现代语言学 串讲笔记-(30242) 30页

--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---《现代语言学》串讲笔记（1）一绪论1Linguisitics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescienticstudyoflanguage2Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticscommunicationiscalledphonetics.Forexample,vowelsandconsonants3Phonology”:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.Forexample,phone,phoneme,andallophone.4Morphology:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.Forexample,boyand“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5Syntax:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.Foresample,”Johnlikelinguistics.”6Semantics:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.Forexample,:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.”Thesealcouldnotbefound,Thekingbecameworried.”Herethewordsealmeansdifferentthings.7Pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.Forexample,“Ido”Theworddomeansdifferentcontext.8Sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyis--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---calledsociolinguistics.Forexample,regionaldialects,socialvariationinlanguage.9Psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetoworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.二音系学1Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.2Phonology:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.3Phone:Phonecanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegement.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon’t.4Phoneme:Phonologyisconcernedwiththespeechsoundswhichdistinguishmeaning.Thebasicunitinphonologyiscalledphoneme;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.5allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.6Complementarydistribution:Thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincompkenebtarydistribution.7Minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegementwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthe--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---stings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.8Stress:Whenacertainsyllableofawordisstressed,itmeansthatthesyllableisprouncedwithgreatforcethantheotherorothers.9tones:Tonesarepitchvariation,whicharecausedbythedifferentratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephoneme;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegementalfeature.10intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleinconveyingmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish{$isbest}三形态学1morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammerwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2inflectionalmorphology:Inflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflectionsofword-formation.3derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.4morpheme:Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.5freemorpheme:Freemorphemearethemorphemeswhichare--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---independentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselcesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.6boundmorpheme:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.7root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.8affix:Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.9prefix:Prefixoccuratthebeginningofaword.10suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.11derivation:Derivationaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreataword.Derivationcanbeviewedastheaddingofaffixestostemtoformneswords.12compounding:Likederivation,compoundingisanotherpopularandimportantwayofformingnewwordsinEnglish.Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatnewwords.{$isbest}四句法学--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---1linguisticcompetence:Comskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.2sentence:Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatementquestionorcommand.3transformationrules:Syntacticmovementisgovernedbytransformationalrules.Theoperationofthetransformationalrulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.4D-structure:Asentencemayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation.Oneexistsbeforemovementtakeplace,theotheroccursaftermovementtakeplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationarecommonlytermedasD-structure.5Moveа:Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,i,e.theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveа{$isbest}《现代语言学》串讲笔记（2）Grammaticalrelations(语法关系)thestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.S-structure(表层结构):Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationafterthe--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---operationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.X-bar:ageneralandhighlyabstractschemathatcollapsesallphrasestructurerulesintoasingleformat:x”—(spec)X(comp.)Generalgrammar:asystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguage.Moveα:Ageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning:1.Thenamingtheory.Oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.2.Theconceptualistview(意念论):washoldsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretation（解释）ofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisviewissuggestedbyOgdenandRichards.3.Contextualism(语境论)：contextualismisbasedonthepresumption(假定)thatonecanderive(推导)meaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservable(可观测的)contexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized,thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---4.Behaviorism(行为主义论):behaviorismreferstotheattempt(企图)todefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakerutteritandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”(Bloomfied,1933).Thistheorysomewhatclosetocontextualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.SenseandreferenceReference（所指意义）:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Sense(意义):Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Majorsenserelations:1.synonymy(同义):referstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Synonymycanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:①Dialectalsynonyms(地域性同义词)---synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.Thesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.Suchas:AmericanEnglishandBritishEnglish.②Stylisticsynonyms(文体同义词)---synonymsdifferinginstyle.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality(礼节).Suchas:oldman,daddy,father.③synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning.④collocationalsynonyms(搭配上的区别)⑤semanticallydifferentsynonyms(语意上的差别)。Surpriseandamaze2.polysemy(多义)：referstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning;thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Forexample:table1apieceoffurniture2allthepeopleseatedatatable3thefoodthatisputonatable….3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymyreferstothephenomenon(现象)thatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.differentwordsareidentical(相同的)insoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophones(同音异意):refertotwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain/reignHomographs(同形异意):refertotwowordareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tearn./tearv.4.hyponymy(上下关系):referstothesenserelatingbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---Componentialanalysis(成分分析法):isawayproposebythestructuralsemanticists(语义学者)toanalyzewordmeaning.Thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Predicationanalysis(述谓分析法):isanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.Predicationistobreakdownthesentenceintotheirsmallerconstituents:argument(logicalparticipant)andpredicate(relationelement).Thepredicateisthemajororpivotalelementgoverningtheargument.Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless(无意义的)?Grammaticality—thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconformstothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisnotnecessarilysemanticallywell-formed,i.e.itmaynotmakesenseatall.Presupposition(先设前提):isasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.e.g.A:John’watchneedsrepairing.B:Johnhasawatch.IfAistrue,Bmustbetrue.Entailment(蕴涵):canbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.e.g.A:Markmarriedablonde--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---(金发碧眼的)heiress（女性继承人）.B:Markmarriedablonde.AisTthenBisT,Bisfalse,Aisfalse;Aisfalse,Bisnotfalse.《现代语言学》串讲笔记（3）4.     Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?(现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive（规定性）;itisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive（描述性）;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis"correct"ornot.5.     Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic（共时性）ordiachronic（历时性）?Why?    (Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.)Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.6.     Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---Why?    Modernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:    First,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.    Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.    Third,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.7.     Saussure是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.)Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevaries--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---frompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.8.     Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.)Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc…Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard(偶然的).9.     HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Andwhatistheirdifference?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---    TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.《现代语言学》串讲笔记（4）7).         Root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Forexample:theroot“geo-“combineswithanotherroot“-ology”,wegettheword“geology”.8).         Affix:morphemesmanifestingvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,suchas“-ing”,“-est”,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword,suchas“-ly”,“dis-“,“un-“.9).         Inflection（屈折）:themanifestationofvariousgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.10).     Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---11).     Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.12).     Stem:Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformhimself.13).     Derivation:Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.14).     Compounding:Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.2.     Whatdoesmorphologystudy?    Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Theaimofmorphologyistofindouttherulesaccordingtowhichwordsareformed.Forexample:“simplify”,“qualify”,“beautify”areformedbyadding“-ify”toeitheranadjectiveoranoun.3.     Whatisamorpheme?DescribewithexamplesthevarioustypesofmorphemesusedinEnglish.    Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningand--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---canbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.//Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”.//Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.//Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.4.     TrytofindoutthemeaningofthefollowingrootsinEnglishandgivetwoorthreewordsthatcontaineachofthem:    geo-—theearth:geology,geography    -ology—abranchoflearning:morphology,phonology    tele-—distant,far:telescope,television--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---《现代语言学》串讲笔记（5）Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.(sealmeaninganaquaticmammal)Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thekingbecameworried.(sealmeaningtheking'sstamp)4)   Behaviorism:ThecontextualistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield.Hedrewonbehavioristpsychologywhenhetriedtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformas"thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer".(Bloomfield,1933)  Thisbehavioristtheoryissomewhatclosetocontextualism.Itislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.3.     Whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?所指与意义有什么关系？Senseandreferencearetwotermsinthestudyofmeaning.(1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningthatdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.(2)Obviously,linguisticformshavingthesamesensemay--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---havedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Ontheotherhand,therearelessfrequentoccasionswhenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.“morningstar”and“eveningstar”.4.     Howmanymajorsenserelationsbetweenwords.1.synonymy,2.polysemy,3.homonymy,4.hyponymyand5.antonymy.5.     WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?(同义词的分类)1)   Dialectalsynonyms:DialectalsynonymsarewordswhichhavemoreorlessthesamemeaningandareusedindifferentregionaldialectssuchaspetroleuminBritishEnglishandgasolineinAmericanEnglish.  DialectalsynonymscanalsobefoundwithinBritish,orAmericanEnglishitself.Forexample,"girl"iscalled"lass"or"lassie"inScottishdialect.2)   Stylisticsynonyms:Stylisticsynonymsarewordswhichhavethesamemeaningbutdifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Someofthestylisticsynonymstendtobemoreformal,otherstendtobecasual,andstillothersareneutralinstyle.Forexample:oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent.3)   Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning:Theyarewordsthathavethesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser.Theemotionsoftheuserindicatetheattitudeor--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---bias（偏爱）oftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout,suchasthriftyandmiser.4)   Collocationalsynonyms:Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.Thatis,theygotogetherwithdifferentwords,forexample:accuse...of,charge...with,rebuke...for.5)   Semanticallydifferentsynonyms:Theyrefertothesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.Forexample,"amaze"and"astound"areverycloseinmeaningtotheword"surprise,"buttheyhaveverysubtledifferencesinmeaning.Whileamazesuggestsconfusionandbewilderment,"astound"suggestsdifficultyinbelieving.6.     Explainwithexamples“homonymy,”“polysemy,”and“hyponymy.”    Homonymy:differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth,butdifferentinmeaning.e.g.night—knight,tearv.—tearn.,fasta.—fastv.    Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning.e.g.earth–ourplanet,orthesoilonitssurface.    Hyponymy:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.(Thegeneralwordiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymsto--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---eachother.)e.g.furniture—table,bed.7.     Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?(反义关系可以分为哪几个类别？各有什么特征？)1)       Gradableantonyms:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapairsuchasfar/near,dark/bright,ugly/beautiful2)       Complementaryantonyms:apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.left/right,vacant/occupied,north/south3)       Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.father/daughter,doctor/patient8.     Whatarethemajorsenserelationsbetweensentences.1)       XissynonymouswithYe.g.X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yistrue,andifXisfalse,Yisfalse.2)       XisinconsistentwithYe.g.X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yisfalse,andifXisfalse,Yistrue.3)       XentailsY.(YisanentailmentofX.)(entails=beincludedin)--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---e.g.X:HehasbeentoFrance.Y:HehasbeentoEurope.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue,andifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse;IfYistrue,Xmaybetrueorfalse,andifYisfalse,Xisfalse.4)       XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX.)e.g.X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Ymustbetrue,andifXisfalse,Yisstilltrue;IfYistrue,Xiseithertrueoffalse,andifYisfalse,notruthvaluecanbesaidaboutX.9.     Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?    Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaning.Similarly,aphonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeaturesanditisthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.10.     Whatisgrammaticality?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?(P107-108)    Grammaticality:thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Asentencemaybewell-formedgrammatically,i.e.itconforms（使一致）tothegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage,butitisnotnecessarilysemanticallywell-formed,i.e.itmaynotmakesenseatall.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbytherulescalledtheselectionalrestrictions,i.e.constrainsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.Somesentencesmaybegrammaticallywellformed,i.e.theycomplyperfectlywiththegrammarrules,yettheymaynotbesemanticallymeaningful.Thereasonisthattheycontainwordswhicharenotsupposedtogotogether,thusviolatingtheselectionalrestrictions.11.     什么是述谓结构(predicationanalysis)？它有那些类型？Thepredicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication.Itisgenerallyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingthatissaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,thepredicationsmaybeclassifiedintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placeargument(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).Forexample:  Hiscarisnexttomycar.(Two-placepredication)  Heissinging.(One-placepredication)--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---  Itisraining.(No-placepredication)《现代语言学》串讲笔记（6）中华考试网(www.examw.com)  【大中小】  [2010年9月3日]-b)       Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.（不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）2)       Themaximofquality（质量准则）a)       Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）b)       Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）3)       Themaximofrelation（关联准则）：Berelevant.（说话要贴切。）4)       Themaximofmanner（方式准则）a)       Avoidobscurityofexpression.（避免晦涩的词语。）b)       Avoidambiguity.（避免歧义。）c)       Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)（说话要简短，避免累赘。）d)       Beorderly.（说话要有条理。）A.           DoyouknowwhereMr.Smithlives?B.           Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.    ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBdoesknowMr.--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---Smith'saddress.ThusBdoesnotgiveenoughinformationthatisrequired,andhehasfloutedthemaximofquantity.Therefore,suchconversationalimplicatureas"IdonotwishtotellyouwhereMr.Smithlives"isproduced.A.           Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?B.           I'mafraidI'mnotfeelingsowelltoday.    ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBisnothavinganyhealthproblemthatwillpreventhimfromgoingtoaparty.ThusBissayingsomethingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandheisviolatingthemaximofquality.Theconversationalimplicature"Idonotwanttogotoyourpartytonight"isthenproduced.A.           Thehostessisanawfulbore.Don'tyouthink?B.           Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren'tthey?    ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatitisentirelypossibleforBtomakeacommentonthehostess.ThusBissayingsomethingirrelevanttowhatAhasjustsaid,andhehasfloutedthemaximofrelation.Theconversationalimplicature"Idon'twishtotalkaboutthehostessinsucharudemanner"isproduced.A.           Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B.           Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.    ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingtheword"ice-cream."ThusBhasfloutedthemaximof--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---manner.Theconversationalimplicature"Idon’twantthekidstoknowwearetalkingaboutice-cream"isthenproduced.1.     Defineorexplainthefollowingterms:1)       historicallinguistics:asubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange(orhistoricaldevelopmentoflanguage).2)       diachroniclinguistics:atermusedinsteadofhistoricallinguisticstorefertothestudyoflanguagechangeatvariouspointsintimeandatvarioushistoricalstages.3)       OldEnglish:amajorperiodinthehistoryofEnglishdevelopmentthatbeganin449andendedin1100.4)       MiddleEnglish:amajorperiodinthehistoryofEnglishdevelopmentthatbeganwiththearrivaloftheNormanFrenchinvadersinEnglandin1100andendedin1500.《现代语言学》串讲笔记（7）中华考试网(www.examw.com)  【大中小】  [2010年9月3日]-16)   slang:Slangisacasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnon-standardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashy浮华的andoftenephemeral短暂的coinages创新词andfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneity自发性andsometimesbyraciness活泼，充满活力.17)   linguistictaboo:anobscene猥亵的,profane,亵渎的orswear--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---wordorexpressionthatisprohibitedfromgeneralusebytheeducatedand“polite”society.18)   euphemism:awordorexpressionthatisthoughttobemild,indirect,orlessoffensiveandusedasapolitesubstituteforthesupposedlyharshandunpleasantwordorexpression.19)   Domain使用域:Domainreferstothephenomenonthatmostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,thatis,fairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituations.Forexample:theHomeDomain,EmploymentDomainetc.2.     Whatarethedistinctionsbetweenbilingualismanddiglossia?    Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedinaspeechcommunity;whereasinadiglossiccommunity,twovarietiesoflanguageareusedfordifferentsituations,onebeingmorestandardandhigher,andusedformoreformalmatters,andtheotherlessprestigious,andusedforcolloquialsituations.3.     DescribethreefeaturesofBlackEnglish,includingatleastonephonologicalandonesyntacticcharacteristics.1)       OneofthephonologicalfeaturesofBlackEnglishisthesimplificationofaconsonantclusterattheendofawordbydroppingtheword-finalphoneme.Asaresult,forexample,“pass,”--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---“past”and“passed,”areallpronouncedthewayas“pass”is.2)       OneofthesyntacticfeaturesofBlackEnglishistheconstantabsenceofthecopula,suchasin“Thatmine”and“Thecoffeecold.”3)       AnothersyntacticfeatureofBlackEnglishisthesystematicuseoftheexpression“itis“whereStandardEnglishuses“thereis“inthesenseof“thereexists”:“IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?”4)       AnothersyntacticfeaturethatcharacterizesBlackEnglishisthedoublenegationconstructionwithsentenceslike“Idon’tknownobody”,and“Hedon’tgonowhere.”4.     Thefollowingwordsareconsideredinstances（实例）ofsexistlanguage.Findalternativestothesemasculine-markedwords:1)       businessman→businessexecutive2)       cleaningwoman→housekeeper3)       forefather→ancestor4)       housewife→homemaker5)       kinsman→relative6)       layman→nonspecialist7)       spokesman→speaker,representative8)       statesman→leader9)       stewardess→flightattendant10)   workmanship→skilledjob,qualityjob11)   mankind→people--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---12)   manpower→personnel13)   mothering→nurturing14)   chairman→chair/moderator15)   mailman→postalworker/lettercarrier16)   fireman→firefighter17)   policeman→policesafetyofficer18)   salesman→salesrepresentative19)   dustman→sanitationengineer20)   toman(v.)→tooperate5.     Listseveralwaysinwhichthespeechofwomenandthespeechofmendifferfromeachother.《现代语言学》串讲笔记（8）中华考试网(www.examw.com)  【大中小】  [2010年9月3日]- Thecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisitioncoincideswiththetimeduringwhichthebrain’shemisphericlateralizationforlanguageandothercognitiveskillstakesplace.Itisbelievedthattheendofthecriticalperiodcorrespondstothecompletionofthislateralizationprocess.Evidenceinsupportofthecriticalperiodhypothesiscomesfromthefactthatchildrenacquiringtheirfirstlanguagebeyondthecriticalagearehardlysuccessful,suchasthecaseof“Genie.”    Aphasicstudiesalsoseemtosupportthecriticalperiodhypothesis:--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---itisreportedthatpreadolescentchildrensufferingdamagetothelefthemisphereareabletotransfertheirlanguagecenterstotherighthemisphereandreacquirethelostlinguisticskills.Furthersupportingevidencecomesfromstudiesinthefieldofsecondlanguageacquisition:adultsexperiencemuchgreaterdifficultyinlearningasecondorforeignlanguage,incontrasttoyoungchildren,whoareknowntobeexcellentsecondlanguagelearners.11.     AccordingtothestrongversionoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,languagedeterminesspeakers’perceptionsandpatternstheirwayoflife.Howinyourviewdoeslanguagerelatetothoughtandculture?    Languagedoesnotsomuchdeterminethewaythespeakerperceivestheworldasitfunctionsasameansbywhichinformationcanbestoredandretrieved,bywhichaculturetransmitsitsbelief,valuesandnorms,andbywhichthespeakerinteractswithothermembersoftheculture.12.     Howarelanguageandthoughtrelatedtoeachother?Languageandthoughtmaybeviewedastwoindependentcirclesoverlappinginsomeparts,wherelanguageandthoughtareconsistentwitheachotherandoneneveroccurswithouttheother.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtas“subvocalspeech”,andspeechas--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---“overtthought.Insuchacase,speakingandthinkingtakeplacesimultaneously.1.     Defineorexplainthefollowingterms:1)       languageacquisition:ageneraltermusedtrefertothedevelopmentofaperson’sfirst,second,orforeignlanguage.2)       input:thelanguagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.3)       caretakerspeech:simple,modifiedspeechusedbyparents,baby-sitter,etc.whentheytalktoyoungchildrenwhoareacquiringtheirnativelanguage.4)       behavioristlearningtheory:atheoryofpsychologywhich,whenappliedtofirstlanguageacquisition,suggeststhatthelearner’sverbalbehaviorisconditionedorreinforcedthroughassociationbetweenstimulusandresponse.5)       holophrase:asinglewordthatappearsinchildren’searlyspeechandfunctionsasacomplexideaorsentence.6)       Holophrasticsentences:Theyarechildren’sone-wordutterances.Theyarecalledholophrasticsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.7)       telegraphicspeech:theearlyspeechofchildren,socalledbecauseitlacksthesamesortsofwordswhichadultstypicallyleave--\n--WORD格式--专业资料--可编辑---outoftelegrams(suchasnon-substantivewords虚词andinflectionalmorphemes.)8)       Secondlanguageacquisition:Secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)isageneraltermwhichreferstotheacquisitionofasecondlanguage(L2),incontrastwithfirstlanguageacquisition(FLA).SLAisalsousedasageneraltermtorefertotheacquisitionofaforeignorsubsequentlanguage(suchasathirdorfourthlanguage).Thus,SLAisprimarilythestudyofhowlearnersacquireorlearnanadditionallanguageaftertheyhaveacquiredtheirfirstlanguage(LI).9)       Acquisition:AccordingtoKrashen,acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.10)   Learning:Learning,however,isdefinedbyKrashenasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.--