考研语言学复习题 11页

ReducedVowel:referringtoavowelwhichcanbeanalyzedascentralizedvariantofavowelinarelatedform.Forexample,thestressedvowelsintelegraphbecomereducedintherelatedwordtelegraphy.Released:atermusedinphoneticstorefertothetypeofmovementmadebythevocalorgansawayfromapointofarticulation,particularlywithreferencetoplosives.Englishplosives,forexample,maybereleasedwithorwithoutaspiration,orasalateralornasal.CasesofnounsornominalgroupsAgentive,instrumental,dative,factitive,locative,objective,benefactive,source,goal,comitativeAgentiveThisviolinwasmadebymyfather.Myfathermadethisviolin.InstrumentalHewaskilledwithabullet.Youcancutthebreadwiththatknife.Heexaminedthespecimenwithamicroscope.Dative(recipientorbeneficiary)Hecookedadinnerforher(intendedrecipient)Hegavethebooktomyfriend,(actualrecipient)FactitiveConstitutingatransitiveverb,suchaselect,thatinsomeconstructionstakesanobjectivecomplementtomodifyitsdirectobject.Theyelectedherthechairman.Theymadehimtheirmonitor.Hemadehisdressshort.LocativeHeisinLondon.Heiswaitingattheairport.ObjectiveHesupportedthefamilyforyears.BenefactiveHesoldherabike.Heborrowedme220yuans.SourceIborrowedthebookfromBill.HecomesfromScotlandGoalSheranatme.Sheshotathim.Shesmiledatme.\nAviciousdogwassnappingatherankles.ComitativeEspeciallywhenfollowedbyananimatecomplement,withhasthemeaning"incompanywith?or"togetherwith,(comitativefunction)Fmsogladyou9recomingwithus.Jack,withseveralofhisnoisyfriends,wasdrinkingtillafter2inthemorning.Theusesof“and”1).SignifyconsequenceorresultHeheardanexplosionandhe(therefore)phonedthepolice.2).ChronologicalsequenceIwashedthedishesand(then)1driedthem.3).ContrastRobertissecretiveand(incontrast)Davidiscandid.4).ConcessiveShetriedhardand(yet)shefailed.5).ConditionGivemesomemoneyand(then)Fllhelpyouescape.Onemorewordfromyou,andIphonethepolice.6).SimilarityAtradeagreementshouldbenoproblem,and(similarly)aculturalexchangecouldbeeasilyarranged.7).PureadditionHehaslonghairand(also)heoftenwearsjeans.8).CommentorexplanationTheydislikedJohn一andthat9snotsurprisinginviewofhisbehavio匚There9sonlyonethingtodonow一andthat9stoapologize.\nGrammaticalfunctionsofadverbialsAdjunct:predication/sentenceShekissedhermotheronthecheck.Shekissedhermotherontheplatform.Time,space,means(manner),instrument,agent(hewaskilledbyaterrorist)Respect:she，sadvisingthemlegally/onlegalissues.Contingency:reason,purposeHediditforhisson.They'vehavestoppedsmokingforfearofheartdisease.SubjunctWideorientation一viewpoint/courtesyArchitecturally,itisamagnificentconception.Wecordiallyinviteyoutoourparty.Narroworientation:item,emphasizer,intensifier,focusingCasually,Lesliegreetedstrangercasually.Sheisreallyintelligent.Wemayyetseeherelectedtothesenate.DisjunctstyledisjunctsType(a):modalityandmannerCandidly,flatly,honestly,seriously,strictly,truthfully,confidentially,privately,bluntly,generally,roughly,simply,briefly,broadlyType(b):respectFiguratively,generally,literally,metaphorically,personally,strictlyContentdisjunctsThespeaker^commentonthecontentofwhatissayingisoftwoprincipalkinds,whichcaninturnsubdivided.Type(a):degreeoftruthGroup(i):convictionAdmittedly,assuredly,definitely,indeed,undoubtedly,obviously,evidentlyGroup(ii):degreeofdoubtApparently,doubtless,likely,mostlikely,perhaps,possibly,presumably,seemingly,supposedly,reportedlyGroup(iii):judgmentoftruth,contrastwithrealityActually,really,factually,formally,ideally,nominally,officially,outwardly,superficially,theoreticallyType(B):valuejudgmentCorrectly,incorrectly,justly,unjustly,rightly,wronglyThesemanticsofconjuncts:Conjuncts(a),listing\n(i).Enumerativefirst(ly),second(ly),third(ly)....,one,two,three,...inthefirstplace,inthesecondplace,…,firstofall,secondofallattheonehand…ontheotherhand,foronething,…，foranotherforastart,tobeginwith,tostartwith,next,then,toconcludefinally,last,lastly,lastofall(ii).additiveEquative:Correspondingly,equally,likewise,similarly,inthesameway,bythesametokenReinforcing:Again,also,further,furthermore,more,moreover,inparticular,too,whaFsmore,inaddition,aboveall,ontopofitall,totopit,tocapit(b)summativealtogether,overall,then.therefore,,thus,allinall,inconclusion,insum,toconclude,tosumup,tosummarize©Appositivenamely,inotherwords,forexample,forinstance,thatis,thatistosay,specifically(d)resultiveaccordingly,consequently,hence,now,so,therefore,thus,;asaconsequence,inconsequence,asaresult,ofcouese(e).Inferentialelse,otherwise,then,inotherwords,inthatcase(f)-Contrastive(i)Refomulatorybetter,rather,moreaccurately,moreprecisely,alternatively(ii)replaciveagain,alternatively,rather,worse,ontheotherhand(iii)antitheticcontrariwise,conversely,instead,oppositely,onthecontrary,incontrast,bycontrast,bycontrast,in(by)comparison,bywayofcomparison(iv)concessiveanyhow,anyhow,anyways,however,nevertheless,still,though,inanycase,inanyevent,inspitethat,afterall,allthesame(g).transitional(i)discoursalincidentally,now,bytheway,bythebye(ii)temporalmeanwhile,meantime,inthemeantime,inthemeanwhile,originally,subsequently,eventually\nPrepositionsdenotingspatialrelationsPositiveposition(staticlocation)anddestination(movementtoanintendedlocation):at,to,on,onto,in,intoThereisacause-and-effectrelationshipbetweenthem.DestinationpositionAnnwenttoOxfordAnnwasatOxfordAnnwasontheroofAnnclimbedontotheroof-AnndivedintothewaterAnnwasinthewater.Sourceornegativeposition:awayfrom,off,outoffAnndrovefromhome.Thebookfellofftheself.Tomgotoutofthewater.RelativepositionRelativeverticalposition:above,over,ontopof,under,underneath,beneath,belowRelativehorizontalposition:infrontof,before,behind,afterSpace:by,beside,with,near,close,oppositeHewasstandingbythedoor(atthesideof).Ifeltthekeyswithmywallet,(inthesameplaceas)Shewassittingnear(closeto)meSpace:between,among,amongst,amid,amidstBetweenrelatesthepositionofanobjecttoadefiniteorexclusivesetofdiscreteobjects,whereasamongrelatestonondiscreteobjects.Thehousestandsbetweentwofarms.Thehousestandsamongfarms.Space:around,round,aboutAroundandroundrefertosurroundingpositionortomotion.Weweresittingaroundthecampfire.Relativedestination:over,under，behindHethrewablanketoverher.Whenitstartedtorain,weallwentunderneaththetree.Passage:over,under,behindWithverbsofmotion,prepositionsmayexpresstheideaofpassage(movementtowardsandthenawayfromaplace),aswellasdestinationhejumpedoveraditch.Someoneranbehindthegoalposts.Theballrolledunderneaththetable.Passage:across,through,pastTheballrolledover/acrossthelawn.Movementwithreferencetodirectionalpath:up,down,along,acrossWewalkedupthehillanddowntheotherside.Iwalkedupanddowntheplatform.\nOrientation:beyond,over,past,up，acrossMostprepositionswhichexpressrelativedestination,passage,andmovementwithreferencetoadirectionalpathcanbeusedinastaticsenseoforientation.Thisbringsinathirdfactorapartfromthetwothingsbeingspatiallyrelated:pointoforientateon,atwhichthespeakerisstanding.Theyliveacrossthemoor,(fromhere)Thevillageispastthebusstop/throughthewood.Herofficeisup/downthestairs.Welivejustaroundthecomer.Resultativemeaning:from,outof,over,pastPrepositions,whichhavethemeaningofmotion,canusuallyhavealsoastaticresultativemeaningwhencombinedwithbe,indicating“thestateofhavingreachedthedestination.Thehorsesjumpedoverthefence.Thehorsesareoverthefence,(havenowjumpedover)Itspresenceisoftensignaledbycertainadverbs(already,just,atlast,notyet).Resultativemeaningischaracteristicallyfoundwithnegativeprepositionsfrom,outof,orwithprepositionsof"passage”suchasacross,throughandpast.Atlastweareoutoftheforest.Whenyou^repastthenextobstacle,youcanrelax.Pervasivemeaning:over,through,with,etcOverandthrough,especiallywhenprecededbyall,havepervasivemeaning(eitherstaticormotional):Thatchildwasrunningallovertheflowerborders.Chaosreignedalloverthehouse.Theepidemichasspreadthroughthecountry.Therewerecrowdsallalongtheroute.Theyputflowersallaroundthestatue.EightsensesofoverPosition:alamphungoverthedoorDestination:theythrewablanketoverher.Passage:heclimbedoverthewalkOrientation:theylivedovertheroad,(onthefarsideof)Resulatative:atlastwewereoverthecrestofthehill.Pervasive(static):leaveslaythickallovertheground•Pervasive(motion):theysplashedwateralloverme.Accompanyingcircumstances:wediscusseditoveraglassofwine.PrepositionsdenotingtimeTimeposition:at,onin,byMeasurementintothefuture:inDuration:for,during,over,through,throughout\nFrom...to,until,uptoRangeofmeaningsotherthanplaceandtimeThecause/purposespectrumCause:shelostherjobbecauseofherage.Reason:hewasfinedfordrunkendriving.Motive:shediditoutofkindness.Purpose:everyoneranforshelte匚Destination:FmleavingforSeattle.Target:Thisnovelisaimedatayoungaudience.Themeans/agentivespectrumManner:sheperformedtheoperationwithgreatskill.Means:theyleftbyplane.Instrument:shetriedtoopenthelockwithaknife.Agentive:theywerenoticedbynoone.Stimulus:Fmastonishedatyourreaction.\nPresuppositiontriggersA.Verbs1.Implicativeverbs:manage,forgetE>g.Hemanagedtostopintime.Johnforgottolockthedoo匚2.factiveverbs:regret,realize,know,beaware,beodd,besorry,beproudthat,bedifferentthat,begladthat,besadthatE.g.MaryregretsdrinkingJohn'shomebrewIrealizedthatIhadmadeamistake.3.change-of-stateverbs:stop,begin,continueE.g.JohnstoppedbeatinghischildHebeganthinkingonthematter4.verbsofjudging:criticize,charge,repudiate,accuseBobcriticizedIanforrunningAgathaccusedBillofstealingthebook・B.Modifyingwords:a,the,'s,another,only,even,either,too,back,like,again,relatively,inspiteofHecameagain.MaryashusbandwenttoshanghaiAnearthquakecomeslikeathiefinthenight,withoutwarning.Johncamehomeinspiteofrain.C.PhrasesorclauseTimephraseorclause,comparativephraseorclause,non-truthconditionalclause,non-restrictiverelativeclause,cleftsentence,questionJohnisabetterdriverthancarolIfIdidn^thaveabadcold,Iwouldgotothebeachtoday.Myneighbor,whoisverypessimistic,saystherewillbenoapplesthisyea匚ItwasMarythatatethecake.5.5.VaguenessandAmbiguities5..1.whatisvagueness?Itreferstotheindeterminacyofmeaninginaphraseorsentence.FourtypesofvaguenessA.referentialvagueness(anaphoricvagueness)Exl:Tonysaidthathehadpassedtheexam.Ex2:City/townB.Indeterminacyofmeaning(thepossessiveconstruction)EX:John'sbook,John^strain,John'ssheetsC.lackofspecification:neighbour,togo(walking,running,goingonabike/onamotorbike)D.Causedby"either...or5'Theapplicantsforthejobarerequiredtohaveeitherafirst-classdegreeorsometeachingexperience.\n5.2Whatisambiguity?Itreferstoaphraseorsentencehasmorethanoneinterpretation/meaning.Threetypes:lexical,structural(grammatical)andPhonologicalambiguity5.2.1structuralambiguityA.causedbyrelativeclause(1)Marylikesthevaseonthecupboardwhichsheboughtyesterday.(2)Doyouhappentoknowthegentlemannexttotheladyreadingabook?(3)Therestoodabigbrickhouseatthefootofahill.(4)thefirstcourseatthedinnerwasChineseswallow-nestsoup.B・causedbyadverbial(5)theywantedjustforoncetoaskthebankerforhelp(6)thestudentswilldiscusstheirplantoholdadancingpartyintheclassroom.(7)SimontoldallhisclassmateswhatProfessorWilliamssaidyesterday.(8)1sawTonyinthebus(9)TheGeneralManagerpromisedabonusforeachemployeelater.(10)whatthepresidentsaidfinallyhaditsfar-reachingeffect.(11)Thecookbroilssteakrarely.(12)weweresurprisedtoknowthataJanecouldtelephoneherhusbandinprison(13)Myyoungersisterdoesn^tswimthebutterflystrokenormally.C・causedbycomparativeadverbial(14)IknowSimonbetterthanyou.(15)JohnlikedJaneaswellasTony.A.causedbyotherkindsofclause(16)GoandasktheDeanWhowillteachthefirstYearstudentsEnglishliterature.(17)Asmyparentsgrowold,theywillhavetoretirefromwork.(18)Tellmeifyouhavetime(19)ThenewsthatTonyhadsuccessfullypassedtheexamfinalyreachedus.B.causedbynegativewords(20)Marydidiftsingasshewished.(21)Janedoesn'tdancetopleasehermothe匸(22)Marywasn^treadingallthetime.(23)Simondidn'tpreparehislessonwellyesterday.(24)Themeetingwasnotcalledduetotheairlinestrike.C.causedbyinfinitiveclause(24)Thetigeristoosmalltokill.(25)Theoldcouplewerefriendlyenoughtohelp.(26)ItisgoodforFranklintodothat.D.causedbytransitiveverb+object(27)TheChairmanappointedMr.Brownanassistant.(28)IfoundJohnanexperienceddoctor.(29)Tonycalledhimselfarepairman.E.causedby"and"\n(24)Mr.Williamswasaprofessorandadramatistofgreatfame.\n(24)TheScholarwrotelongthesisandbooks.(25)Youcandanceandwatchthefootballmatchasyoulike.A.causedbytheindeterminacyofwordclassorsyntacticfunctionofwords(26)Youcantakethebigoneupstairs.(27)Canyouliftthattrunkoverthere?(28)Suddenlyweheardtheshipwhistle.B.causedbyinflection(29)Flyingplanescanbedangerous(30)Thewomaniscalculating.(39)Themiserablemanwasrelieved.(40)Therefugeeshaddiscardedclothes.5.2.2lexicalambiguityA.causedbypolysemyandhomonym(41)MrCollins,thepriest,isgoingtomarryJaneatthechurch.(42)Hewasatractedbytheball.(43)Thetouristspassedtheportatmidnight.(44)Letmedriveyoutothebank.(45).themanwasmad.B.causedbysemanticchange(46)InthehistoryMuseumvisitorwereattractedbyallkindsofmissilesonexhibition.(47)Pleasegivemeacamel.(48)Onlysomeofthevisitorsgainedadmittanceintothecleanroom.C・causedbythedifferenceofAmericanandBritishEnglish・(49)Oh,whatabigbug.