurehighmotivationandinterest¡Flexibility:moreteachingmethodsandtechniquesanddonotjustreadyourteachingplan¡Learnability:theplannedcontentsandtasksshouldbewithinthelearningcapabilityofthestudents.doingthingsthatarebeyondorbelowthestudents’copingabilitywilldiminishtheirmotivation(Schumann,1999)slightlyhigherthanthepresentproficiencyofthestudents¡Linkage:theteachingstepsshouldbelinkedwitheachother.Thatis,thereshouldbecoherence._classroommanagementDefinition:Classroommanagementispreciselytheskillwhichteachersapplywhenteaching.Itissomehowamorespecifictermfortheorganizationaltalentteachersshowinsettingupagoodlearning/teachingenvironment.Since19\nteachersmostlikelyteachinaclassroom,thisskilliscalled“classroommanagement”.ClassroomManagementClassroommanagementisthewayteachersorganizewhatgoesonintheclassroom.ThepurposeofClassroommanagementaimsatcreatinganatmospherethatwillhelpstudentsinteractinEnglishinmeaningfulways.WhatdoesClassroomManagementInvolve?Itinvolvesbothdecisionsandactions.Theactionsarewhatisdoneintheclassroom,forexample,re-arrangingthechairs.Thedecisionsareaboutwhethertodotheseactions,whentodothem,howtodothem,whowilldothem,etc.Theessentialbasicskillforclassroommanagementisthereforetobeabletorecognizeoptionsavailabletotheteacher,tomakeappropriatedecisionsbetweentheseoptions,andtoturnthemintoeffectiveandefficientactions.Sixwaysforefficientlyclassroommanagement1.Theteacherplaysappropriateroles.2.Theteacherprovidesclearinstructions.3.Studentsaregroupedinawaysuitableforthelearningactivities.4.Theteacherasksappropriatequestions.5.Thereisdisciplineandharmonyintheclass.6.Thestudents’errorsaretreatedproperly.ClassroomManagement 1)Theteacherrole2)Teacherinstruction3)Studentgrouping4)Discipline5)Questioningintheclassroom6) DealingwitherrorsWhatfactorsmayinfluenceclassroommanagement?oPeople:therelationshipbetweentheteacherandthestudentsoLanguage:whatyouexpectthemtodo(understandingandencouragingstudents)oEnvironment:classroom,thepositioningofthedesksandthepositionoftheteacheroOrganization:goodlessonplan,clearlearningobjectives,varietyinactivities…oTools:textbook,video-recorder,aslideprojector…5.1TheroleoftheteacherintheclassroomModernteachingmethodologyseesteachingastheemancipationofhumannature.Inthewholeprocessofinstruction,teacherandstudentbothplayasubjectiverole.Insuchacase,theteachercertainlyplaysquitedifferentrolesfromthepast.Generallyspeaking,theteachermayplaysixroles,namelyorganizer,controller,assessor,prompter,participant,andresource-provider(Harmer,1983:201)Thenewrolesoftheteacher1.Teachersasfacilitators2.Teachersasguides3.TeachersasresearchersTheroleoftheteacherDifferentapproachesstipulatedifferentteacherroles.Basedonthefunctionsthattheteacherperformsindifferentactivitiesduringtheclass,Harmerdefinestheteacher’srolesascontroller,assessor,organizer,prompter,participantandresource-provider.TeacherasControllerTheteacherinmostapproachesissomewhatacontroller.Differentactivitiesneedadifferentdegreeofcontrol.Foranyactivity,appropriatedegreeofcontrolismostimportant.TeacherasAssessorAsanassessor,theteacherdoestwothings:Correctingmistakes:gentalcorrectingOrganizingfeedback:focusonstudents’successorprogressTeacherasOrganizorAnorganizeristhemostimportantanddifficultroletheteacherhastoplay.Theteacher’smajorworkistodesignandorganizetasksforstudentstoperforminclasswithtask-basedlanguageteachingapproach.Theteachershouldgoaroundtheclassroomandprovidehelpforstudentswhilestudentsaredoingthetask.TeacherasPrompterWhenstudentsarenotsurehowtostartanactivity,orwhattodonext,orwhattosaynext,theteachershouldgiveappropriateprompts.TeacherasParticipantTask-basedteachingmethodsencouragetheteachertoparticipateinstudents’activities.Theteachershouldchangehisroleoncehejoinsthestudents.Heshouldnotdominateorappeartobeauthoritative.TeacherasResource-providerNomatterwhatkindofmethodtheteacheruseinforeignlanguageteaching,he/sheshouldbeagoodandconvenientresourceforthestudents.Whenstudentsaresupposedtoworkontheirown,theteachershouldwithholdhis/herreadinesstoprovideresources.Teacher’sNewRolesWiththeimplementationofthenewEnglishcurriculum,teachersareexpectedtoputonnewroles:facilitators,guides,researchers(FuDaochun,2001)TheroleoftheteacherThefollowingarethingsthatteachersoftendointhelanguageclassroom.Decidewhatroletheteacherisplayingineachactivity.Theteachergivesstudentstwominutestoskimatext,andwhentimeisup,heasksstudentstostopandanswersomequestions.Theteacherwritesoneoffivenumbersonanumberofcards(thesamenumberasthestudents).Eachstudentdrawsonecard.Thosewhohavedrawnnumber1willformgroup1,andthosewhohavedrawnnumber2willformgroup2.Thusthestudentsareputintofivegroupsinarandomway.TheroleoftheteacherWhenastudenthasmadeasentencewith“borrow”,“I19\nborrowedapapertowritealetter”,theteachersays,“Well,wedon’tsayapaper,wesayapieceofpaper”.Theteacherasksastudentaquestion“Haveyoueverboughtclotheswithproblems?”Ifthestudentdoesn’tseemtobeready,theteachersays“forexample,ashirtwithout…”andpointstothebuttonsonhisownshirtorjacket.TheroleoftheteacherWhenstudentsaredoingagroup-worktask,theteacherjoinsoneortwogroupsforashortperiodoftime.Theteacherasksthestudentstoproduceconversations(eitherorallyorinwriting)byusingparticularpatternsorexpressionstheyhavejustlearned.5.2ClassroominstructionsProperinstructionisthepreconditionofaccomplishmentofactivities.Togiveappropriateinstruction,itisnecessarytofollowthefollowingprinciples.1.Economywithwords:theteachershoulduseasfewwordsaspossible.2.Simpleandclearlanguageatallpoints:languageshouldbeeasytounderstand.3.Demonstrationofwhatisneeded.4.Checkofstudentsunderstanding:theteachercancheckindividualstudentstomakesurethatstudentsunderstandtheinstructionandknowwhattodo.5.Usethenativelanguagewhennecessary.6.Varytheinstructionnowandthen.5.3StudentgroupingThetypeofinteractionisanotherfactorthatinfluencestheeffectofinstruction.Itisnecessaryfortheteachertoknowthestrongandweakpointsofeachmodel,andselecttherightoneforclassroominteraction.Therearemainlyfourinteractionmodels：Wholeclasswork(Lockstep)PairworkGroupworkIndividualstudy5.3.1WholeclassworkWholeclassworkiswhereallthestudentareunderthecontroloftheteacher.Theyarealldoingthesameactivityatthesamerhythmandpace.Wholeclassworkisoftenadoptedwhentheteacherismakingapresentation,checkingexerciseanswers,ordoingaccuracyreproduction.Whentheteacherasksquestions,thestudentsspeakeithertogetheroronebyone,inturnsorindicatedbytheteacher.5.3.2PairworkPairworkiswherethestudentsworkinpairs.Itcouldbeacompetitionoveragameorco-operationinataskorprojectbetweenthetwostudents.Theycouldalsodocertainexercisestogetherororalpractice.Whenthestudentsaredoingpairwork,theteacherusuallycirculatesaroundtheclassroom,answeringquestionorprovidinghelpwhennecessary.5.3.3GroupworkGroupworkiswherethestudentsworkinsmallgroups.Eachgrouphas3,4,or5students,dependingontheactivity.Whatstudentsdoingroupworkissimilartopairwork,onlytherearemoremembersinthegroup.Groupworkismostbeneficialwhentheactivityrequirescontributionsfrommorethantwostudents.Theteachercanjoineachgroupforawhile,butonlyasaparticipantnotasaleaderorinspector.5.3.4IndividualstudyIndividualstudyisthestageduringtheclasswherethestudentsarelefttoworkontheirownandattheirownspeed.Usuallytheyaredoingthesametask,buttheteachermaygivethemachoiceoftasks.Someactivitiescannotbedoneinpairsorgroups,forinstance,readingandwriting.Peoplereadatdifferentspeed,sotheycannotreadtogether,thoughtwopeoplemightshareonebook.Itseemswritingcanbedoneinpairsorgroups,butwhattheyareactuallydoingwhentheyareworkingtogetherisbrainstormingideas,discussing,orrevising.Whenitcomestotherealwritingstagestudentsshouldworkindividually.5.4DisciplineDisciplinedoesnotmeanaseriesofpunishmentmetedouttobadlybehavedstudents.Disciplineherereferstoacodeofconduct,whichbindsateacherandagroupofstudentstogethersothatlearningcanbemoreeffective.Howtodealwiththeindisciplinedacts?5.5QuestioningintheclassroomHowtoaskeffectivequestions?1) Questionsshouldbecloselylinkedwiththeteachingobjectivesinthelesson;2)Questionsshouldbestagedsothatthelevelofchallengeincreasesasthelessonproceeds;3)Thereshouldbeabalancebetweenclosedandopen,lower-orderandhigher-orderquestions;4)Waittimeisimportanttoallowstudentstothinkthroughtheiranswers;5) Studentsshouldbeprovidedopportunitiestoasktheirownquestionsandseektheirownanswers;6) Asecureandrelaxedatmosphereoftrustisneededandstudents’opinionsandideasarevalued.5.6DealingwitherrorsHowtotreatstudents’errorsintheclassroom?Therearedifferentwaysandtechniquesforcorrectingerrors,suchasdirectteachercorrection,indirectteachercorrection,self-correction,peercorrection,wholeclassroomcorrection,etc.Asageneralrule,indirectteachercorrectionisencouragedratherthandirectteachercorrectiontoavoiddamagingstudents’selfesteemandconfidence.Also,self-correctionisencouragedbeforeteachercorrectionorpeercorrection.TeachingPronunciation1.2ViewsonlanguageTheanswertothequestion‘Whatislanguage?’isthebasisfor:19\nsyllabusdesign,teachingmethods,teachingprocedures,andteachingtechniques.12.1TheimportanceofteachingpronunciationlPronunciationisoneofthemostimportantelementsofalanguage.lWithoutpronunciation,wecannotconveyourideastootherpeopleinoralcommunication.lAchangeofsoundmaychangethemeaningtotally.lIfwedonotpronouncethewordcorrectly,orourintonationisnotaccurate,wecannotmakeourselvesunderstood.12.2ThegoalofteachingpronunciationlConsistency:Thepronunciationshouldbesmoothandnatural.lIntelligibility:Thepronunciationshouldbeunderstandabletothelisteners.lCommunicativeefficiency:Thepronunciationshouldhelpconveythemeaningthatisintendedbythespeaker.TheobjectivesofpronunciationinmiddleschoolsBand5l了解语音在语言学习中的意义；l了解英语语音包括发音，重音，连读，语调，节奏等内容；l在日常生活会话中做到语音，语调基本准确，自然，流畅；l根据重音和语调的变化理解和表达不同的意图和态度；l根据读音拼写单词和短语。lBand7l在口头表达中做到语音，语调自然和流畅；l根据语音，语调了解话语中隐含的意图和态度；l初步了解英语诗歌中的节奏和韵律；l根据语音辨别和书写不太熟悉的单词。12.3Problemsinteachingpronunciationl(1)Students’ignoranceinlearningpronunciationl(2)Teacher’sneglectinpronunciationteaching.l(3)Mothertongueinterferencel(4)Improperwayofteaching12.4AspectsofpronunciationlSoundlPhoneticsymbolslStresslIntonationlRhythmlSpelling12.5Strategiesforteachingpronunciation12.5.1.PractisingsoundslFocusingonsoundslPerceptionpracticela.UsingminimalpairsE.g.willwell;tilltell;fillfell;shipsheep;bidbedlb.WhichorderE.g.pitpetbet;beartearear;beardbeerbearlc.sameordifferent?E.g.metmeet;wellwell;wellwillld.OddthemoutE.g.bitbitbitpit;lidledlidlid;bagbagbackbagle.Completion12.5.2.ProductionpracticelListenandrepeatlFillintheblankslMakeupsentenceslUsemeaningfulcontext.lUsepictureslUsetonguetwisters.12.5.3Practisingstresslword-levelstresse.g.photograph/photographerpopular/popularitypublish/publicitymusic/musiciancelebrate/celebrityorganise/organisationlphrase-levelorsentencelevelstresse.g.IwanttwoticketstoLondon.l(1)Makestudentslistentosomepairsofwordsandunderlinethestressedsyllableineachword.e.g.sometiresomelreferreferencelparkparticularlfacesurfacel(2)Makestudentsworkinpairslikethis:StudentAreadsastatement.StudentBresponds.Atthesametime,studentsarerequiredtopayspecialattentiontothewordstress.Example:StudentA:Idomagic.WhatamI?StudentB:You’reamagician.lIworkinalibrary.(librarian)lIworkinapolitics.(politician)lIonlyeatvegetables.(vegetarian)StressingimportantinformationlLookattheextractfromtheinterview.Underliethewordsthatyouthinkyouareimportantandshouldbestressed.Interviewer:HowoftendoyouusetheInternet?Tom:Everyday.Interviewer:Atschoolorathome?Tom:Atschoolandathome.Interviewer:HowmuchtimedoyouspendontheInternetathome?Tom:AsmuchtimeasIcan.Aboutfivehours.Interviewer:Fivehoursaweek?Tom:No!Fivehoursaday.12.5.4PractisingintonationlFallingintonationpracticee.g.IMEThiminthe↘library.19\nShewasGOING↘AWAYlRisingintonationpracticee.g.Areyou↗HUNGRY?CanIREADitTO↗MORROW?DoyouSTUDYintheEVE↗NING?案例:外研版高一page48Listentotheintonationofthesesentences.Thestudentisaskinghisteacherquestions.Doesthevoicegoupordownattheend?lHowmuchdoweneed?lWhataboutthispiece?lIsthispieceOk?lWheredowegofromhere?lDoyouwantmetowritethatdown?Listenagainandrepeatthequestions.Usethecorrectintonation.12．6Waystoimprovestudents’pronunciationl(1)Imitationl(2)SingEnglishsongsl(3)TonguetwistersTonguetwisterslBettyboughtsomebutter,butthebutterwasbitter,sosheboughtsomebetterbuttertomakethebitterbutterbetter.lIwishtowishthewishyouwishtowish,butifyouwishthewishthewitchwishes,Iwon’twishthewishyouwishtowish.lIfwhitechalkchalkswhiteonablackblackboard,willblackchalkchalkblackonawhitewhiteboardthen?Unit7TeachingGrammar•Foftheunit:•TheroleofgrammarinELT•Grammarpresentationmethods•Grammarpractice•五级了解常用语言形式的基本结构和常用表意功能；在实际运用中体会和领悟语言形式的表意功能；理解和掌握描述人和物的表达方式；理解和掌握描述具体事件和具体行为的发生，发展过程的表达方式；初步掌握描述时间，地点，方位的表达方式；理解，掌握比较人，物体及事物的表达方式。•七级掌握描述时间，地点和方位的常用表达方式；理解并掌握比较人，物体及事物的常用表达方式；使用适当的语言形式描述事物，简单地表达观点，态度或情感等；掌握语篇中基本的衔接和连贯手段，并根据特定目的有效地组织信息。1TheroleofgrammarinELTItisgenerallybelievedthatvGrammarteachingislessimportantforchildrenthanforadults;vGrammarteachingislessimportantinlisteningandreadingthaninwriting.2.MethodsofGrammarpresentation语法教学的问题可归纳为“五重”和“五轻”（胡春洞，1990）•重知识传授，轻技能训练；•重详细讲解，轻反复练习；•重书面练习，轻口头练习；•重语法分析，轻语法使用；•重掌握规则，轻掌握实例。1)Thedeductivemethod2)Theinductivemethod3)Theguideddiscoverymethod4)Teachinggrammarusinglisteningasinput5)ThesynthesisapproachDeductivemethodItdependsonreasoning,analysingandcomparing.Presentationofanexample→explanation(comparisonmaybedonebetweenthetargetlanguageandthenativelanguage)→Ss’practice(producingsentences)withgivenpromptsgrammarrules/structuresexamplesAdvantagesofdeductivemethod:Itcouldbeverysuccessfulwithselectedandmotivatedstudents.Itcouldsavetimewhenstudentsareconfrontedwithagrammarrulewhichiscomplexbutwhichhastobelearned.Itmayhelptoincreasestudent’confidenceinthoseexaminationswhicharewrittenwithaccuracyasthemaincriterionofsuccess.Disadvantagesofdeductivemethod:Grammaristaughtinanisolatedway;Littleattentionispaidtomeaning;Thepracticeisoftenmechanical.TheinductivemethodIntheinductivemethod,theteacherinducesthelearnerstorealisegrammarruleswithoutanyformofexplicitexplanation.19\nItisbelievedthattheruleswillbecomeevidentifthestudentsaregivenenoughappropriateexamples.examplesgrammarrules/structuresComparisonbetweenthesetwomethodsvDeductivemethod•Teachgrammarinanisolatedway•Littleattentionispaidtomeaning•Mechanicalpractice•Successfulwithmotivatedstudents•Savetimewhenagrammarruleiscomplex….TheguideddiscoverymethodTheguideddiscoverymethodissimilartotheinductivemethodinthatthestudentsareinducedtodiscoverrulesbythemselvesbutdifferentinthattheprocessofthediscoveryiscarefullyguidedandassistedbytheteacherandtherulesarethenelicitedandtaughtexplicitly.Therearetwokeytheoreticalissuesrelatedtothismethod:theroleofexplicitknowledgeinlanguagelearningandthevalueofdiscoveryasageneralmethodoflearning(Ellis,2002a)vT:Whatcanyouseeinthepicture,class?vSs:Wecanseeabox,abigbox.vT:Isitheavy?vSs:Yes,it’sveryheavy.Itis200kg.vT:CanIcarryit?vSs:No,youcan’t.vT:Youareright.Ican’tcarryit.Why?Becauseitistooheavytocarry.TeachinggrammarusinglisteningasinputvEllis(2002b)suggeststhefollowingproceduresforteachinggrammarusinglisteningasinput.SynthesisapproachvPennington(2002)(p.107)proposesasynthesisapproachtogrammarpedagogy.vGrammarteachingshouldbe“collocational,constructive,contextualandcontrastive”,whichcanserveasusefulguidelinesforteachinggrammar.(PP.107-108)3GrammarpracticevAccordingtoUr,“practicemaybedefinedasanykindofengagingwiththelanguageonthepartofthelearner,usuallyundertheteachersupervision,whoseprimaryobjectiveistoconsolidatelearning”.(Ur,1988:11)(p.108)Sixfactorscontributetosuccessfulpractice:Pre-learning.Learnersbenefitfromclearperceptionandshort-termmemoryofthenewlanguage.Volumeandrepetition.Themoreexposuretoorproductionoflanguagethelearnershave,themorelikelytheyaretolearn.Success-orientation.Practiceismosteffectivewhenbasedonsuccessfulpractice.ØHeterogeneity.Practiceshouldbeabletoelicitdifferentsentencesandgeneratedifferentlevelsofanswersfromdifferentlearners.ØTeacherassistance.Theteachershouldprovidesuggestions,hintsandprompts.ØInterest:anessentialfeaturethatiscloselyrelatedtoconcentrationTwocategoriesofpractice:MechanicalpracticemeaningfulpracticeMechanicalpracticeMechanicalpracticeinvolvesactivitiesthatareaimedatformaccuracy.e.g.vSubstitutiondrills:vTransformationdrills:Substitutetheunderlinedpartwiththeproperformsofthegivenwords:greenlawncleanhouseprettygardenniceflowersMrsGreenhasthelargesthouseintown.Changethefollowingsentencesintothepasttense.Usetheadverbsgiveninthebrackets.vNowhelivesinLondon.(lastyear,Paris)vWehaveEnglishandmathstoday.(yesterday,musicandP.E.)vHeusuallygetsupatseven.(thismorning,eight)QuestionsfordiscussionvWhatisthepurposeofmechanicalpractice?vWhataretheadvantagesanddisadvantageofmechanicalpractice?MeaningfulpracticevInmeaningfulpracticethefocusisontheproduction,comprehensionorexchangeofmeaning,thoughthestudents“keepaneyeon”thewaynewlylearnedstructuresareusedintheprocess.e.g.Afterthepresentationandmechanicalpracticeofadjective19\ncomparativesandsuperlatives:Pairwork:Lookatthetablebelow.Ranktheitemsontheleftcolumnaccordingtothecriterialistedonthetop.Thestudentsmaycomeupwith:vIthinkbeerischeaperthanfruit.vNo,no,Ithinkfruitischeaperthanbeer.Thereisnoclear-cutdistinctionbetweenmechanicalpracticeandmeaningfulpractice.ChainofeventsTeacher:Nowletsplayagame.Thefirststudentstartsasentencewithasecondconditionalclause.Thenextstudenttakestheresultofthesentence,reformsitintoanotherconditionandsuggestsafurtherresult.Forexample,thefirststudentsays“IfIhadamilliondollars,Iwouldbuyayacht”.Thesecondstudentssays“IfIboughtayacht,Iwouldgoforasail”.…Thestudentsmaycomeupwith:vIfIwentforasail,theremightbeastorm.vIftherewereastorm,myyachtwouldsink.vIfmyyachtsank,Iwoulddie.vIfIdied,myparentswouldcry.v…AteachingpracticetaskforyouvSupposeyouhavejustpresentedthesimplepasttensetoagroupofJunior2students.Designamechanicalpracticeactivityandameaningfulpracticeactivity.Writeoutthestepsandgiveaminidemonstrationinyourpracticegroup.(p.111)UsingpromptsforpracticePracticebasedonpromptsisusuallymeaningfulpractice.vUsingpictureprompts.vUsingmimeorgesturesasprompts.vUsinginformationsheetasprompts.vUsingkeyphraseorkeywordsasprompts.vUsingchainedphrasesforstorytelling.vUsingcreatedsituations.UsinginformationsheetaspromptsTeacher:Whataboutyou?Tellyourneighbour.Usingcreatedsituations:forsimulativecommunicationvYourareastrangerinthistown.Youwanttobuysomefruit,youwanttopostaletter,andyoualsowanttoseeamovieatnight.Askabouttheplaces.SummaryofUnit7vPerhapstherewillneverbeasolutiontothedebateonthevalueofteachinggrammar,becauselanguageteachingandlearningcontextsvarysogreatly.vItshouldbenotedthatlearninggrammaritselfisnottheultimategoaloflearningEnglish.vTheunderstandingofhowtoteachgrammarisascontroversial有争议的asthatofthevalueofteachinggrammar.vWebelievethatbothmechanicalpracticeandmeaningfulpracticearenecessary.Principlesonteachinggrammar•Teachonlythoserulesthataresimpleandtypical.•Teachusefulandimportantgrammarpoints.•Teachgrammarincontext.•Usevisibleinstrumentssuchascharts,tables,diagrams,maps,drawings,andrealia(pl.ofrealis)toaidunderstanding;•Avoiddifficultgrammaticalterminologiesasmuchaspossible.•Allowenoughopportunitiesforpractice.•Livewiththestudents’mistakesanderrors.VocabularyTeachingvVocabularyteachingisnotanisolatedactivity.vVocabularyteachingisalsoacooperationvThepurposeofEnglishvocabularyteachingistohelpstudentsdeveloptheabilitiesofusingEnglishforcommunicationandofacquiringknowledgeinthefuture.vHowtoteachvocabularyv●Whatstudentsneedtoknowv●Presentingvocabularyv●Consolidatingvocabularyv●DevelopingvocabularybuildingstrategiesBAND5v了解英语词汇包括单词，短语，习惯用语和固定搭配等形式；v理解和领悟词语的基本含义以及在此特定语境中的意义；v运用词汇描述事物，行为和特征，说明概念等；v学会使用1500-1600个单词和200-300个习惯用语或固定搭配；BAND8v运用词汇理解和表达不同的功能，意图和态度等；v在比较复杂的情况下，运用词汇给事物命名，进行指称，描述行为特征，说明概念等；v学会使用3300个左右的单词和400-500个习惯用语或固定搭配。"Withoutgrammarverylittlecanbeconveyed;withoutvocabularynothingcanbeconveyed.""Whenstudentstravel,theydon'tcarrygrammarbooks,theycarrydictionaries.”19\nvVocabularyteachingisanindispensablepartofEnglishcurriculum.vI.TheimportanceofvocabularyThesingularimportanceofvocabularyhasbecomeapowerfulinsighttoraiseachievement.v●Thewordsweknowhelpusorganizeourlearning.v●Thecreationofwordsisourtoolforincreasinglearning.vvVocabularyinstructionshouldbeafocalpointoflearning,especiallyforstudentsimpactedbypoverty.v●Vocabularyinstructionisanexcellentadvanceorganizerbutalsomustbetaughtincontext.vTeachersshouldchooseproperwaystoinstructwords.Manyteachersoftenwritenewwordstheywanttoteachontheblackboard,thenexplainthemonebyone.Thewayiseasyforteacherstoteach,whileitisn'tinterestingforstudentstolearn．Itmakesstudentsfeelbored.vSelectingwhattoteach,basedonfrequencyandusefulnesstotheneedsofyourparticularstudentsisthereforeessential.8.1Whattoteach?Whatdoesitmeantoknowaword?v▲Knowingawordmeansknowingitspronunciationandstress;v▲Knowingawordmeansknowingitsspellingandgrammaticalproperties;v▲Knowingawordmeansknowingitsmeaning;v▲Knowingawordmeansknowinghowandwhentouseittoexpresstheintendedmeaning.WordsandtheirmeaningsvDenotativemeaningv　　　Denotativemeaningofawordoralexicalitemreferstothosewordsthatweusetolabelthingsasregardsrealobjects,suchasanameorasign,etc.inthephysicalworld.Thisisusuallytheprimarymeaningofawordandmayseemrelativelyeasytolearn.vForexample,theword“niece”and“nephew”inEnglishrefertoone’sbrothers’orsisters’daughtersandsons,whileinChinesethereisadistinctionmadebetweenthenamesusedtodescribeone’sbrother’schildrenandofone’ssister’s.vConnotativemeaningv　　　Aconnotativemeaningofawordrefersto‘theattitudesoremotionsofalanguageuserinchoosingawordandtheinfluenceoftheseonthelistenerorreader’sinterpretationoftheword’(Hedge:2000:112).WordsandtheirformsvWordgrammarvThehighlightingofregularandirregularforms,e.g.regularorirregularverbs;countable,uncountablenounsorboth;adjectivesfollowedbyaprepositionorcomplementarystructure,e.g.interestedin;andadverbshavingthesameformastheadjectives,e.g.fast.vKnowedgeofwordbuilding:vAffixation(e.g.man,manly,unmanly,unmanliness)vCompounding(e.g.policeman,time-consuming,babysit)vConversion(e.g.haveaswim(n.)→swim(v.))vPronunciationWordsandtheirusev1)Stylev2)Collocationsv3)Synonyms,antonymsandhyponymsv4)Receptiveandproductivevocabulary8.2HowToTeachVocabulary1.ThemosteffectivewayisteachingvocabularyINCONTEXT.Therearetwoadvantages:1)studentsrememberthewordsbetter.2)studentsseeHOWthewordsareused.2.Useallkindsofstories:3.Teachingbyusingword-formation:v4.Modeltheactivitiesfirst.5.Keepanongoinglistprominentlyposted.6.Gobeyondthedefinitionsofthewords.7.Mostworkwithvocabularyshouldbedonewiththemeaningsavailable.8.Incorporatemultisensorylearningfromthebeginning.9.Havestructureandorganizationbehindthewordsyoupresent.v10.offeringwordswhichhavethesamesemanticfieldoffunction.v11.offeringdifferentpartsofspeech.v12.makingsentences.v13.askingstudentstoreadadditionalEnglisharticles.v14.learningtextsinEnglishtextbooks.v15.listeningtothetapesforEnglishtextbooks8.3Waystopresentvocabularyv1.Presentingvocabulariesbystickdrawings,models,slides,films,videotapes,radiosandTVs.19\nv3.IllustrationThisisveryusefulformoreconcretewords(dog,rain,tall)andforvisuallearners.Ithasitslimitsthough,notallitemscanbedrawn.v4.MimeThislendsitselfparticularlywelltoactionverbsanditcanbefunandmemorable.v5.Synonyms/Antonyms/GradableitemsUsingthewordsthestudentsalreadyknowcanbeeffectiveforgettingmeaningacross.v6.DefinitionMakesurethatitisclear(maybecheckinalearnerdictionary)beforethelessonifyouarenotconfident.Remembertoaskquestionstochecktheyhaveunderstoodproperly.v7.TranslationIfyouknowthestudents'L1,thenitisfastandefficient.Rememberthatnoteverywordhasadirecttranslation.v8.ContextThinkofaclearcontextwhenthewordisusedandeitherdescribeittothestudentsorgivethemexamplesentencestoclarifymeaningfurther.Consolidatingvocabularyv1.Labeling;v2.Spotthedifferences;v3.Describeanddraw;v4.Playagame;v5.Useawordthermometers;v6.Usewordseries;v7.Wordbingo;v8.Wordassociation;v9.Oddmanout;v10.Synonymsandantonyms;v11.Usingwordcategories;v12.Usingwordnet-work.v13.UsingtheinternetresourcesformoreideasDevelopingvocabularybuildingstrategiesv1.Reviewregularlyv2.Guessmeaningfromcontextv1)synonymsorantonymsinthecontextv2)referencewordsv3)collocationsbetweenwordsv3.Organizevocabularyeffectivelyv1)imagesandassociationsv2)grouping(semanticmeaning,use,collocation,synonyms)v4.Useadictionaryv5.Managestrategyusev6.UselearnedvocabularyTeachingListeningDiscussionlWhydoeslisteningseemsodifficult?lWhatdowelistentoineverydaylife?9.1CharacteristicsofthelisteningprocesslSpontaneitylContextlVisualaidslListener’sresponselSpeaker’sadjustment9.2ObjectivesoflisteningskillteachinginmiddleschoolsBand5l能根据语调和重音理解说话者的意图；l能听懂有关熟悉话题的谈话，并能从中提取信息和观点；l能借助语境克服生词障碍，理解大意；l能听懂接近正常语速的故事和记叙文，理解故事的因果关系；l能在听的过程中用适当方式做出反应；l能针对所听语段的内容记录简单信息。Band7l能识别语段中的重要信息并进行简单的推断；l能听懂操作性指令，并能根据要求和指令完成任务；l能听懂正常语速听力材料中对人和物的描写，情节发展及结果；l能听懂有关熟悉话题的谈话并能抓住要点；l能听懂熟悉话题的内容，识别不同语气所表达的不同态度；l能听懂一般场合的信息广播，例如：天气预报。Band8l能识别不同语气所表达的不同情感；l能听懂有关熟悉话题的讨论和谈话并记住要点；l能抓住一般语段中的观点；l能基本听懂广播或电视英语新闻的主题或大意；l能听懂委婉的建议或劝告等。9.2Principlesforteachinglisteningl1)Combinelisteningwithotherskillsl2)Focusonthecomprehensionofmeaningl3)Gradedifficultylevelappropriatelyl4)PrinciplesforselectingandusinglisteningactivitiesOxford(1993:210)summarizesthefollowingprinciplesforselectingandusingL2listeningactivities:(Page141)9.3ModelsforteachinglisteninglBottom-upmodel19\nSound→meaningofthewords→meaningofphrases→meaningofstructureslTop-downmodelPriorknowledgeorschematicknowledge9.4ThreeteachingstageslPre-listening,duringwhichteachershelpthestudentspreparetolisten;lWhile-listening,duringwhichthefocusofstudents’attentionisledtothelisteningtextandtheteacherscanguidethestudentsandhelpthemunderstandit;lPost-listening,duringwhichstudentsareofferedwithopportunitiestointegratewhattheylearnedfromthetextintotheirexistingknowledgeandcommunicatewithothersusingtheinformatininlisteningtext.9.4.1Pre-listeningactivitieslPredictinglSettingthescene(Page146)lListeningforthegistlListeningforspecificinformation9.4.2While-listeningactivitieslNospecificresponseslListenandticklListenandsequencelListenandactlListenanddraw(page151)lListenandfilllListenandtakenoteslListenandmakejudgement8.4.3Post-listeningactivitieslMultiple-choicequestionslAnsweringquestionslNote-takingandgap-fillinglDictoglossPreparationDictationReconstructionAnalysisandcorrectionlExtentionoflisteninglSpeaking19