自考英语 现代语言学概念 25页

1.Linguistics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Phonology:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.3.Syntax:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax..4.Semantics:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.5.Pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.6.Psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.7.Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.8.Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.9.Morphology:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.10.Sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics,.11.Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheories\ntolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.1.arbitrariness:Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds2.Productivity:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.3.Displacement:Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker4.Duality:Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.5.Designfeatures:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication\n1.Competence:Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage。2.Performance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.3.langue:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently4.Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.5.phonetics:Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages。6.phonology:Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.7.phoneme:Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue.Butitisanabstractunit.Tobe\nexact,aphonemeisnotasound;itisacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.1.allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.2.internationalphoneticalphabet:Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.  3.intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.4.auditoryphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer'spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.5.acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.6.phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.7.phonemiccontrast:Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthe\nsameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.1.tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.2.minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.3.Suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofsoundsegments.Theyincludestress,intonationandtone.4.Morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.5.inflectionalmorphology:Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections6.derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.7.Morpheme:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.8.freemorpheme:Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithother\nmorphemes.1.boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.2.Root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.3.Affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.4.Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.                 5.Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.6.Derivation:Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.\n1.Compounding:Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.2.syntax:Syntaxisasubfieldoflinguistics.Itstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Itconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.3.Sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectandapredicatewhichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.4.coordinatesentence:Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinator/coordinatingconjunction,suchas"and","but","or".5.Finiteclause:aclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverbandstandsstructurallyalone.6.syntacticcategories:Apartfromsentencesandclauses,asyntacticcategoryusuallyreferstoaword(calledalexicalcategory)oraphrase(calledaphrasalcategory)thatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction.7.grammaticalrelations:Thestructuralandlogicalfunctional\nrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.Inmanycases,grammaticalrelationsinfactrefertowhodoeswhattowhom.1.linguisticcompetence:Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.2.Transformationalrules:Transformationalrulesaretherulesthattransformonesentencetypeintoanothertype.3.Branchingnodes:Inatreediagram,thepointsatwhichthetreebranchesatvariouslevelsarecalledbranchingnodes.4.Hierarchyicalstructure:thesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituents,suchasNPandVP.5.Phrasestructurerules:arewriterulethatallowsforthepossiblecombinationsofwordstoformphrasesandsentences.6.X-bartheory:ageneralandhighlyabstractshemathatcapturesallphrasestructurerulesintoasingleformat:X”-->(Spec)X(Compl)\n1.S-structure:alevelofsyntacticrepresentaiotnaftertheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement2.D-structure:D-structureisthelevelofsyntacticrepresentationthatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace.Phrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure.3.UniversalGrammar:asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguages.4.Semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.5.Sense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualised.6.Reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience7.Synonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.8.Polysemy:Polysemyreferstothefactthatthesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.\n1.Homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.2.homophones:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarecalledhomophones3.homographs:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.4.completehomonyms:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecalledcompletehomonyms.5.Hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.6.Antonymy:Antonymyreferstotherelationofoppositenessofmeaning.7.Componentialanalysis:Componentialanalysisisawaytoanalyzewordmeaning.Itwasproposedbystructuralsemanticists.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedividedintomeaningcomponents,whicharecalledsemanticfeatures.8.Thegrammaticalmeaning:Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceis\ngovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.1.predication:Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.2.argument:Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication.Itisgenerallyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.3.predicate:Apredicateissomethingthatissaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.4.two-placepredication: Atwo-placepredicationisonewhichcontainstwoarguments.5.pragmatics:Pragmaticscanbedefinedasthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.   6.Context:Generallyspeaking,itconsistsoftheknowledgethatissharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.     7.utterancemeaning:themeaningofanutteranceis\nconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.1.sentencemeaning:Themeaningofasentenceisoftenconsideredastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.    2.Constative:Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwereverifiable;      3.Performative:performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.Theirfunctionistoperformaparticularspeechact.  4.locutionaryact:Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.     5.illocutionaryact:Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.   6.perlocutionaryact:Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbythe\nutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.1.CooperativePrinciple:ItisprincipleadvancedbyPaulGrice.Itisaprinciplethatguidesourconversationalbehaviours.Thecontentis:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeorthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.2.Apocope:Apocopeisthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.3.Metathesis:Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovementisknownasmetathesis.Itinvolvesareversalinpositionoftwoneighbouringsoundsegments.4.Derivation:Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stemsorwords.5.back-formation:Itisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesupposedsuffixofanexistingword.6.semanticnarrowing:Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.7.Cognate:wordsthathavedescendedfromacommonsource.8.Protolanguage:Itistheoriginalformofalanguagefamily\nthathasceasedtoexist.1.Haplology:Itreferstothephenomenonofthelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence.2.Epenthesis:Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownasepenthesis.3.Compounding:Itisaprocessofcombiningtwoormorethantwowordsintoonelexicalunit. 4.Blending:Itisaprocessofforminganewwordbycombiningpartsofotherwords.5.semanticbroadening:Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthe meaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.6.semanticshift:Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.7.GreatVowelShift:ItisaseriesofsystematicsoundchangeattheendoftheMiddleEnglishperiodapproximatelybetween1400and1600inthehistoryofEnglishthatinvolvedsevenlongvowelsandconsequentlyledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishpronunciationanditsspellingsystem.\n1.Acronym:Anacronymisawordcreatedbycombiningtheinitialsofanumberofwords.     2.soundassimilation:Soundassimilationreferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Inanassimilativeprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidentical,ormoresimilar,tooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation,orofhaplology.3.sociolinguistics:Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinsocialcontexts.4.speechcommunity:Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechcommunityoraspeechcommunityisagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Theimportantcharacteristicofaspeechcommunityisthatthemembersofthegroupmust,insomereasonableway,interactlinguisticallywithothermembersofthecommunity.Theymaysharecloselyrelatedlanguagevarieties,aswellasattitudestowardlinguisticnorms.5.speechvariety:Speechvariety,alsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,\nphonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.1.languageplanning:languagestandardizationisknownaslanguageplanning.Thismeansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.2.Idiolect:Anidiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother.Inanarrowersense,whatmakesupone’sidiolectincludesalsosuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm,whichallcontributetotheidentifyingfeaturesinanindividual'sspeech.3.standardlanguage:Thestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.4.nonstandardlanguage:Languagevarietiesotherthanthe\nstandardarecallednonstandardlanguages1.linguafranca:Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.2.pidgin:Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.3.Creole:ACreolelanguageisoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.4.diglossia:Diglossiausuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.5.Bilingualism:Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.6.ethnicdialect:Withinasociety,speechvariationmaycomeaboutbecauseofdifferentethnicbackgrounds.Anethniclanguagevarietyisasocialdialectofalanguage,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.Anethnicdialectis\nspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.1.Sociolect:Socialdialects,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.2.register:Registersarelanguagevarietieswhichareappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarietiesthatareassociatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.Formatreason,registersarealsoknownassituationaldialects.3.Slang:Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnon-standardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.4.taboo:taboo,orratherlinguistictaboo,denotesanyprohibitionbythepolitesocietyontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.5.euphemism:Aeuphemism,then,isamild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,\nunpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.1.Psycholinguistics:Psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.2.brainlateralization:  Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsina   particularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledbrainlateralization.3.dichoticlistening:aresearchtechniquewhichhasbeenusedtostudyhowthebraincontrolshearingandlanguage,withwhichsubjectswearearphonesandsimultaneouslyreceivedifferentsoundsintherightandleftear,andarethenaskedtorepeatwhattheyhear.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Abasicassumption,thus,wouldbethatasignalcomingintherightearwillgotothelefthemisphereandasignalcomingintheleftearwillgototherighthemisphere.4.Broca'sarea:Itreferstothefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemisphere,whichis vitaltolanguage.ThisareaisdiscoveredbyPaulBroca,aFrenchsurgeonandanatomist.5.angulargyrus:TheangulargyrusliesbehindWernicke'sarea.Theangulargyrus isthelanguagecenterresponsible\nforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.Thisareaiscrucialforthematchingofaspokenformwithaperceivedobject,forthenamingofobjects,andforthecomprehensionofwrittenlanguage,allofwhichrequireconnectionsbetweenvisualandspeechregions.1.cerebralplasticity:AccordingtoLenneberg,priortotheendofthecriticalperiod,bothhemispheresareinvolvedtosomeextentinlanguageandonecantakeoveriftheotherisdamaged.Thisneurologicalflexibilityiscalledcerebralplasticity.2.linguisticdeterminism:atheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorf,whichstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedbythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.3.cerebralcortex:theoutsidesurfaceofthebrainwhichreceivesmessagesfromallthesensoryorgansandwherehumancognitiveabilitiesreside.4.linguisticlateralization:Itrefersthebrain’sneurologicalspecializationforlanguage.5.rightearadvantage:Thespeechsignalspresentedintherighteargoesdirectlytotheleftbrain,whilethespeechsignalsintheleftearmustfirstgototherighthemisphere,\nfromwhereitistransferredtotheleftsideofthebrainforprocessing.Sincethespeechsignalsinthelefteartakesanon-directrouteandalongertimebeforeprocessingthanalinguisticsignalreceivedthroughtherightear,linguisticstimuliheardinthelefteararereportedlessaccuratelythanthoseheardintherightear.Thisphenomenoniscalledtherightearadvantage.1.criticalperiodhypothesis:Thecriticalperiodhypothesisreferstoaperiodinone'slifeextendingfromaboutagetwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,swiftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.2.Sapir-Whorfhypothesis:atheoryputforwardbytheAmericananthropologicallinguistsSapirandWhorfwhichstatesthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage.3.linguisticrelativism:Whorfbelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground,hencethenotionoflinguisticrelativism.4.subvocalspeech:atermusedtorefertothoughtwhenthoughtandlanguageareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeach\nother.1.overtthought:Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardspeechas"overtthought.”2.intrapersonalcommunication:Itmeansthatlanguageusersuselanguagetofacilitatesthinking,speechbehaviorandactionfortheindividual.3.interpersonalcommunication:Itmeanslanguageusersuselanguagetoconveyinformation,thoughtsandfeelingsfromonepersontoanother,ortocontroleachother'sbehavior.4.caretakerspeech:Itisthemodifiedspeechtypicallyaddressedtoyoungchildren.Suchmodifiedspeechiscalled babytalk,motherses,orparentese.5.holophrasticsentences:Theyarechildren'sone-wordutterances.Theyarecalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.6.telegraphicspeech:Theyaretheearlymultiwordutterancesofchildrenwhichtypicallylackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalcategories.Somefunctionwordsarealtogethermissing.Whatoccurinthese\nmultiwordutterancesareusuallythe"substantive"or"content"wordsthatcarrythemainmessage.Becauseoftheirresemblancetothestyleoflanguagefoundintelegrams,utterancesatthisacquisitionstageareoftencalledtelegraphicspeech.1.secondlanguageacquisition:Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)isageneraltermwhichreferstotheacquisitionofasecondlanguage(L2),incontrastwithfirstlanguageacquisition(FLA).SLAisalsousedasageneraltermtorefertotheacquisitionofaforeignorsubsequentlanguage(suchasathirdorfourthlanguage).Thus,SLAisprimarilythestudyofhowlearnersacquireorlearnanadditionallanguageaftertheyhaveacquiredtheirfirstlanguage(LI).2.Acquisition:AccordingtoKrashen,acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.3.Learning:Learning,however,isdefinedbyKrashenasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.4.Transfer:Itreferstothephenomenonthatlearners\nsubconsciouslyusetheirLIknowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.1.Interlanguage:Itisaseriesofinternalrepresentationsthatcomprisesthelearner'sinterimknowledgeofthetargetlanguage.ThisisthelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.Interlanguageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctfromthelearner'snativeandtargetlanguages.Itrepresentsthelearner'stransitionalcompetencemovingalongalearningcontinuumstretchingfromone'sLIcompetencetothetargetlanguagecompetence.2.Fossilization:itisaprocessthatsometimesoccursinsecondlanguagelearninginwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesinthetargetlanguage.3.instrumentalmotivation:Adultsaremotivatedtolearnasecondlanguageinordertouseitfunctionally.Inotherwords,thelearnersdesiretolearnasecondlanguagebecauseitisusefulforsomefunctional,“instrumental”goals.Thismotivationiscalledinstrumentalmotivation.4.integrativemotivation:Adultsaremotivatedtolearnasecondlanguageinordertouseitsocially.Inotherwords,\nthelearnerslearnasecondlanguageinordertocommunicatewithnativespeakersofthetargetlanguage.1.Acculturation:ItistheprocessofadaptingtothenewcultureoftheL2community.