语言学导论英文教案 278页

1INTRODUCTION1.1Whatislinguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Ittriestoanswerthebasicquestions"Whatislanguage?"and"Howdoeslanguagework?"Itprobesintovariousproblemsrelatedtolanguagesuchas"Whatdoalllanguageshaveincommon?","Whatrangeofvariationisfoundamonglanguages?","Whatmakeslanguagechange?","Towhatextentaresocialclassdifferencesreflectedinlanguage?","Howdoesachildacquirehismothertongue?",andmanyothers.Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts\n,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.1.1.2ThescopeoflinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy,incontrasttothosebranchesofstudywhichrelatelinguisticstotheresearchofotherareas.Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets,soitishardlypossibleforthelinguiststodealwithitallatonce.Theyhavetoconcentrateononeaspectofitatatime.Thishasgivenrisetoanumberofrelativelyindependentbrancheswithintheareaoflinguistics.\nWhatfirstdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.Then,aslinguistsbecameinterestedinhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication,theydevelopedanotherbranchofstudyrelatedtosoundscalledphonology.Thesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationarerepresentedbysymbols,i.e.morphemes.Thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.Thenthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudiescalledsyntax.Buttheultimateobjectiveoflanguageisnotjusttocreategrammaticallywell-formedsentences.Inmostgeneralterms,languageisusedtoconveymeaning.Thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.Languagecommunicationdoesnotoccurinavacuum,italwaysoccursinacontext.Whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomes\nanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.Thestudyofalltheseaspectsoflanguageformsthecoreoflinguistics.Then,languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon;itisasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.Naturally,inthecourseoftimethestudyoflanguagehasestablishedcloselinkswithotherbranchesofsocialstudies,resultinginsomeinterdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy.Languageandsocietyarecloselyconnected.Thelanguageapersonusesoftenrevealshissocialbackground,andthereexistsocialnormsthatdeterminethetypeoflanguagetobeusedonacertainoccasion;andlanguagechangesareoftencausedbysocialchanges.Thestudyofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguistics.Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.Itaimstoanswersuchquestionsashowthehumanmindworkswhenweuselanguage,howweasinfantsacquireourmothertongue,howwememorize,andhowweprocesstheinformationwereceiveinthecourseofcommunication.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability.The\nstudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstothestudyoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.1.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptivePrescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor"correctandstandard"behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.Itdiffersfromearlierstudiesoflanguagenormallyknownas"grammar"inthatthelatterisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itaimstosetmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.Ontheotherhand,modernlinguisticsissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveanditstaskistodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,beit"correct"ornot.Modernlinguistsbelievethatwhateveroccursinthelanguagepeopleuseshouldbedescribed\nandanalyzedintheirinvestigation.1.1.3.2Synchronicvs.diachronicLanguageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Itisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsofalanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.1.1.3.3SpeechandwritingSpeechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofany\nlanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworld,therearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe"revised"recordofspeech.Thus,theirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.1.1.3.4LangueandparoleThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,andparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleis\nconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.Saussuremadethisdistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Inhisopinion,paroleissimplyamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedandconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andwhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.1.1.3.5CompetenceandperformanceSimilartoSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance,whichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950's.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.AccordingtoChomsky,aspeakerhasinternalizedasetofrulesabouthislanguage;thisenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.Despitehisperfect\nknowledgeofhisownlanguage,aspeakercanstillmakemistakesinactualuse,e.g,slipsofthetongue,andunnecessarypauses.Thisimperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,anxiety,andembarrassment.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker'scompetence,nothisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.Althoughaspeakerpossessesaninternalizedsetofrulesandappliestheminactualuse,hecannottellexactlywhattheserulesare.Sothetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifytheserules.WhileSaussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.1.1.3.6TraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguisticsItisgenerallybelievedthatthebeginningofmodernlinguisticswasmarkedbythepublicationofF.deSaussure'sbook"CourseinGeneralLinguistics"intheearly20thcentury.ButwehavetobeawarethatbeforethatlanguagehadbeenstudiedforcenturiesinEuropebysuchscholarsasphilosophersandgrammarians.\nThegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas"traditionalgrammar."Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.Someofthesehavealreadybeenbrieflymentionedbefore.Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof"correctness".Hedoesnotbelievethatthereissomeabsolutestandardofcorrectnessconcerninglanguageusewhichlinguistsorschoolteachersshouldviewastheirdutytomaintain.Instead,hewouldprefertobeanobserverandrecorderoffacts,butnotajudge.Hemightrecognizethatonetypeofspeechappearstobemoresociallyacceptablethanothersbecauseoftheinfluenceoffashion.Butthiswillnotmakehimthinkthatthesociallyacceptablevarietycanreplacealltheothervarieties,ortheoldwordsarealwaysbetterthannewonesorviceversa.Hewillregardthechangesinlanguageandlanguageuseastheresultof.anaturalandcontinuousprocess,notsomethingtobefeared.Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedto\nemphasize,maybeoveremphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Beforetheinventionofsoundrecording,itwasdifficultforpeopletodealwithutteranceswhichexistedonlyforseconds.Then,thetraditionalclassicaleducationwasalsopartlytoblame.Peoplewereencouragedtoimitatethe"bestauthors"forlanguageusage.Manyof(therulesoftraditionalgrammarapplyonlytothewrittenlanguage;theycannotbemademeaningfulintermsofthespokenlanguage,withoutmuchqualificationandaddition.Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.ForalongtimeontheEuropeancontinentitwasunquestionablyassumedthatLatinprovidesauniversalframeworkintowhichalllanguagesfit.Asaresult,otherlanguageswereforcedtofitintoLatinpatternsandcategories,especiallyitscasesystemandtensedivisionsofpast,presentandfuture.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyareopposedtothenotionthatanyonelanguagecanprovideanadequateframeworkforalltheothers.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwillbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.1.2Whatislanguage?\n1.2.1DefinitionsoflanguageIfwetakelinguisticstobethescientificstudyoflanguage,ournextquestionthenis"Whatislanguage?"Thismayatfirstsoundlikeanaiveandsimplequestion.Yettothisextremelyfamiliar,everydayphenomenon,itisdifficulttogiveasatisfactorydefinition.Somepeopleprobablywillsay"languageisatoolforhumancommunication".Farfromadefinition,thisonlytellsuswhatlanguagedoes,orwhatitisusedfor,i.e.itsfunction.Alternatively,onemightsay"languageisasetofrules."Thenthistellsnothingaboutitsfunctions,andthereareactuallyothersystemsthatarealsorule-governed.Modernlinguistshaveproposedvariousdefinitionsoflanguage,someofthemarequotedbelow:"Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols."(Sapir,1921)Languageis"theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols."(Hall,1968)"FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelementsJ"(Chomsky,1957)\nEachofthesedefinitionshasitsownspecialemphasis,andisnottotallyfreefromlimitations.However,therearesomeimportantcharacteristicsofhumanlanguagelinguistshaveagreedon;theseareembracedinthefollowinggenerallyaccepteddefinition:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Shortasitis,thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Thisexplainswhy"iblk"isnotapossiblesoundcombinationinEnglish,andalsowhy"Beenhewoundedhas"isnotagrammaticallyacceptablesentenceinEnglish.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweentheword"pen"andthethingwewritewith.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.Thisalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:wordsarejustsymbols;theyareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.byconvention.Thisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellillustratedbyafamous\nquotationfromShakespeare'splayRomeoandJuliet":"Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.”Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Allevidencepointstothefactthatwritingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenformsandthattheyareonlyattemptstocapturesoundsandmeaningonpaper.Thefactthatchildrenacquirespokenlanguagebeforetheycanreadorwritealsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theterm"human"inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.1.2.2DesignfeaturesDesignfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguage(thatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Bycomparinglanguagewithanimalcommunicationsystems,wecanhaveabetterunderstandingofthenatureoflanguage.AframeworkwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett.Hespecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.1)Arbitrarinessv.Asmentionedearlier,languageisarbitrary.\nThismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.Ontheotherhand,weshouldbeawarethatwhilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirearbitrary;certainwordsaremotivated.Thebestexamplesaretheonomatopoeicwords,suchasrumble,crash,cackle,banginEnglish.Besides,somecompoundwordsarealsonotentirelyarbitrary.Forexamplewhile"photo"and"copy"arebotharbitrary,thecompoundword"photocopy"isnotentirelyarbitrary.But,non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthevocabularyofalanguage.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2)ProductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Theycansendmessageswhichnooneelsehaseversent\nbefore.Muchofwhatwesayandhearwearesayingorhearingforthefirsttime.Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.Forexample,gibboncallsarenotproductive,forgibbonsdrawalltheircallsfromalimitedrepertoire,whichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Andbeedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodsources,whichistheonlykindofmessagethatcanbesentthroughthedancing.3)DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Forexample,thegroupingofthethreesounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/canmeaneitherakindoffish(carp),orapublicplaceforrestandamusement(park).Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangededandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheir\nknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.4)DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat"displacement"means.Thispropertyprovidesspeakerswithanopportunitytotalkaboutawiderangeoffilings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandplace.Incontrast,noanimalcommunicationsystempossessesthisfeature.Animalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation,i.e,incontactoffood,inpresenceofdanger,orinpain.Oncethedangerorpainisgone,callsstop.5)CulturaltransmissionWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenot\nmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Incontrast,animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted,i.e.,animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.Revisionexercises:1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?6.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbe\nincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?2PHONOLOGY2.1ThephonicmediumoflanguageSpeechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Manylanguagesintheworldtodayarebothwrittenandspoken.Butstatisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwritingforreasonsthatwerediscussedinthelastchapter.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssounds.Thusthestudyofsoundsisofgreatimportancein\nlinguistics.Naturally,linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedonlywiththosesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thesesoundsarelimitedinnumber.Thislimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage;andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.2.2Phonetics2.2.1Whatisphonetics?Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview.First,itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeaker'spointofview,i.e.,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Then,itlooksatthesoundsfromthehearer'spointofview,i.e.,howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.\nLastly,itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.Thesethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabeledarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,andacousticphoneticsrespectively.Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,articulatoryphoneticshasthelongesthistory.However,someimportantfactshavealsobeeneitherdiscoveredorconfirmedbyacousticandauditoryphonetics,especiallybytheformer.Acousticphoneticianstrytodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissues.Todescribetheseproperties,theyrecordthesoundwavesonmachinescalledspectrographs.Bystudyingthesoundwavesthusrecorded,theyhavediscoveredthatwhatmightbeheardasthesameoneutteranceisonlycoincidentally,ifever,physicallyidentical.The"same"soundsweclaimtohaveheardareinmostcasesonlyphoneticallysimilar,butrarelyphoneticallyidentical.Phonetic\nsimilarity,notphoneticidentityisthecriterionwithwhichweoperateinthephonologicalanalysisoflanguages.2.2.2OrgansofspeechThearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thepharyngealcavity—thethroat,theoralcavity—themouth,andthenasalcavity—thenose.Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinvariousways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynxbeforeitreachesanyofthecavities.Suchmodificationresultsfromsomekindofinterferencewiththemovementoftheairstream.Theprincipalsourceofsuchmodificationsisthetongue,andtheword"language"itselfderivesfromtheLatinword"lingua",meaningthe"tongue".ThepharyngealcavityAircomingfromthelungsandthroughthewindpipepassesthroughtheglottis,apartofthelarynx,whichisabonystructureattheendofthewindpipe.Thisisthefirstpointwheresound\nmodificationmightoccur.Lyingacrosstheglottisarethevocalcords.Thesetwothintissuescanbeheldtightlytogethertocutoffthestreamofair,aswhenoneis'holdinghisbreath'.Theycanberelaxedandfoldedbackateachsidetoletairflowthroughfreelyandsilentlyasinnormalbreathing.Thentheymayalsobeheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingitspassagethroughthem.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled"voicing",whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Suchconsonantsarevoiced.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarevoiceless.TheoralcavityThegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundintheoralcavity.Thespeechorganslocatedinthiscavityarethetongue,theuvula,thesoftpalate(thevelum),thehard\npalate,theteethridge(thealveolus),theteethandthelips.Ofallthese,thetongueisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g].Thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j].Theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].Partialobstructionbetweentheupperfrontteethandthetipofthetongueproducesthesounds[θ]and[ð].Apartfromthetongueandtheroofofthemouth,obstructioncanbecreatedbetweentheupperteethandthelowerlipresultingintheproductionofthetwosounds[f]and[v].Obstructionbetweenthelipscreatesthesounds[p]and[b].\nTheSpeechOrgans1.lips2.teeth3.teethridge4.hardpalate5.softpalate6.uvula7.tipofthetongue8.bladeofthetongue9.backoftongue10.vocalcords11.pharyngealcavity12.nasalcavityThenasalcavityThenasalcavityisconnectedwiththeoralcavity.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth,thevelum,canbedrawnbacktoclosethepassagesothatallairexitingfromthelungscanonlygothroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthisconditionarenotnasalized,suchasthevowelsandmostconsonantsinEnglish.Then,thepassagecanalso\nbeleftopentoallowair(orpartofit)toexitthroughthenose.Inthiscase,thesoundspronouncedarenasalized,suchasthethreenasalconsonantsinEnglish[m],[n],and[ŋ].Generally,thepassageisdefinitelyopenorclosed.Butinsomestylesofspeakingorinsomedialects,partialopeningmaybeobserved,andtheresultisspeechwithanasalcolouringor"twang".2.2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptionsTowardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,whenarticulatoryphoneticshaddevelopedtosuchanextentintheWestthatscholarsbeganlofeeltheneedforastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedphonetictranscription.ThustheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)cameintobeing.Withminormodificationsitisstillwidelyusednow.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.Assomespeechsoundsproduceddifferonlyin\nsomedetailedaspects,theIPAprovidesitsuserswithanothersetofsymbolscalleddiacritics,whichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutfinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo.Thustwowaystotranscribespeechsoundsarenowavailable.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyandtheotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Theformeriscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithdiacritics,iscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[1]isusedforthesound[1]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ]\nAsamatteroffact,thesound[1]inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdifferslightly.The[1]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[1],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;The[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin"leaf".Itiscalleddark[ł]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[~]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombinationthesound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ].Itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[1],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[。]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butinspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspirated\nandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised"h"isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[phit]andspitistranscribedas[spit].2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsAninitialclassificationwilldividethespeechsoundsinEnglishintotwobroadcategories:vowelsandconsonants.Twodefinitionsofvowelsasageneralphoneticcategoryarequotedbelow:"Vowelsaremodificationsofthevoice-soundthatinvolvenoclosure,friction,orcontactofthetongueorlips.(Bloomfield)“Avowelisdefinedasavoicedsoundinformingwhichtheairissuesinacontinuousstreamthroughthepharynxandmouth,therebeingno\naudiblefriction."(Jones)Thetwodefinitionspointtooneimportantfeatureofvowels,i.e.inproducingavoweltheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionwhatsoever.Thismarkstheessentialdifferencebetweenvowelsandconsonants.Intheproductionofthelattercategoryitisobstructedinonewayoranother.2.2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:stops:Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.TheEnglishstopsfallintothreepairs:\n[p][b],[t][d],and[k][g]fricatives:Whentheobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemouthsoastocausedefinitelocalfrictionatthepoint,thespeechsoundthusproducedisafricative.ThefricativesinEnglishare[f][v][s][z][ʃ][ʒ][θ][ð][h].affricates:Whentheobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlywiththefrictionresultingfrompartialobstruction(asinfrictives),thesoundsthusproducedareaffricates.InEnglishtherearetwoaffricates[tʃ]and[dʒ].liquids:Whentheairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongue(thetiporthesides)andtheroofofthemouth,thesoundsthusproducedarecalledliquids.TheEnglishliquidsare[1]and[r].[1]iscalledalateralsoundbecauseintheproductionofitthesurfaceofthetongue,insteadofbeingmoreorlessflat,ismade\nslightlyconvexandcausesstoppageinthecentreoftheroofofthemouthwhileallowingairtopassatthesides.Intheproductionoftheotherliquid[r],thetipofthetongueiscurledbackandtheairpassesoverit.Itisalsocalled"retroflex".nasals:Whenthenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalateatthebackofthemouthandairisallowedtopassthroughit,thesoundsthusproducedarecallednasals.TherearethreenasalsinEnglish[m][n]and[ŋ].glides:Glides,sometimescalled"semivowels",arearathermarginalcategory.TheEnglishglidesare[w]and[j],bothvoiced.Theyareformedinthesamemannerasthevowels[u]and[i],withanarrowerpassagebetweenthelipsorbetweenthetongueandthehardpalatetocausesomeslightnoisefromthelocalobstruction.Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:bilabial:Intheproductionofthesesounds,the\nupperandthelowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstruction.TheEnglishbilabialsare[p][b][m][w].labiodental:Intheproductionofthesesounds,thelowerlipisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth,thuscreatingtheobstruction.ThelabiodentalsoundsinEnglishare[f]and[v].dental:Theobstructioniscreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandtheupperteeth.TherearetwodentalsoundsinEnglish;theyare[θ]and[ð].alveola:Thetipofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth-ridgetocreatetheobstruction.Thealveolarsoundsare[t][d][s][z][n][1][r].palatal:Theobstructionisbetweenthebackofthetongueandthehardpalate.Thepalatalsoundsare[ʃ][ʒ][tʃ][dʒ][j].velar:Thebackofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththevelum,orthesoftpalate.ThesoundsthusproducedinEnglishare[k][g]and\n[ŋ].glottal:Thevocalcordsarebroughtmomentarilytogethertocreatetheobstruction.ThereisonlyoneglottalsoundinEnglish,i.e.[h].Thetwoclassificationsarecombinedinthetablebelow,withthehelpofwhichwecanadequatelydescribeaconsonant,oridentifyaconsonantwhengivenitsphoneticfeatures:BilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopsVLptkVDbdgFricativesVLfWsFhVDvTzV\nAffricatesVL(tʃ)tʃVD(dʒ)dʒNasalsVDmnŋLiquidsVDl,rGlidesVDwj2.2.4.2ClassificationofEnglishvowelsAsintheproductionofvowelstheairstreammeetswithnoobstruction,theycannotbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorplaceofarticulationasconsonants.Othercriteriahavetobefoundfortheirclassification.Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Afrontvowelisoneintheproductionofwhichthefrontpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition;theEnglishfront\nvowelsinclude[i:][i][e][æ][a].Ifitisthecentralpartofthetonguethatisheldhighest,thevowelsthusproducedarecalledcentralvowels.ThecentralvowelsinEnglishare[ə:][ə]and[ʌ].Thenifweraisethebackofthetonguehigherthantherestofit,weproducethebackvowels:[u:][u][ɔ:][ɔ]and[ɑ:].Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Theclosevowelsare[i:][i][u:]and[u];thesemi-closevowelsare[e]and[ə:],thesemi-openvowelsare[ə]and[ɔ:]andtheopenvowelsare[æ][ɑ][ʌ][ɔ]and[ɑ:].Thefollowingdiagramsummarizesourclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteria:Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedinthe\nclassificationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[ɑ:],arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.Afterapplyingthethreecriteria,wecannowaptlydescribesomeoftheEnglishvowels.Forexample,thevowel[e]canbedescribedasfront,semi-close,andunrounded.Butthefeature"unrounded"isusuallyomittedsinceallfrontvowelsinEnglishareunrounded.ThentheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedaccordingtothelengthofthesound.Correspondingtothedistinctionoflongandshortvowelsisthedistinctionoftenseandlaxvowels.Thelongvowelsarealltensevowelsandtheshortvowelsarelaxvowels.Whenwepronouncealongvowel,thelarynxisinastateoftension,andinthepronunciationofashortvowel,nosuchtensionoccurs,thelarynxisquiterelaxed.\nSofarwehavebeenclassifyingtheindividualvowels,alsoknownasmonophthongs.InEnglishtherearealsoanumberofdiphthongs,whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.Thediphthongsinclude[ei][ai][au][əu][ɔil[iə][eə][uə].2.3Phonology2.3.1PhonologyandphoneticsBothphonologyandphoneticsarcconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage—thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Aswehaveseeninthelastsection,phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthese\nsoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Nowlet'stakethe[l]soundinEnglishasanexampleandseehowthesamesoundcanbeinvestigatedfromboththephoneticandthephonologicalpointofview.Asweknow,the[l]soundinthetwoEnglishwordsleapandpeelispronounceddifferently.Thefirstoneiswhatwecallaclear[l]andthesecondoneadark[l].Thedifferencebetweenthesetwosoundsiswhatthephoneticiansareinterestedin.Butphonologicallythesesoundsareregardedtobetwoversionsofthesameonebasicentity.Fromthephonologicalpointofview,thesetwosoundsarefundamentallythesame,sincetheyhaveoneandthesamefunctionincommunication,indistinguishingbetweenwordsandmeaningsdespitetheirdifferenceinpronunciation.Ifsomeoneshouldpronouncethedark[l]intheword"peel"incorrectlyasaclear[l],anEnglishspeakerwouldnotforthisreasonfailtounderstandhim,hewouldstillunderstandwhatactionheistalkingaboutbutwouldonlyfindhispronunciationalittlebitstrange.The\nphonologistshavefoundthatthevariousversionsofthe[l]sounddonotoccuratrandominEnglish;theirdistributionfollowsanicelycomplementarypattern:weuseclear[l]beforeavowel,suchasloaf,anddark[l]attheendofawordafteravowelorbeforeaconsonant,suchastell,quilt.Thisisanimportantphonologicalconclusion.Butphonologyisconcernedwiththesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage,sotheconclusionswereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguageisveryoftenlanguagespecificandshouldnotbeappliedtoanotherlanguagewithoutdiscretion.Whatistrueinonelanguagemaynotbetrueinanotherlanguage.2.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophoneAphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:pit,spit,tip,feel,leaf,thephoneswehaveheardare[ph](asinpit),[p](asinspit,[ph](asintip),[s],[t],[f],[i:][i][l](asinleaf)[l](asinfeel).Butaphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguish\nmeaning;somedo,somedon't.Forexample,[s]and[t]do,as[si:m]and[ti:m]aretwowordswithtotallydifferentmeanings,and[th]and[t]don't,as[stop]and[sthɔp]meanthesametoaspeakerofEnglish.Again,weshouldremindourselvesthatwhatdoesnotdistinguishmeaninginonelanguagemayprobablydoinanotherlanguage.Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,whenwepronouncethetwowordspeakandspeak,weareawarethatthesound[p]ispronounceddifferently.Inthewordpeak,the[p]soundispronouncedwithastrongpuffofairstream;butthesamestopsoundispronouncedslightlydifferentlyinthewordspeak,thepuffofairiswithheldalittle.The[p]soundinpeakiscalledanaspirated[p],andthe[p]soundinspeakisanunaspirated[p].Therelationbetweenaspirated[p]andunaspirated[p]correspondstothatbetween\nclear[1]anddark[l]:thereisaslightdifferenceinthewaytheyarepronounced,butsuchadifferencedoesnotgiverisetodifferenceinmeaning.So/p/isaphonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem,anditcanberealizeddifferentlyasaspiratedorunaspiratedindifferentcontexts.Conventionallyphonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,andphonemesinslashes.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme[1]inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[l],clear[1],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme[1].Then,howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandomorhaphazard;itisrule-governed.Oneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindouttheserules.Therulethatgovernsthedistributionofclear[l]anddark[l]isanexample.Althoughphonemesaretheminimalsegmentsoflanguagesystems,theyarenottheirminimal\nelements.Aphonemeisfurtheranalyzablebecauseitconsistsofasetofsimultaneousdistinctivefeatures.Itisjustbecauseofitsdistinctivefeaturesthataphonemeiscapableofdistinguishingmeaning.AnativespeakerofEnglishcantellbyintuitionthatthefollowingsoundcombinationsallcarrydifferentmeanings:[mæn],[pæn],[bæn],[tæn],[ræn],[kæn],[ðæn].Thisisbecausetheyallcontainadifferentphoneme.Thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairItcanbeeasilyobservedthatphoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast,e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit],[rəup]and[rəub].Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydonotdistinguishmeaning,\nbutcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments.Forinstance,theclear[1]alwaysoccursbeforeavowelwhilethedark[l]alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword.Sotheallohphonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanother,resultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.SoinEnglish,pillundbillareaminimalpair,andsoarepillandtill,tillandkill,killanddill,anddillandgill.Accordingly,wecanconcludethat/p//b//t//d//k/arephonemesinEnglish.Thenallthesesoundcombinationstogetherconstituteaminimalset;theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonant.\nThisalsoappliestothevowels.Thepronunciationsofthefollowingwordsareidenticalexceptforthevowel:beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.Sotheyformaminimalset,fromwhichwecanconcludethatallhosevowels:/i://i//e//æ//u://ʌ//eI//aI//əu/arephonemesinEnglish.•2.3.4Somerulesinphonology2.3.4.1SequentialrulesToidentifythephonemesofalanguageisonlypartofthetaskofthephonologist.Healsohastofindoutinwhatwaythephonemescanbecombined.Thepatterningofsoundsinaparticularlanguageisgovernedbyrules.Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Supposeyouaregivenfourcards,eachofwhichhasadifferentphonemeinEnglishprintedonit:kb1iNowifyouareaskedtoarrangethesecardstoformallthe"possible"wordsinEnglish,youmightorderthemas:blik,klib,bilk,kilb.Yourknowledgeof\nEnglish"tells"youthatthesearetheonlyarrangementsofthesephonemespermissibleinEnglish,andthatIbki,ilbk,bkil,ilkb,etc.arenotpossiblewordsinEnglish.Thisindicatesthattherearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Theserulesarecalledsequentialrules.TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy[ibik][ikbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.Also,ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:(1)Thefirstphonememustbe/s/(2)Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/(3)Thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/or/j/.ThisiswhyallwordsbeginningwithacombinationofthreeconsonantsinEnglisharewordslikespring[spriŋ],strict[strikt],square[skwɛə],splendid\n[splendid],scream[skri:m].Again,therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.WhatisnotpermissibleinEnglishmightbepermissibleinanotherlanguage.Forexample,thevelarnasal[g]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishorstandardChinese.ButitdoesinotherlanguagesandsomeregionaldialectsofChinese,suchasVietnamese,Shanghaidialect,andCantonese.2.3.4.1AssimilationruleTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This"sloppy"tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.WeallknowthatnasalizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.Butthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsin\nEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtoanadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreet—indiscreet,correct—incorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isanalveolarstop,butthe[n]soundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[ŋ];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthe\nsound[n],weare"copying"afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.Thesoundassimilationisactuallyreflectedinthespellinginmostcases.Insteadofinpossible,thenegativeformofpossibleisimpossible,asthe[n]soundisassimilatedto[m].Forthesamereason,thenegativeformsofmoral,legal,regularareimmoral,illegal,andirregular.2.3.4.3DeletionruleAnotherphonologicalruleisthedeletionrule.Ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsin\nsign—signature,resign—resignation,phlegm—phlegmatic,paradigm—paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures—stress,tone,intonationSofarwehavebeendealingwiththephonemes—soundsegmentsthatdistinguishmeaning.Butdistinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.2.3.5.1StressDependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress—wordstressandsentencestress.ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishes\nmeaning.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Thenounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable.Thisisexemplifiedinsuchwordsas'importn.—im'portv.,increasen.—in'creasev.,'progressn.—progressv.,'insultn.—insultv.,'convictn.—convictv.,rebeln.—rebelv.,producen.—producev.,combinen.—combinev.,permitn.—permitv,pervertn.—pervertv.Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,andthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.Forexample,thecompoundnounblackbirdconsistsoftwoelements—blackandbird.Inpronouncingtheword,westressthefirstelementblack.Ablackbirdreferstoaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack.Itdiffersfromthenounphraseblackbird.Thenounphraseisstresseddifferentlyfromthecompound.Asitisanounphrase\nwithbirdasitsheadnounandblackamodifier,thewordbirdisprimarilystressed.Asimilardifferenceinstresspatternandmeaningcanbefoundinsuchpairsasgreenhouseandgreenhouse,hotdogandhotdog.Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns.ItiscommoninEnglishtofindan-ingformfollowedbyanoun,suchasdining-room,readingglasses,sewingmachine,sleepingbaby,swimmingfish.Althoughidenticalinform,these-ing+nouncombinationsareoftwotypes.Foronetype,the-ingformservesasamodifierofthenoun,e.g.dining-room,readingglasses.Theseareactuallycompoundnouns.Asarule,inpronouncingthistypeof-ing+nouncombinations,thewordstressalwaysfallsonthefirstelement;thesecondelementreceivessecondarystress:'dining-room,'readingglasses,'sewingmachine.Fortheothertypeof-ing+nouncombinations,thenounisactuallythedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe-ingform,e.g.sleepingbaby,swimmingfish.\nThesearenotcompoundnouns,butnounphraseswithan-ingparticiplemodifier.Forthesecombinations,theprimarystressfallsontheheadnoun,andthe-ingformreceivessecondarystress.Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.ThepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentencearenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns;theothercategoriesofwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Forexample,inthesentence:Heisdrivingmycar,thewordsthatarenormallyunstressed,i.e.He,is,my,canallbearthestresstoexpresswhatthespeakerintendstomean.2.3.5.2ToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegmentalfeature.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetone\nisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Ourmothertongue,Chinese,isatypicaltonelanguage.Ithasfourtones.Thefirsttoneislevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfall-rise(上声),andthefourthfall(去声).Theroleofthetonecanbewellillustratedbypronouncingthesamesoundcombinationsuchas"ma"inthefourdifferenttones:mā(妈)má(麻)mǎ(马)mà(骂)2.3.5.3IntonationWhenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaid\nisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Comparethefollowingthreedifferentwaysofsayingthesamesentence:(1)5That's'notthe'bookhewants.(2)5That's'notthe'bookhe9wants.(3)5That's,notthe'bookhe9wants.Spokeninthefalling-tone,version(1)simplystatesafact,i.e.,thebookinquestionisnottheonehewants.Version(2),saidintherisingtone,indicatesuncertaintyonthepartofthespeaker;heisaskingthequestion:Isthatnotthebookhewants?Version(3),spokeninthefall-risetoneindicatesthatapartfromwhatissaidliterally,thereisanimpliedmessage,i.e.,besidestellingthelistenerthatthebookinquestionisnottheonehewants,thespeakerimpliesthatthereissomeotherbookhewants.Similarly,thesentenceIcan'teatanything,whensaidinthefallingtone,isequalinmeaningtoIcaneatnothing.Butifthesentenceissaidinthefall-rise\ntone,itimpliesthatthereareparticularthingsthatIcaneat.Intonationcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingthenucleusonit.Nucleusreferstothemajorpitchchangeinanintonationunit.Withinoneintonationunit,thenucleusnormallyfallsonthelaststressedsyllable.Shiftingthenucleustoanothersyllable,normallystressedorunstressed,willcausedifferenceinmeaning.Acompanyisnotgoodbecauseithasalonghistory.Tomdidn’tgotothepartybecauseofMary.Hedidn’tgotothelibrarybecausehewantedtoborrowabook.Shedidn’tcometothepubtosaythattheking’sEnglishisbadtoAustralians.Revisionexercises:1.Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?\n2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?6.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:1)voicedpalatalaffricate2)voicelesslabiodentalfricative3)voicedalveolarstop4)front,close,short5)back,semi-open,long6)voicelessbilabialstopGivethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:1)[d]2)[1]3)[tʃ]4)[w]5)[u]6)[æ]7.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemore\ninterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,clear[1]anddark[l],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.10.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?Chapter3MORPHOLOGY3.1Morphology3.1.1OpenclassandclosedclassInEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyarethecontentwordsofalanguage,whicharesometimescalledopenclasswords,sincewecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses.Beatnik,forexample,wasaddedtotheclassof\nnounstomean"amemberoftheBeatGeneration",or"apersonwhorejectsoravoidsconventionalbehaviour".Theothersyntacticcategoriesinclude"grammatical"or"functional"words.Conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofrelativelyfewwordsandhavebeenreferredtoasbeingclosedclasswordssincenewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.Forexample,itisnoteasytothinkofnewconjunctionsthathaveenteredtheEnglishlanguagerecently.Oneexamplewecanthinkofisthat,withthegrowthofthefeministmovement,somepeoplehavesuggestedthatweuse"e"pronouncedliketheletteritself,asanewneutralthirdpersonsingularpronoun,neithermasculinenorfeminine,whichcouldbeusedasthegeneralform.Others,however,havepointedoutthatthey/theirarealreadybeingusedasaneutralthirdpersonsingular,asinthesentencesAnyonecanjointheclubiftheylike.Everyonecandotheirbest.Ofthetwoproposals,which\noneisthebettercandidate?Aspronounshave"closed"nature,wepredictthatthey/theirwillstandabetterchancetoservethisneedthanacompletelynewpronoun.3.1.2InternalstructureofwordsandrulesforwordformationIfwelookatthefollowingpairsofwords,wewilldiscoverthatthemeaningsofallthewordsincolumnBconsistofthemeaningsofthewordsincolumnAplusthemeaning"not".ABlikedislikeappeardisappearapprovedisapproveagreedisagreeadvantagesdisadvantagesentangledisentangleSpeakersofEnglishwouldknowthemeaningofthewordbeginningwithdis-iftheyknowthewordwithoutdis-.\nIfweassumethatthemostelementalunitsofmeaningarethewordsofalanguage,itwouldbeacoincidencethatdis-hasthesamemeaninginallthecolumnBwordsabove.Butthisisobviouslynocoincidence.ThewordsincolumnBallconsistofatleasttwomeaningfulunits:dis+approvedis+appeardis+likeAnotherfactaboutEnglishwordsisthattheirinternalstructureissubjecttorules.Anegative,forexample,isformednotbyaddingdistotheendoftheword,butbyaddingittothebeginning.ThusdisorderlyanddisgracefularewordsinEnglish,but*orderlydis®(tomeannotorderly)and"gracefuldis(tomeannotgraceful)arenot.Morphologythusreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.[®Theasteriskreferstononsensewordsorunacceptablesentences.]InthefollowingsectionswewillbediscussingbrieflyhowwordsareformedinEnglishandwhatitisspeakersofEnglishknowaboutwordformation,aboutthemorphologyoftheir\nlanguage.3.2Morphemes—theminimalunitsofmeaningWehavealreadyseenthatsomewordsareformedbycombininganumberofdistinctunitsofmeaning.Themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.ThefollowinglistshowsthatinEnglishasinglewordmayconsistofoneormoremorphemes.onemorphemedesiretwomorphemesdesire+ablethreemorphemesdesire+able+ityfourmorphemesun+desire+able+ityInfacteverywordineverylanguageiscomposedofoneormoremorphemes.Theaboveexamplestelluswhilesomemorphemeslikegirlandrelycanconstitutewordsbythemselves,otherslike-ishand-ableareneverwordsbutalwayspartsofwords.Thusun-islikedis-(disorder,disagree);itoccursonlybeforeothermorphemes.Suchmorphemes\narecalledprefixes.Othermorphemesoccuronlyassuffixes,i.e.onlyafterothermorphemes.Examplesofsuchmorphemesare-or(operator),-er(writer),and-ful(wonderful),tomentionjustafew.Traditionally,theseaffixeshavebeencalledboundmorphemes,i.e.theycannotoccur"unattached",asdistinctfromfreemorphemeslikegirl,relyandsoon.Inspeaking,weseldomuseboundmorphemesalone.Instead,wecombineallmorphemesintolongerunitsandsentences.3.3DerivationalandinflectionalmorphemesYoumayhavenotedthatinEnglishtherearemorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords.Averb,forexample,isformedbyadding-entotheadjectiveblack,—blacken,orbyadding-izetothenouncomputer—computerize.Otherexamplesare:noun–adjective\naffection+atealcohol+ic-en,-ate,and-icarethuscalledderivationalmorphemes,becausewhentheyareconjoinedtoothermorphemes(orwords)anewwordisderived,orformed.Otherderivationalmorphemesdonotchangegrammaticalclass,asininter+collegiatemacro+economicstele+commutemulti+mediaAsnoted,manyprefixesfallintothiscategory.Similarly,wefindsuffixesofthistype,asin:physic—ianfad+ismAmeric+anAsmentionedpreviously,amorphemecanbedefinedasaminimalunitofmeaning.Thisdefinition,however,istoosimple.Somemorphemesmayoccurinmanywords,combiningwithdifferentmorphemesbutforwhichitisdifficulttofindaconstantmeaning.Forexample,howdoyouassignmeaningtothemorpheme-ceiveinwordslikereceive,perceive,conceiveor-mitinremit,permit,commit,submit?Whenwecombinewordsto\nformsentences,thesesentencesarecombinationsofmorphemes.Let'sstudythefollowingsentences:(3~1)Theyareplanningtocomputerizetheirentireaccountingsystem.(3-2)Itiswettoday.(3-3)Cathyfounditexcitingtodriveontheelevatedroad.Whatisthemeaningoftoanditintheabovesentences?Obviouslywecannotassignthemalexicalmeaning.Tohasonlyagrammatical"meaning"asaninfinitivemarker,andit,asamorpheme,isrequiredbythesyntacticrulesofthelanguage.Aconclusioncanthusbedrawnthatitisnotalwayspossibletoassignalexicalmeaningtosomeofthemorphemes.Similarly,thereareboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon.Suchboundmorphemesarereferredtoasinflectionalmorphemes.Theyareattachedto\nwordsormorphemes,buttheyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory.Considertheverbformsinthefollowingsentences:(3~4)Johnhasnoticedthechangeinhisfriend.(3-5)Ashewaswalkingtothestation,henoticedoneofhisformersupervisors.Herethe-edand-ingendingsaremorphemeswhichdonotaddanylexicalmeaning,butwhichrepresenttheconceptoftenseandaspect.3.4MorphologicalrulesofwordformationLookatthefollowinglistofwords:AB*kroupslowly*rearnclearly*slarmquicklyWhileeachwordincolumnAisonlyapermissiblesoundsequencewithnomeaningattachedtoit,incolumnBwefindperfectEnglishwordsmadeupoftwomorphemes.The\nwayswordsareformedarecalledmorphologicalrules.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.Someofthemorphologicalrulescanbeusedquitefreelytoformnewwords.Wecallthemproductivemorphologicalrules.Wecan,forexample,addtheprefixun-toderivedwordsthathavebeenformedbymorphologicalrules:un+accept+ableun+think+able,,un+touch+ableun+warrant+ableun+impeach+ableun+inhabit+ableSucharulecanbestatedas:un+ADJECTIVE=not—ADJECTIVEThisruleholdsgoodforthewordsabove,thoughwenoticethefollowingexceptions:sad—*unsad•;'brave—*unbraveItmightbepresumedthatthe"un-Rule"isnotasproductiveforadjectivescomposedofjustonemorphemeasforadjectivesthatarethemselves\nderivedfromverbs.Theruleseemstobefreelyapplicabletoanadjectivalformderivedfromaverb,asinundecideduncheckedunabridgedundeclaredunsimplifiedunauthorizedandotherexamples.Morphologicalrulesmaythusbeproductive(constantlyusedtoformnewwords)orlessproductive.Thesuffix-ityisfoundinmanywords:SincerityfromsincerescarcityfromscarceYetthephrasethefiercityofthelionsoundssomewhatstrange.Assomelinguistspointoutitiseitheraspeecherrororthespeakerisattemptinghumour.Theexistenceoftherelatedpairslikesincere/sincerity(butnotfierce/"fiercity)showsthataproductivemorphologicalrulecan,inthecourseoftime,becomelessproductive.3.5Compounding\nInthelastsectionwesawhowderivationalandfreemorphemescombinetoproducenewwords.Anotherwaytoformnewwords,orcompoundwords,tobemoreexact,isbystringingwordstogether,asshownintheexamplesbelow:-adj.-noun-verb-prep.adj.bittersweetclearwaywhitewashblackoutnoun–headstrongrainbowspoonfeedheadsoffverb-carryallpickpocketsleepwalkcutupprep.inbornoff-licenceundertakewithoutWhenweformcompounds,thefollowingpointsarenoteworthy:a)Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory.-.noun+nounpostboxlandlady\nadjective+adjectiveblue-blackicy-coldb)Inmanycases,thetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories.Thentheclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound:noun+adjectivehead-strongverb+nounpickpocketThis,however,isnotalwaystrue,andcompoundswithaprepositionareinthecategoryofthenonprepositionalpartofthecompound,asinunder'takein'actionup'liftc)Itisoftenthecasethatcompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenoncompoundedwordsequence,thusin'redcoat'greenhousewefindtheprimarystressonthefirstpartofthecompound,whereasinredcoatgreenhouseonthenountheadjectivequalifies.d)Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthe\nsumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Comparethefollowingpairofsentences:(3-6)Katefoundaredcoatinheraunt'scloset.(3-7)Katefounda'Redcoatinheraunt'scloset.Ascanbeseen,thetwosentences,thoughseeminglysimilar,arequitedifferentinmeaning.Whilethemeaningofeachcompoundincludesatleasttosomeextentthemeaningsofindividualparts,asinafallingstar(astarthatfalls)andalookingglass(whichdoesn'tmean"aglassthatlooks"but"aglassinwhichonecanseeone'sface"),othercompoundsdonotseemtorelatetothemeaningsoftheindividualpartsatall.Abigwig,forexample,doesnothaveabigwig,nordoesahighbrownecessarilyhaveahighbrow.Ajack-in-a-boxisaboxinwhichthereisapuppet,andaturncoatisatraitor.Morphologicalrulesthusrevealtherelationsbetweenwordsandprovidethemeansfor\nformingnewwords.Itistheserulesthatenableustocoinnewwords,suchashairspray,teaceremony,spacewalkandteach-in.CompoundingisthenaverycommonandfrequentprocessforenlargingthevocabularyoftheEnglishlanguage.3.6ConversionConversionisachangeinthegrammaticalfunctionofawordwithoutaddingorremovinganypartofit.Awordbelongingtoonepartofspeechisextendedtoanotherpartofspeech.MostoftheEnglishone-syllablenounscanalsobeusedasverbs:awalk,towalk;aplay,toplay;arun,torun.Sometwo-syllablenounsbecomeverbbyshiftingthestresstothesecondsyllable:increase,contractandconduct.Thisprocesshasbecomemoreproductivethanbefore,asmanyfamiliarWordsareconvertedfreelyaseithernounsorverbsininformalspeech.Somearecommon,suchasaguess,acrazy,todirty,tototal,andsomearenotsocommon.Forexample,must,do,if,but,areusedasnounsinthe\nfollowingsentences:1)Englishproficiencyisconsideredamustforcollegestudents.2)Ihavenoknowledgeofthepoliticaldosanddon'ts.3)Aswithalltheseproposals,ifsandbutsabound.3.7BackformationBackformationisa"reverse"processofaffixation.Thewordisformednotbyaddingamorphemetoastembutbyassumingapartofthestemasasuffixandremovingit.Forexample,historically,theEnglishwordsswindler,editor,beggarweresinglemorphemewords.Theyarenotwordsformedbyderivation.Byassumingthattheending-er,-orand-arweresuffixesindicatingtheagent,peopleremovedthemandbegantousewhatwereleftasverbs:toswindle,toedit,tobeg.Backformationalsoexplainswhywordsliketelevision,emotionandenthusiasmcameintotheEnglishvocabularyearlierthantheirverb\nformstotelevise,toemoteandtoenthuse.3.8BorrowingBorrowingconsistsinsimplyadoptingforeignwords.Throughoutitshistory,theEnglishlanguagehasadoptedmanywordsfromotherlanguages.Somearecalledloan-words,retainingtheiroriginalphoneticorevenwrittenforms,suchasbungalowfromHindi,verandafromPortuguese,patiofromSpanish,spaghettifromItalian,robotfromCzechandalcoholfromArabic.Othersarecalledloan-translationsorcalques,adirecttranslationoftheforeignwordintoEnglish,assupermanisfromtheGermanUbermensch.3.9ClippingClippingisareductionprocessinwhichawordofmorethanonesyllableisreducedtoashorterform.Thewordssoformedareusuallyusedininformalspeech.Forexample,adisfromadvertisement;labisfromlaboratory;fanisfromfanatic;fluisfrominfluenza,mathisfrommathematics.\n3.11BlendingBlendingisaparticularwayofcompoundingbecauseitisnotaprocessofcombiningtwowordsintheircompleteforms.Onlythebeginningofthefirstwordisusedtojointtheendoftheotherword,asinsmog(smoke+fog),brunch(breakfast+lunch),motel(motor+hotel),telecast(television+broadcast),modem(modulator+demodulator)3.12AcronymAcronymsarewordsformedbystringingtogethertheinitiallettersofthewordsinaphrase,typicallythenamesoftechnicalapparatusandinstitutions.Andsometimesthephrasaloriginsofanacronymisgraduallylosttoitsspeakers.Forexample:radarradiodetectingandrangingWASPwhiteAnglo-SaxonprotestantAIDSacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndromeSARSSevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome,APECAsia-PacificEconomicCooperationUNESCOUnitedNationsEducational,\nScientific,andCulturalOrganizationAcquiredImmureDeficiencySyndrome3.13InitialismSomenewwordsarecomposedofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwordsandpronouncedbysayingeachletterinthem,suchasCD[si:di:](compactdisc),VIPandWHO.Thiskindofwordsarecalledinitialisms.Otherexamplesare:ATMCPUCIAGDP/GNPGPSGREIELTS3.14CoinageCoinageistheleastcommonprocessofwordformationinEnglish.Itreferstotheinventionoftotallynewterms.Asspeakerswouldnotacceptsomethingofpurelyarbitraryinvention,thecoinedwordsareoftensomefamiliartradenamessuchaskleenex,xerox,andnylon.\nRevisionexercises:1.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga"+"betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:a.microfileb.bedraggledc.announcementd.predigestione.telecommunicationf.forefatherg.psychophysicsh.mechanist2.Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:-orsuffix:-ormeaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheactionstemtype:addedtoverbs\nexamples:actor,"onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc."translator,"onewhotranslates"3.Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.Model:-apreffix:-ameaning:"without;not"stemtype-,addedtoadjectivesexamples:asymmetric,"lackingsymmetry"asexual,"withoutsexorsexorgans"4．Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.\nChapter4Syntax:TheSentencePatternsofLanguage4.1SyntaxandgrammarAsanothersubfieldoflinguistics,syntaxisthestudyofsentencestructure.Itisconcernedwiththerulesofhowwordsareputtogetherincertainpatternstoformdifferentsentences.Asinflectionsareusedbyspeakerstoindicatethegrammaticalrelationsbetweenthewordsinasentence,traditionally"grammar"referstosyntaxandthepartofmorphologythatdealswithinflections.Thisiswhatwemeanbysaying"thegrammarofthesentence"or"agrammaticalstudyofsentences".Wearenotusingtheterm"grammar"inthesenseChomskyusesittocallhislinguistictheories.4.2WordorderAswehavementionedbefore,syntaxdealswiththepatternedrelationsbetweenwordsinthesentences,andwiththesystematicmeansof\nstatingandanalyzingsuchpatterns.Bysayingthattherelationbetweenwordsinasentenceispatterned,wemeanthatthereareruleswhichgovernthewayswordsareputtogether.Letusconsiderthefollowingsentences:1.Thechildrensleeppeacefully.2.*Sleepchildrenpeacefullythe.3.Theideassleepfuriously.4.*Ideasthefuriouslysleep.Sentences1and3arenormalEnglishsentencesinthattheyaregrammaticallywell-formedsequencesofwords.Beinggrammaticallywell-formedmainlymeansthatthewordsinthesentencesareorderedaccordingtosyntacticrulesofEnglishbyfollowingcertainpatterns,suchas"determiner+noun+verb+adverb".Sentence3isnotmeaningfulinnon-poeticcontext,butthislackofmeaningfulnessdoesnotnegateitsgrammaticality.Putinapoeticcontext,itismeaningfulifwestretchourimaginationabit.Butsentences2and4areungrammatical(hencetheasterisk.),becausetheyviolatethesyntacticrules\nwhichcontrolthewordorder,positionofwordsofvariousclassesrelativetooneanotherinsentences.WordorderisparticularlyimportanttoEnglishasitisnotsoinflectionalassomeotherIndo-Europeanlanguages.ThegrammaticalfunctionsperformedbyinflectionsinhighlyinflectionallanguagesarethereforeperformedbywordorderinEnglish.ForexampleinEnglishtheidentitiesofsubjectorobjectaresolelydeterminedbywordorder,notbytheinflectionsindicatingasubjectiveorobjectivecase.Wordorderisoftenreferredtobythetermsyntagmaticrelation.4.3WordclassesAswehavementionedbefore,syntaxisthepatterningofwordsinthesentences.Speakersofonelanguagedonothavetotalfreedomincombiningwordstomakesentences.Theyhavetofollowcertainsyntacticrulesconcerningthepatterningofwords,forexample,thewordorder"determiner+noun+verb+adverb"mentionedintheprevioussection.Wordsareputtogetherinthis\norderaccordingtotheclassestheybelongto.Wordclassesaresetsofwords,whichhavethesamegrammaticallimitationsandthesamepotentialforoccurrence.Thatistosay,theyarelikelytofitintothesameslotinasentenceandmutuallysubstitutableinparticulargrammaticalcontext.Forexample,allthewordsin"Thechildrensleeppeacefully"canbesubstitutedbywordsofthesameclasses:1.Acavecollapsedsuddenly.2.Thatmanwroteslowly.3.Thosedogsbarkedangrily.Theresultingsentencesofthesubstitutionareallgrammatical,becausethe,a,that,thosebelongtothesamewordclass"determiner";children,cave,man,dogareallthemembersoftheclass"noun";sleep,collapse,write,barkare"verbs"andpeacefully,suddenly,slowly,angrilyare"adverbs".Wearequitefamiliarwithsuchtermsas"nouns","verbs",and"adverbs"sincetheyaretraditionallyreferredtoaspartsofspeech.\nHowever,inmanylinguisticworkstheterm"wordclass"isusedinsteadof"partofspeech".Linguistsinsistthatwordsshouldbesolelyclassifiedinaccordancewiththeirsyntacticproperties,theirdistributioninsentences,asintheabovediscussion.Theyregardthetraditionaldefinitionforpartsofspeech,suchas"Anounisthenameofanyperson,place,orthing","Averbisawordwhichdenotesanaction","Anadjectivemodifiesanoun",asamixtureofinflectional,syntacticandsemanticdescriptionandaslogicallydefectiveorcircular.Thesyntacticrelationofsubstitutionbetweenwordsofthesameclassisalsoreferredtoastheparadigmaticrelation.Theterm"paradigmatic"isoftenusedalongsidewiththeterm"syntagmatic"tospecifythetwodifferentlinguisticrelations,"vertical"and"horizontal",atmanylevelsoflinguisticsystemotherthanwords.Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsarenotconfinedtotherelationsbetweensinglewords.Forexample,in"Whoevertakesthispillwillsleep\npeacefully",theprimarysyntagmaticrelationistheonethatexistsbetween*"whoevertakesthispill","willsleep"and"peacefully".Ifthesentenceis:substitutedby"Thechildrensleeppeacefully",thenthereisaparadigmaticrelationbetween"whoevertakesthepill"and"children",andbetween"willsleep"and"sleep".Similarrelationsalsoexistonphonological,morphological,phrasal,andeventextuallevels.Inthetwophonemestrings/pit/and/bit/,thereisasyntagmaticrelationbetween/p/or/b/,/i/and/t/,andaparadigmaticrelationbetween/p/and/b/.Inthetwowordsmeaningfulandmeaningless,morphemesmean,-ingand-fulcanbeviewedashavingasyntagmaticrelationbetweenthem,andtherelationbetween-fuland-lesscanbeviewedasaparadigmaticone.Wordclassescanbe"closed"or"open".Ifawordclassisnotexpandedbythecreationofadditionalmembers,itisclosed.Forexample,inEnglishwerarely,ifever,inventoradoptaneworadditionalpronoun.Semanticallyclosedclass\nwordsformasystemandtheyaremutuallyexclusiveandusuallydefinedinrelationtotherestoftheclass.Ontheotherhand,anopenclassisindefinitelyextendible.Newwordsareconstantlyaddedtoopenclasses.Wordsbelongingtothesameopenclassarenotmutuallydefining.Theyonlyhavethesamegrammaticalpropertiesandfitintothesameslotinasentenceastheotherwordsintheclass.InEnglishwehavethefollowingclosedwordclasses:Prepositionin,on,at,infrontof,beneath,etc.Pronounyou,it,his,herself,mine,etc.Determinera,the,this,those,both,etc.Conjunctionbut,or,and,etc.Modalverbcan,may,must,ought,etc.Primaryverbhave,be,do.Andthefollowingopenwordclasses:Nounman,dog,China,etc.Adjectivegood,wonderful,green,old,etc.Adverbfast,swiftly,slowly,\nwonderfully,etc.Fullverbrun,walk,arrive,beat,etc.4.4WordgroupsWehavelearnedthatwordsareplacedoneafteranotherinasentenceaccordingtocertainwordorder,butsentencesaremorethanamerelinearsequenceofsinglewords.Therearewordgroupsinasentence.Forexample,inthesentence"Thetwouglysistershadgonehomewithouther",itisobviousthatcertainwords,suchashadandgone,orthe,two,uglyandsisters,"belongtogether"inawayinwhichothersdonot.Andhadgoneappearstohaveacloserrelationwithhomeandwithoutherthanwiththetwouglysisters.Usuallywordgroupscorrespondtosyntacticcategoriessuchassubject,predicate,object,complement,etc.ononehandandclausesorphrasesontheother.Intheaboveexample,thewordgroupthe"twouglysisterscorrespondstothecategoryof"subject"or"nounphrase"withtherestofthesentencecanbegroupedtogetherasitcorrespondstothecategory\nof"predicate"or"verbphrase".Thereisahierarchicalrelationbetweenallthepossiblewordgroupsinasentence.Theideaisthatinanygivensentencessomewordsaremorecloselyrelatedthanothers,andasentenceismadeupoftwo-partconstructionsonaseriesoflevelsorlayers.Thebigwordgroupscontainsomesmalleronesandthesmalleronesmayinturncontainsomestillsmallerones.Therearegroups,subgroupsandsub-subgroups.Howfarthegroupingwillgoisdeterminedbytherequireddepthofsyntacticdescription,butusuallywestopatsinglewords.Thewordgroupsinasentencearecalleditsconstituentsand,whentheyareconsideredaspartofbiggerwordgroups,theyarecalleditsimmediateconstituents.ImmediateConstituentsAnalysisisthetechniqueofbreakingdownsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingsuntilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached.Thesinglewordsresultedfroman1CAnalysisarecalledtheultimateconstituents.Therearemanywaysto\ndemonstratethestagesofICAnalysisandtheresultingconstituentstructure.Forexample,toanalyzethesentences"InthebankIgavethemmyapplication"and"Thenewproducthaspassedtestswithflyingcolours",wecanuseverticalbars:1.InthebankIIgavethemmyapplication.2.InIIthebankIIIIgavethemmyapplication.3.InIItheIIIbankIIIIgaveIIIthemmyapplication.4.InIItheIIIbankIIIIgaveIIIthemIIIImyapplication.5.InIItheIIIbankIIIIgaveIIIthemIIIImyIIIIIapplication.Orsquarebrackets:1.[Thenewproducthaspassedtestswithflyingcolours.]2.[[Thenewproduct][haspassedtestswithflyingcolours.]]3.[[[The][newproduct]][[haspassedtests][withflyingcolours.]]]4.[[[The][[new][product]]][[[haspassed][tests]][[with][flyingcolours.]]]\n5.[[[The][[new][product]]][[[[has][passed]][tests]][[with][[flying][colours.]]]]]Ortreediagrams:InthebankIgavethemmyapplicationFigure4-1treediagramICanalysisofthiskinddoesnotgivelabelstotheconstituents.Ifsyntacticlabelsareusedtoindicatetheconstituents,wewillhavea"labeledtreediagram":S\nPPSNPVPPronNPVNPPronNPPDetNDetNInthebankIgavethemmyapplication.Figure4-2labeledtreediagramOra"labeledsquarebracketing":[S[NP[DetThe][NP[Anew][Nproduct]]][vp[vp[tensehas][vpassed]][Ntests]][pp[pwith][NP[Aflying][Ncolours.]]]]]Wordgroupshavetwotypesofconstructions:endocentricandexocentricconstructions.Ifthegroupinquestionissyntacticallyequivalenttooneofthewordsitcontains,or,toputitanotherway,ifoneofthewordsinthegroupcanstandinplaceofthewholegroup,thegroupissaidtohaveanendocentricconstruction.Ifnot,thegroupissaidtohaveanexocentricconstruction.Inan\nendocentricconstruction,thewordthatcanstandforthewholegroupisthehead,andtheotherwordsareitsoptionalmodifiers.Mostconstructionsareexocentric.forexample,theEnglishprepositionalphraseswithcare,fromthevillage,onthetableandsubordinateclausesifyouarehere,becauseitwon'tdo,whichyoulikeareexocentricconstructionsmadeupofaprepositionandanounphrase,orofaconjunctionandaclause.Neitherofthetwopartsineithercaseissyntacticallyequivalenttotheadverbialormodifiertheymaketogether.ThetypicalEnglishendocentricconstructionsarenounphrasesandadjectivephrases.Takethesentence"Thebeautifulreddressisverygoodindeed"forexample.Theheaddressofthenounphrasethebeautifulreddressandtheheadgoodoftheadjectivephraseverygoodindeedcanreplacethewholephraserespectivelyinthesentenceastherearesyntacticallythesame.4.5Grammaticalcategories\nTheterm"grammaticalcategory"isusedbysomelinguiststorefertowordclass.InTGgrammaticalcategoriesaresyntacticunitsindicatedby"categorysymbols"suchasS,NP,VP,Det,A,etc.But,inmoregeneraluse,thetermreferstocertaindefiningpropertiesofwordclasseswithcorrespondinginflectionalaffixesastheirformalindications.Theinflectionalaffixescharacterizeindividualwordforms,notlexemes.Forexample,thelexeme"book"hastwowordforms:thesingularbookandthepluralbooks.TogethertheyconstitutethecategoryofnumberinEnglishindicatedbysuffix-s.Similarly,thenon-pastworkandthepastworkedofthelexeme"work"formthecategoryoftenseinEnglishindicatedbythesuffix-ed.Apartfromnumberandtense,therearecaseandgenderfornounsandadjectives,andaspect,voiceandmoodforverbs.Thesegrammaticalcategoriesareanessentialpartoftheinflectionallanguages.ManyofthemarestillusedinthedescriptionoftheEnglishlanguageeventhoughtheformalindicationof\nthemhasalmostentirelylostlongbefore.Genderisanarbitrarilyfixedcharacteristicofindividualnouns,pronouns,orotherwordsinthenounphrasessuchasdeterminersandadjectives.Manyinflectionallanguageshavethreemeaning-relatedgenderdistinctions:masculinefeminineandneuter.WecansaythatEnglishhasnogenderbecausenouns,determiners,adjectivesinEnglishhavenoinflectionallymarkedgenderdistinctions.Thesuffix-essinprincess,duchess,actress,etc.arederivationalnotinflectional.ThechoiceofEnglishpronounsisbasedsemanticallyonthenon-arbitrary,naturaldistinctionofsex.This"notionalgender"inEnglishshouldbetalkedaboutintermsof"male"and"female"insteadof"masculine"and"feminine".ComparethefollowingFrenchsentenceswiththeirEnglishcounterparts:Lecadeau(masculine)estbeau.Thegiftisfine.Lamaison(feminine)estbelle.Thehouseisfine.\nGiftandhousehavenosexdistinctionbuttheyarearbitrarilydistinguishedinFrenchasmasculineandfeminine,andthereisagenderagreementamongthedeterminer,nounandadjectiveinthesentence.Thecategoryofcaseappliesnotonlytonounsbutalsotoawholenounphrase.Casesindicatethesyntacticand/orthesemanticroleofanounphraseinasentence.Itisveryprominentinthegrammarofinflectionallanguages.Forexample,Latinhassixcases:nominative(forsubject),vocative(foranounusedinnamecalling),accusative(fordirectobject),genitive(foranounusedtomodifyahighernounphraseortoindicateapossessiverelation),dative(forindirectobject)andablative(foranounwhenadepartingmotionisindicated).ManyEnglishpronounshavedifferentformscorrespondingtothedistinctionofsubjective(nominative),objective(accusativeanddative)andgenitivecases,asinI,me,my;we,us,our;he,him,his,etc.Apartfromthepronounsystem,Englishhasonlyonecasedistinctionin\nnouns—thegenitivecaseindicatedbythesuffix/-iz/,/-z/and/-s/inphoneticformsand"apostrophe+s"(boy's),oranapostropheonly(boys')inwriting.Ablativen.〈语法〉夺格,离格（与by,with,from等连用）Of,relatingto,orbeingagrammaticalcaseindicatingseparation,directionawayfrom,sometimesmanneroragency,andtheobjectofcertainverbs.ItisfoundinLatinandotherIndo-Europeanlanguages.Numberisagrammaticalcategorywitharelativelyclearsemanticbasis.Itisacategoryprimarilyfornouns.NotalltheEnglishnounshaveasingular-pluraldistinction.Thosenounsthathavethisdistinctionarecalled"countnouns".Theirregularpluralformsareclearlymarkedbypluralsuffixes.Theothermajorinflectionalcategories,suchasperson,tense,aspect,moodandvoice,belongmainlytotheverb.Thecategory"person"isovertlymarkedinEnglishpronounsystem.Italsobelongstotheverbsbecausethenumberofthe\nsubjectisindicatedintheverbformwhenthesubjectisinthethirdpersonandtheverbisinthepresenttense,asinIthurtsasagainstTheyhurt.Tenseshowstherelationshipbetweentheformoftheverbandthespeaker'sconceptoftime.InEnglishtheformalindicationisbetweenpastandnon-past,withthepastformallymarkedinregularverbsbysuffix-ed.Aspectdealswithhowtheeventdescribedbyaverbisviewed.Englishhastwoaspectconstructions,theperfectiveandtheprogressive,realizedby"have+-edparticiple"and"be+-ingparticiple"respectively.Moodinvolvesachoicebetweenindicative,imperativeandsubjunctiveformsoftheverbonthesemanticbasisofthefactuality.TheEnglishimperativehasonlya"tenseless"beastheformalmarker.Subjunctivemoodisusedtoindicatesomeofthenonfactualandhypotheticalsituations.Englishhastwoformalmarkersofthesubjunctivemood,thebaseformandwere.Whenthebaseformisused,thereisalackoftheregularagreementbetweensubjectandthefiniteverb,andthepresentandthe\npastarenotdistinguishable.Whenwereisused,thereisnoindicationthattheverbisinthepasttenseorthesubjectisplural.Compare:IndicativemoodHeis/wascareful.ImperativemoodBecareful.SubjunctivemoodIdemandedthathebecareful.IfIwereyou,Iwouldbemorecareful.Voiceissomewhatdifferentfromtheothergrammaticalcategories.Althoughitismorphologicallyapropertyoftheverb,itiscloselyrelatedtothesyntacticstructureofthesentence.Itmakesitpossibletoviewtheactionofasentenceineitherofthetwowayswithoutchangesinthefactsreported.ThepassivevoiceofEnglishisrealizedby"be+-edparticiple".Thedoerintheactivesentenceisomittedinthepassiveorisindicatedbya"by-phrase"inpassivesentence.Compare:ActivevoiceJimcaughttheball.PassivevoiceTheballwascaught.Passivevoicewith"by-phrase"\nTheballwascaughtbyJim.Wordsoccurinaphraseorasentenceinvariouscategory-indicatingforms.Theselectionoftheseformshastwotypes,governmentandconcord.Governmentreferstothesituationwhereonewordinaphraseorsentencerequiresthatanotherwordinthesamephraseorsentencetakeaparticularcategoryform.Forexample,Englishprepositionsandverbsgoverntheformsofpronounsthatfollowtheminthesamesyntacticconstructionsothatthe"objective"formsofthesepronounsmustbeused,asinwithme,tohim,toinvitethem,tosaveus,etc.ThereflexivepronounsinEnglisharealso"governed"bythesubjectnouninthesameclausestructure.Forexample:1.Theboyhurthimself.2.Thewomanhurtherself.;3.Themenhurtthemselves.Concordreferstotheagreementinaphraseorsentenceintermsofmarkedgrammaticalcategories.Englishdoesnothavegenderconcord\ninanounphraseasFrenchdoes.Thereisonlyanumberconcordasshowninthefollowingsentences:1.Thisboygoestoschooleveryday.2.TheseboysareChinese.3.Iamateacherandyouareastudent.Thereisaconcordofnumberbetweenthis,boy,goesandthese,boys,are.AndthereisalsoaconcordofnumberandpersonbetweenI,amandyou,are.SentencestructureThegrammaticalstructureofasentenceistraditionallyanalyzedintermsofthefunctionalcategoriesofitsconstituents.Asentenceisseenascomposedofasubject(S)andapredicate(P).Thepredicatemaycontain,apartfromtheverb(V),objects(O),complements(C)andadverbials(A),whicharefurthercategorizedintodirectobject(Od),indirectobject(Oi),subjectcomplement(Cs),objectcomplement(Co),subject-relatedadverbial(As)andobject-related\nadverbial(Ao).Ifwedisregardtheoptionaladverbials,wewillhavesevenmajorsentencetypes:1.SVJane'scatsnores.2.SVOJanekeepsacat.3.SVCsJaneisveryfit.4.SVAs.Jane'sroomisonthesecondfloor.5.SVOiOdJaneiskeepingArchieapieceofpie.6.SVOCoJaneiskeepingArchiehappy.7.SVOAoJanekeepshercatinthegarden.Thegrammaticalstructureoftencorrespondstothesemanticstructureofsentences,whichisanalyzedintermsofthesemanticrolesplayedbytheconstituents.Thesesemanticrolesnormallycorrespondtocertainsyntacticcategorieswhenthesentenceinquestionisactiveandwithananimatedoer.Forexample,subjectusuallyhasaroleofanagentandcomplementsareattributes.Indirectobjecthasaroleofabeneficiaryanddirectobjectisapatient.Adverbialsmaybeinstrumental,locativeortemporary.\nThegrammaticalstructurealsocorrespondstothethematicstructure,whichisdescribedintermsoftheinformationvalueoftheconstituents.Theinitialconstituentofasentenceiscalledthemeandtherestofthesentencerheme.Themeisnormallythestartingpointorthetopicandcontainsgiveninformation.AssubjectinEnglishusuallyisthefirstconstituentinasentence,itisoftentheunmarkedtheme.Thewholepredicateistherheme.However,wewillhaveadifferentpicturewhenthereispassivisationorfronting.Thesemanticrolesoftheconstituentsremainthesamebuttheobjectcanbemadesubjectorfrontedtotheinitialpositiontobecomethetheme,asshowninthefollowingtable:ActivesentenceMotherhasgivenmybrotherthistoy.Functionalelementssubjectindirectobjectdirectobject\nSemanticrolesagentbeneficiarypatientThematicstructurethemerhemePassivesentenceMybrotherhasbeengiventhistoybyMother.FunctionalelementssubjectdirectobjectprepositionalobjectSemanticrolesbeneficiarypatientagentThematicstructurethemerhemeFronteddirectobjectThistoymybrotherhasbeengivenbyMother.FunctionalelementsdirectobjectsubjectprepositionalobjectSemanticrolespatientbeneficiaryagentThematicstructurethemerheme\nFigure4-3thematicstructureSyntaxinTGAccordingtoChomsky'sStandardTheory,thesyntacticalcomponentinTGconsistsoftwoparts:thePhraseStructureRules(PSrules)andtheTransformationalRules(T-rules).InPSrules,symbolsareusedtolabeltheabstractsyntacticcategories.ThebasicstructureofEnglishsentencesmaybesymbolizedasS→NPVPSstandsfor"sentence",NPfor"nounphrase",andVPfor"verbphrase".Thearrowisasymbolforderivationanditreads,"toberewrittenas".Thederivationmayalsoberepresentedbyalabeledtreediagram:S\nNPVPFigure4-4labeledtreediagramThisbasicstructuremaybeexpandedprogressivelybyaseriesofPSrulesasfollows:S→NPVPNP→(D)(AP)N{PP,AP,S}VP→(Aux)V{NP,PP,S}AP→(Deg)A{PP,S}PP→P{NP,S}HereAuxstandsfor"auxiliary",DorDetfor"determiner",Degforadverbialofdegree,APandAfor"adjectivephrase"and"adjective",andPPandPfor"prepositionalphrase"and"preposition",etc.Roundbracketsareusedtoindicatethatthecategoryisoptionalintherule,andthecategoriesinthecurlybracketsareoptionalchoices.Asthestructureexpands,thetreealsogrowsaccordingly:S\nNPVPDNVNPDNFigure4-5expandedtreediagram\nThelabelleddotsinthetreearecallednodes,andthelinesthatconnectthemarereferredtoasbranches.Thesymbolsthatlabelthelowestnodes,suchas"D+N+V+D+N",makeupwhatiscalledtheterminalstring,whichrepresents(onlytheabstractsyntacticstructureofthesentence.WordsaretobetakenfromtheLexiconandtobeinsertedintotheslotsindicatedbythesymbolsintheterminalstringsoastomakethesentencemeaningful.TheLexiconisafulllistofwordswithinformationabouttheircategories(wordclasses)andsubcategoriessuchascountandnon-countfornounsandtransitive,mono-transitiveorditransitiveforverbs),andabouttheirrelevantsemanticpropertiesthatmayrestricttheselectionofwords.Forexample,intheLexicontheinformationconcerningthe,fox,eat,meatmayinclude:theD(Thewordtheisadeterminer.)foxN+[animate](Thewordfoxisanoun.Itisananimatebeing.)eatV+[S+[animate]__NP](Thewordeat\nisaverb.Itrequiresananimatesubject.Itismainlytransitiveandshouldbefollowedbyanounphrase.)meatN(Thewordmeatisanoun.)Theaboveinformationguaranteesthattheselectionandinsertionofthesewordsareappropriate.AsthePSrulesandtheLexicontogethermakeupwhatiscalledtheBase,thesentence"generated"fromtheBasemaybepresentedas:SNPVPDNVNPDNThefoxatethemeat.Figure4-6sentence"generated"fromtheBase\nAsentencegeneratedinthiswayfromtheBaseiscalledtheDeepStructureofthesentence.Itisastructuredstringofwords,whichcontainsthesemanticinformationfortheinterpretationofthesentence.T-rulesaretobeappliedbeforewecangettheSurfaceStructureofthesentence,whichisthefinalsyntacticandphonologicalrepresentationofthesentence,thesentenceutteredbythespeaker.T-rulesarethesyntacticrulesaccordingtowhichcertainconstituentsofthesentencecanbemoved,deletedandadded.Forexample,ifthe"PassiveT-rule",whichinvolvesswitchingthepositionofthetwoNPsandintroducingbyandtheauxiliarywas,isapplied,thesurfacestructureofthegeneratedsentencecanbeThemeatwaseatenbythefox.,IfthenweapplytheBy-deletionT-rule,wewillgetThemeatwaseaten.IfwefollowthisupwithanotherT-rule—the"Yes-noQuestionT-rule”,whichmovestheauxiliarytotheinitialposition,thesentencewill\nbecomeaquestion:Wasthemeateaten?Similarly,Beautifulsheis!istransformedfromSheisbeautiful,andItisgoodtodoexerciseistransformedfromTodoexerciseisgood.Theyarepairsofsentencesthathavethesamedeepstructures.Thedistinctionbetweendeepandsurfacestructuresenablesustoexplainthedifferencebetweenthefollowingpairofsentences,whichappeartohavethesamesurfacestructuresyntactically:Johniseagertoplease.Johniseasytoplease.WecansimplypointoutthattheyhavetwodistinctdeepstructuresandthesyntacticdifferenceisobliteratedbytheapplicationofcertainT-rules.Theirdeepstructuresmayberoughlypresentedas:SNPVP\nSVASomeonepleaseJohniseasyFigure4-7deepstructureSNPVPNVASJohniseagerJohnpleasesomeoneFigure4-8deepstructureAsentencewithstructuralambiguitycanalsobeexplainedbygivingtwodifferentdeepstructures.Forexample,theambiguoussentenceJohnlikesdogsmorethanMary.hastwodistinctdeepstructuresentences:JohnlikesdogsmorethanMarylikesdogs.JohnlikesdogsmorethanJohnlikesMary.ManynewruleswereproposedinChomsky'swritingsofthe1980sand1990s.TheproposalsadvancedareregardedasGBTheory\n(Government/BindingTheory).Someofthesenewrulesareintroducedinthefollowingdiscussion.ByacloserobservationofthePSrules,onemayfindthatmanyofthePSruleshaveasimilarformulation.Forexample,NPsalwayscontainsanN,PPsaPandVPsaV,etc.Inotherwords,XPsalwayscontainanX,whichstandsforeitherN,orV,orA,orP.TheXistheheadoftheXP,andtheothercategoriesintheXParethereeitherforthespecificationorcomplementationoftheheadX.WhileXisalwayspresentintheXP,theothercategoriesareoptional.IfweregardasthecomplementoftheheadXanycategorycloselyconnectedwithit,andasits"specifier"anycategorywhichisnotrelatedtoitanddoesnotalwaysconsistofacompletephraseinitsownright,manyPSrulescanbegeneralizedasXP→(Specifier)X(Complement)Itisonthebasisofthisgeneralizationofthe"head-centered"characteristicofPSrulesthata\nnewPStheoryisdeveloped.ThetheoryiscalledX-barTheorybecauseinthistheoryXPisreplacedby"X-two-bar",anXwithtwobarsoverthecategorylabel,andtheintermediateXcategoryonlywithcomplementafteritissymbolizedby"X-bar",anXwithonebaroverthecategorylabel.ThegeneralisedPSrulesintheX-barTheoryare:X=→(specifier)X_X_→X(complement)Herewehavebarsontherightofthecategorylabelinsteadofoveritonlyfortypographicalconvenience.AsX=standsforanyphrases,theabovebar-markingcanapplytoNP,VP,APandPP.ThePSrulesresultedareillustratedasfollows:N=→(D)(A=)N_N_→N{P=,A=,S}N=DN_\nNP=ThemanintheroomFigure4-9V=→(Aux)V_V_→V{N=,P=,S}V=AuxV_VN=willseeyourfatherFigure4-10A=→(Deg)A_A_→A{P=,S}A=\nDegA_AP=veryangrywithherFigure4-11P=→(Adv)P_P_→P{N=,S}P=AdvP_PN=\nrightbehindthetreeFigure4-12TheX-barTheoryisextendedtosentencesbyintroducingacategoryComplementizer(COMP)intothePSrulestoindicatethesubordinatorsofanydependentclauses,suchasthat,which,who,whether,what,if,for,etc.,ortheinvertedauxiliariesinyes-noquestions.ThePSrulepostulatedisS_→(COMP)SS→N=V=Forexample,adependentclause"...thatIwouldbehere"mayberepresentedas:SN=V=N_V_NVS_\nCOMPShesaidthathewouldbehereFigure4-13adependentclauseAndayes-noquestion,suchas"Areyouthenewteacher":S_COMPSareyoutthenewteacherFigure4-14ayes-noquestionTheruleisalsoappliedtosentencesthathaveanemptyCOMP:S_COMPSeheisanewteacherFigure4-15sentencesthathaveanemptyCOMPNowtheabove-mentionedPSrulesthatcontainS,suchas"V_"→V{N=,P=,S}",canbechangedto"V_→V{N=,P=,S_}".\nForexample,thestructureofthesentenceThemantoldmethathewantedthebookcanbedescribedinthefollowingtreediagram:S_COMPSN=V_DN_VN=S_NN_COMPSNethemantoldmethathewantedthebookFigure4-16Inordertomakethetoplevelofsentences\nconformtotheX-barrequirementfortheotherlevels,COMPandINFL(inflection)aregiventhestatusofa"ComplementizerPhrase"andtheheadofan"InflectionPhrase".INFLincludesTense(oneof"agreement"orAGR)andAux,whichwerebothincludedintheV.So"S→N=V="isnow"S→N=INFLV=".AsI=standsforINFLP,SbecomesI=toconformtotheX-barrequirements:I=→N=I_I=I_→IV=NI_INFLV=Figure4-17ThenasC=standsforCOMPP,"S→COMPS"becomesC=→(N=)C___C=C__→CI=N=C_____COMPI=Figure4-18NowtheXPRuleisreallyageneralrulethatcan\ncoverallphrasestructurerules.Likewise,ageneralruleisgiventocoverallthetransformationrules.ItisreferredtoasMoveα,inwhichα(alpha)standsforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromonepositiontoanotherinthedeepstructure.AftertheapplicationofMovea,certainconstituentsaremovedfromtheiroriginalpositions.Inordertopresentinthesurfacestructurethesemanticinformationcarriedbytheseoriginal\npositionsinthedeepstructure,an"empty"category"Trace",symbolizedbyt,isintroducedtoindicatethe"trace"leftbehindintheplaceanyconstituentformallyoccupiedbeforethemovement.Thisisalreadyillustratedbytheexample“Areyouthenewteacher"inthepreviousdiscussion.ThedeepstructureofthesentenceWhatwillPaulwearisPaulwillwearwhat.Toformaquestion,whatismovedtotheinitialpositionandwillisalsomovedforward.Theresultcanbepresentedas:C=C=N=C_whatCI=willN=I_PaulIV=tweart\nFigure4-19Traceisaphoneticallynullcategory,butitaffectsthesemanticinterpretationof|thesurfacestructure.Considerthefollowingdeepstructuresentences:a.whichbookhaveyoureadtb.Teddyistheman(whom)Iwanttosucceedtc.Teddyistheman(whom)IwantttosucceedIntheabovesentences,tshowswheretheunderlinedconstituentsareinthedeepstructures.ThedifferentpositionsoftincandbshowthattherearetwodistinctdeepstructuresfortheambiguoussentenceTeddyisthemanIwanttosucceed,whichcanmeaneitherc"IwanttosucceedTeddy"orb"IwantTeddytosucceed".SystemicFunctionalGrammarAswithanyfield,thereareanumberofcompetingviewsinthestudyofsyntax.Itisnotpossibletoconsiderallofthemandwehavechosentoemphasizethebestknownone.\nArguablyasimportantasChomsky'stheory,isSystemicFunctionalGrammar(SFG).ThisviewoflinguisticshasitsrootsintheworkoftheBritishlinguistJ.R.Firth,althoughitalsoowesmuchtoPragueSchoollinguisticsandtotheworkofHjelmslevandWhorf.However,themastermindbehindthesystemic-functionalperspectiveisM.A.K.Halliday.Linguistswhoadoptthisapproachareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsoflinguisticstructuresandpatternstothefunctionsthatlanguageservesandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.Theseideasarefundamentallydifferentfromthoseheldbytransformationalgrammariansbecausetheynotonlyemphasizelanguagefunctionbutalsosuggestthatlanguagecannotbestudiedoutofitscontext.Languageisalwaysusedinaparticularsituationforaparticularpurpose.InChapter1,westudiedsevenfunctionsoflanguage,whichareactuallythemicrofunctionsoflanguage,coveringtheparticularindividualuses.Ifinsteadofgoingbelowthelevelof\nindividualfunctionswegoaboveit,itispossibletoidentifyseveralmacrofunctions.AndperhapsthebestwayofdescribingthemwouldbetofollowM.A.K.Halliday'sthreemetafunctions:ideational,textualandinterpersonalfunctions.(i)IdeationalfunctionHowdoweuselanguagetomaketheworldintelligibletoourselvesandothers?Inotherwords,inwhatwaydowerepresentourexperientialworldinlanguage?Thefunctioninwhichweconceptualizetheworldforourownbenefitandthatofothersiscalledideationalfunction.Inasensewebringtheworldintobeinglinguistically.Thefirstwayinwhichwecanthinkaboutaclause,orasimplesentence,then,isasarepresentationofexperience.Considerthefollowingsentencesintermsoftheprocessesindicatedbytheverbs,andtheparticipantsinvolvedinthem.(19)Theboykickedthepost.(20)Themanlikedthenewhouse.(21)Thechildishomeless.(22)Thegirllaughed.\n(23)Thevisitorsaid"hello".(24)Thereisagirloverthere.In(19),wecandescribetheprocesskickedasamaterialone.Materialprocessesarecharacteristically"doing"verbssuchasrunning,dressingandclimbing.Anindicationofthiscanbeseeninthefactthatwerarelyusetheminthesimplepresenttense,thatis,Irun,buttendinsteadtoemploythepresentcontinuous,or"-ing"form—Iamrunning.Weassociatethemwithcontinuousactivityofsomekind.Theparticipantsin(19)aretheboyandthepost.Infunctionalterms,Hallidaydescribestheboyastheactor,thatis,thepersonresponsiblefortheaction,andthepostasthegoal,meaningthethingwhichisactedupon.Oneoftheoperationswecancharacteristicallyperformwithmaterialprocessverbsistochangetheclauseorsentencefromactivetopassive.Thisinvolvesswappingoverthegrammaticalsubjectandobjectwhilekeepingthefunctionalrelationsofactorandgoal:(25)Thepostwaskickedbytheboy.\nEventhoughthepostisnowinthesubjectpositionitisstillfunctioningasgoal,andcorrespondingly,theboy,althoughintheobjectposition,remainsactor.Rearrangingtheclauseinthiswayallowsus,ifwewish,toleaveouttheactor:(26)Thepostwaskicked.In(20),thepredicatorhereischaracteristicofarangeofprocesseshavingtodowithfeelingandthinking.Theyarenotmaterial—noconcreteactionisperformed.Anyactionisinternalratherthanexternal.Verbssuchashate,love,know,thinkandunderstand,fallintothisgroup.Allofthemincludementalprocesses.Theparticipantsinmentalprocessesaredifferentfromthoseinmaterialones.Wecannotreallydescribethemanasanactorsincehedoesnotperformtheprocessofliking.Heistheonewhoexperiencesthesensationofliking.Hallidayreferstothissubjectasthesensor,andthethingsensedasthephenomenon.Mentalverbsaredifferentfrommaterialonessemanticallyandthisisreflectedintheir\ngrammaticalcapabilities.Theydonotformthepresentcontinuous,the"-ing"form,soeasily:*Themanislikingthehouse,*/amunderstandingyourpoint.Theyaresometimesreferredtoasstativeverbsinthattheydescribeastateorconditionasopposedtomaterialverbswhicharedynamic.In(21),theprocessisdifferentagainfrom(19)and(20).Theprocessincludedintheverbhereisneithermaterialnormental.Itisrelationalinthatitsmainpurposeistorelatethetwoparticipantstogether.Withrelationalverbs,likebe,become,appear,therearealotofpossibleparticipantrolesbecauseofabroaderrangeofpossiblerelationships.Onepairofthemiscarrierandattribute.In(21)homelessistheattribute—theconditionbeingattributed,andthechildisthecarrier,orthepersonwhoisinthatcondition.Therelationalprocessdoesnotallowitsverbstoformthepassive:*Homelesswasbeingthechild.In(22),thepredicatorfallsintoacategoryofverbssuchascough,yawnandsmilewhichHallidayclassesasbehavioral.Behavioralverbs\nhavesomesimilaritytomaterialverbsinthattheydescribephysicalactionsofsomekindbuttheyaredifferentinthattheactionisnotperformedonanything—*Agirllaughedaboyismeaningless,whereasAgirlkickedaboyismeaningful.Moreover,behavioralverbsneedasubjectwhichisanimateorliving.Peopleandanimalssmile,yawnandcough,butnottreesorrocks(exceptfiguratively).Materialverbs,ontheotherhand,canhavetreesorrocksassubjects,forinstance,Thetreeswayedinthewind.Inthisrespect,behavioralverbsarelikementalones,whichalsorequireanimatesubjects.Sotheyareadistinctgroup,semanticallyandsyntactically.Wecanseethisinthefactthattheyonlyrequireoneparticipant—thepersondoingthelaughing,coughing,oryawning.Hallidaytermsthisparticipant,thebehaver.Verbsofthiscategoryare,likerelationalverbs,characteristicallyintransitive,inthattheydonottakeanobject—wecan'tlaughsomething—andconsequentlydon'tformthepassive.Thegirllaughedloudlycannotbeturned\ninto*Loudlywaslaughedthegirl.In(23),theprocessbelongstoalargecategorycalledverbal.Thisincludesverbssuchassay,report,claim,questionandexplain.Hereagainthereissomesimilaritywithmaterialprocessesbutalsosignificantdifferences.Aswithmentalandbehavioralprocesses,theparticipantperformingtheactivityhastobeanimate.Butonespecialfeatureofverbsinthiscategoryisthattheparticipantscanbeswappedroundwithoutanychangeinmeaning:"Hello",saidthevisitor,hasthesamepropositionalmeaningasThevisitorsaid"hello"(althoughitdiffersinforce).Theycanalsousuallyformthepassive—"Hello"wassaidbythevisitor.Hallidaytermsthefirstparticipant"thevisitor"thesayer,andthesecond"hello"thetarget,theobjectofthesaying.In(24),thecategoryofprocessesisafairlysmallone.Itconsistsofclausesinwhichthereactsasgrammaticalsubject,forexampleTherewasalittlecatandThereseemedtobeaproblem,andsoon.Inthesecaseswhatweessentiallyappeartobe\ndoingisaffirmingtheexistenceofsomethingorsomeone,thatis,"acat/problemexisted".Hallidaytermsthisprocessexistential.Whenwelookattheparticipants,however,wecanseethattheredoesn'treallyrepresentanythingexcepttheneedforasubject.Infunctionalterms,thereforeithasnoimportanceoutsideitsgrammaticalrole.Theonlysignificantparticipanthereisthethingorpersonbeingaffirmedasexisting.InthiscaseawomanisreferredtobyHallidayastheexistent.(ii)InterpersonalfunctionLanguageservestosetupandmaintainsocialandpersonalrelations,includingcommunicationrolessuchasquestionerandrespondent,andtoexpressthelanguageuser'sownattitudesandcommentsonthecontentofanutterance.Thisfunctionoflanguageiscalledinterpersonalfunction.Verbalcommunicationinvolvesaninteractiveeventbetweentwoormorepeopleinwhichwetakeoncertainroles—themostfundamentalbeingspeaker/writervs.hearer/readeror,putmore\nsimply,addresservs.addressee—andattempttoinfluenceorunderstandothers.Traditionally,sentencesareclassifiedasdeclarative,interrogativeandimperative.Declarativesareusedtogiveinformation,andperformthefunctionofstatements;interrogativesareusedtorequestsomething,andperformthefunctionofquestions;imperativesareusedtogiveinstructionsandperformthefunctionofcommands.However,exactcorrelationbetweenformandfunctiononlyoccursinidealizedsentences.Wefrequentlyusedeclarativestoaskquestions,andonoccasions,toissueInstructions.ThedeclarativeutteranceYou'regoingout,couldfunctionasaquestionoranorderdependingontheintonationpatterns.Whatweareessentiallytalkingabouthereisthesubjectofmoodinlanguagestructure.OneobviouswayinwhichmoodischaracteristicallysignaledinEnglishisbytheinclusionofspecificwordssuchasplease,possibly,kindlyandfrankly.Butmoodisalsosignaledthroughthesyntaxofsentences.Hallidayidentifiestwosortsof\nexchangeswhichhearguesallutterancescanbedividedinto.Thefirstconsistsofdemandsfor,andoffersof,goodsandservicesofsomekind,forexample,GivemeacookieandWouldyoulikeacookie?Inthosecaseswhatisatissueisaliteral,oractualexchange.Thesecondconsistsofdemandsfor,andoffersof,linguisticinformation,forexample,Whatishegivingher?andHe'sgivingheracookie,wheretheissueisaverbal,ratherthanaliteral,exchange.Hallidayarguesthatwhatchildrenfirstlearntospeakareexchangesofthegoodsandservices.Inotherwords,theyuselanguageprimarilyasawayofindicatingtheirneedsandgettingwhattheywant.Theuseoflanguagefortheexchangeofinformationcomeslater.Tobeginwith,then,languageinitsinterpersonalfunction,isprincipallyameanstoanend.Examiningtheinterpersonaldimensionofsyntaxmeanslookingcloselyattherelationbetweentheformandfunctionofutterances.Aswehaveseen,sentencesmighthavetheformofdeclaratives,\ninterrogativesorimperatives,buttheyfunctionquitedifferently.Thereisamuchdiscussedexampleinlinguisticliteratureconcerningtherangeofwaysinwhichthedemandforsaltcanbeencoded,whichillustratesthis:(27)a.Passthesalt.b.Pleasepassthesalt.c.Canyoupassthesalt?d.Couldyoupossiblypassthesalt?e.Youcouldn'tpossiblypassthesalt,couldyou?Whatwecanobservehereistheelementofpolitenessanddeferenceincreasingwitheachpermutationofpassthesalt.(27a)hastheformandfunctionofanimperative/commandofthegoodsandservices;(27b)lexicalizesadegreeofpolitenessbyaddingplease,while(27c)grammaticalizesitbyturningitintoaninterrogative,seekinginformation;(27d)increasesthepolitenessbychangingthetensetothepast,andbyincludingpossibly—alexicalmarkeroftentativeness;andfinally(27e)usesa\ndeclarative/statementfollowedbyatagquestion.Wecansee,asageneralrule,thatthemoreindirectthedemand,themorepoliteitisfelttobe.(iii)TextualfunctionLanguagealsomakeslinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.Thisiswhatenablesthespeakerorwritertoconstructatext,andenablesthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromarandomsetofsentences.Thisfunctionoflanguageiscalledtextualfunction.Whenwespeakorwrite,weconstructourclausessoastopresenttheinformationinacertainway.Inotherwords,theclausefunctionsasamessage.Becauseofthis,wehavetodecidehowtoorderthepartsofthemessagesoas(a)tomakeitcleartoouraudience,and(b)toemphasize,ormakeprominent,theessentialelementsofit.Anytextisnecessarilydeliveredinalinearmanner,andasaconsequence,weareforcedtoprocessitinasimilarfashion.Becauseofthis,itiseasierforustoprocessalexicalstringinwhichtheburdenofnewinformationcomestowardsthe\nendoftheclause.Weexpectthestartingpointoftheclause,thesubject,topresentuswithinformationwhichislargelygiven,thatis,assumedtobeknown;thisgivesustimetoprepareourselvesforthenewtocomelater.If,forexample,youwerelookingoutoftheclassroomandnoticedabirdonthetree,youwouldbefarmorelikelytosayThere'sabirdonthetreethanAbirdisonthetree.Inthiscase,theexistentialsentence,withthereasanemptysubject,preparesusforreceivingtheinformation.AnotherwayofputtingthisistosaythatinanEnglishclausetheusualfocusofinformationistowardstheend.Warningsandorders,forexample,usuallyleaveoutthesubject—lookoutorgetoutoftheway.Thenewinformationispromotedtothefrontoftheclause;thesubjectyouistakenasgivenandthereforenotstrictlynecessary.Thewaylinguisticshandlestheseconstructionsistodistinguishbetweenmarkedandunmarkeduses.Thedistinctionofmarked/unmarkedisausefulonetogetholdof.Anythingthatisunmarked\nlinguisticallyisnormativeorunremarkable,initsstructure,whereasanelementwhichismarkedissignificantlydifferent,deviantoranomalous.Markingaconstituentbymovingitsyntacticallyisonewayofincreasingitsprominence.Wecansay,then,thatordersandwarningsaremarkedutterances.Informationapproachestotheclauseareveryrichinexplainingavarietyofsyntacticoperationswhichwecharacteristicallyperform.Processesinvolvingellipsis,forexample,inwhichweleaveoutconstituentsoftheclause,enableustoabbreviateandsimplifyourutteranceswhilekeepingthemessagerecoverable.Forexample,(28a)isclearlylesscumbersomethan(28b):(28)a.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohn.b.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohnenjoystennis.Similarlytherequirementtomakeourmessagesclearmeansthatwenormally,thatis,inunmarkedclauses,trytoensurethatitemswhicharesemanticallyclose(thosewhicharedependent\noneachotherinmeaning)aresyntacticallyclose.Thus,(29a)ismoremarkedinstructurethan(29b)becauseoftheseparationoftheclausewhenwewereduetoleavefromthenounphrase,theday,whichitpost-modifies.(29)a.Thedaycameatlastwhenwewereduetoleave,b.Thedaywhenwewereduetoleavecameatlast.Whatwehavereallybeenconsideringherearethethematicrelationsoftheclause.Theconceptofthemeisanimportantoneinfunctionalapproachestosyntax.Thethemeisthefirstconstituent,anditdenotesthestartingpointoftheclause—whatitisgoingtobeabout.Therestoftheclauseiscalledrheme,theinformationthatisnew.Considerthedifferencesbetweenthefollowingpairs:(30)a.Gasexplosionkilledthousands.b.Thousandswerekilledbygasexplosion.(31)a.Theraincamedown.b.Downcametherain.\nItisnotdifficultforustonoticethatineachcasesentence(b)rearrangessentence(a)byswappingoverthefirstandlastelements—in(30b)thisinvolvesputtingtheverbintothepassive.Despitethechanges,however,thereisnoalternationintheessentialorprepositionalmeaningoftheinitialsentences.Thesameinformationisgiventous,itissimplypresentedinadifferentorder.Thedifferencesarethematic.WhatcomesfirstinanEnglishsentenceisofcrucialimportanceintellinguswhatthesentenceisgoingtobeabout.In(30a),forexample,gasexplosionoccupiestheplaceoftheme,andininformationtermsthesentenceissaying"I'mgoingtotellyouaboutagasexplosion".In(30b),however,thousandsisthetheme,andthesentenceissaying"I'mgoingtotellyousomethingaboutthousandsofpeople".Inthecaseof(31a),thethematicsequenceisunmarked:Therainoccupiestheplaceoftheme.Itisalsothegivenpartoftheclause—thedeterminertheidentifiesitassomethingalreadyexisting—whiletheremainderistherheme,thenewinformation.In\n(30b),however,partofthatnewinformationisputatthefrontoftheclauseandgivenprominence.Downisthusamarkedtheme.Thereareseveraltypesofthemesinsentences,fromthosewhichexpressmood"Frankly,Idon'tgiveadamn",tothosewhicharemorecontentladen"Yourideaisnonsense",butallwehaveattemptedtodohereisgiveyouaflavorofwhatisaveryrichfield.SummarySyntaxthestudyofsentencestructures,and"grammar"referstosyntaxplusthepartofmorphologythatdealswithinflections.Syntacticrulesgovernthreekindsofrelationsbetweenwordsandwordgroups.Theyaresyntagmaticrelation,paradigmaticrelationandhierarchicalrelation.Syntagmaticrelationreferstothetraditionalterm"wordorder".Itisconcernedwiththerulesofhowwordsareputtogetherincertainlinearordertoformdifferentsentences.Word(lasses,traditionally"partsofspeech",aresetsofwordswhichhavethesamegrammaticalfeaturesandarelikelytooccurin\nthesamepositioninasentenceandmutuallysubstitutableinaparticulargrammaticalcontext.Thesyntactic-relationofsubstitutionbetweenwordsofthesameclassisalsoreferredtoastheparadigmaticrelation.Thereisalsoahierarchicalrelationbetweenallthepossiblewordgroupsinasentence.Inanygivensentencessomewordsaremorecloselyrelatedthanothers,andasentenceismadeupoftwo-partconstructionsonaseriesoflevelsorlayers.Thebigwordgroupscontainsomesmalleronesandthesmalleronesmayinturncontainsomestillsmallerones,1CAnalysisisthetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingsuntilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached."Grammaticalcategory"isgenerallyusedtorefertocertaindefiningpropertiesofwordclasseswithcorrespondinginflectionalaffixesastheirformalindications.Therearenumber,caseandgenderfornounsandadjectives,andtense,aspect,voiceandmoodforverbs.\nThegrammaticalstructureofasentenceistraditionallyanalyzedintermsofthefunctionalcategoriesofitsconstituents.Asentenceisseenascomposedbyasubjectandapredicate.Thepredicatemaycontain,apartfromthemainverb,objects,complementsandadverbials.Thegrammaticalstructureoftencorrespondstothesemanticstructureofsentences,whichisanalyzedintermsofthesemanticrolesplayedbytheconstituents.Subjectusuallyhasaroleofanagentandcomplementsareattributes.Indirectobjecthasaroleofabeneficiaryanddirectobjectisapatient.Adverbialsmaybeinstrumental,locativeortemporary.Thegrammaticalstructurealsocorrespondstothethematicstructure,whichisdescribedintermsoftheinformationvalueoftheconstituents.Theinitialconstituentofasentenceiscalledthemeandtherestofthesentencerheme.AccordingtoChomsky'sStandardTheory,thesyntacticalcomponentinTGconsistsoftwoparts:thePSrulesandtheT-rules.ThePSrulesandtheLexicontogethermakeupwhatiscalledtheBase.\nTheLexiconisafulllistofwordswithinformationabouttheircategories,subcategories,andsemanticproperties.AsentencegeneratedfromtheBaseiscalledtheDeepStructureofthesentence.Itisastructuredstringofwords,whichcontainsthesemanticinformationfortheinterpretationofthesentence.T-rulesaretobeappliedbeforewecangettheSurfaceStructureofthesentence.InGBTheory,somenewrulesareintroduced.TheX-barTheoryisgeneralizedfromthePSrulerstheyhaveasimilarformulation.Likewise,(Moveaisageneralrulecoveringallthetransformationrules,inwhichastandsforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromonepositiontoanotherinthedeepstructure.Trace,symbolizedbyt,indicatestheoriginalpositionanyconstituentformallyoccupiedbeforethemovement.COMPandINFLaregiventhestatusoftheheadofaComplementizerPhraseandtheheadofanInflectionphrase,sothatthetoplevelsofsentencesconformtotheX-barrequirementsfor\ntheotherlevels.Chapter5SEMANTICS5.1Whatissemantics?Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Thisdefinitionnaturallyleadstothequestion:whatismeaning?Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication,butthequestionofwhatmeaningreallyisisdifficulttoanswer.Evenlinguistsdonotagreeamongthemselvesastowhatmeaningis.Andwhatmakesthematterevenmorecomplicatedisthatphilosophers,psychologists,andsociologistsallclaimadeepinterestinthestudyofmeaning,althoughtheydifferintheirfocusofinterest.Thephilosophersareinterestedinunderstandingtherelationsbetweenlinguisticexpressionsandwhattheyrefertointherealworld,andinevaluatingthetruthvalueoflinguisticexpressions.Thepsychologistsfocustheirinterestonunderstandingtheworkingsofthe\nhumanmindthroughlanguage.Thisiswhyitisnotsurprisingtofindtenbooksallbearingthetitle"Semantics"buttalkingaboutdifferentthings.Inourdiscussion,wewilllimitourselvestothestudyofmeaningfromalinguisticpointofview.5.2Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning5.2.1ThenamingtheoryOneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsothemostprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Thelimitationsofthistheoryareobvious.Firstofall,thistheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly,butverbs,adjectives,andadverbssuchas"think","hard","slowly"aredefinitelynotlabelsofobjects.\nBesides,withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatallsuchas"ghost","dragon",and"unicorn",andalsonounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects,butabstractnotionssuchas"joy","impulse".5.2.2TheconceptualistviewAmoresophisticatedandseeminglymoreplausibleviewthannamingisonethatrelateswordsandthingsthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.Thisconceptualistviewhasbeenheldbysomephilosophersandlinguistsfromancienttimes.Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisisbestillustratedbytheclassicsemantictriangleortriangleofsignificancesuggestedbyOgdenandRichards:\nTHOUGHT/REFERENCESYMBOL/FORM…………………………………REFERENTInthediagram,theSYMBOLorFORMreferstothelinguisticelements(words,phrases),theREFERENTreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,andTHOUGHTorREFERENCEreferstoconcept.Forexample,Theword"dog"isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.,whata"dog"islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothatparticulardogmentionedinthesentence"Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly",i.e.,thereferentinthisparticularcase.Thus,thesymbolorawordsignifies"things"byvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeakerofthelanguage;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.Thistheoryavoidsmanyoftheproblemsthe\nnamingtheoryhasencountered,butitalsoraisesacompletelynewproblemofitsown.Forwhatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandtheconceptremainsunclarified.Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone—whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.Butthisdoesnotanswerthequestionsatisfactorily,foritisnotclearwhatexactlyismeantby"thinkingofaconcept."Peopledonotactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmind'seyeeverytimetheycomeacrossalinguisticsymbol.5.2.3ContextualismDuringtheperiodroughlyfrom1930to1960,linguistsgavepreeminencetotheempiricalorobservableaspectinsteadofthetheoreticalaspectintheirscientificinvestigationofmeaning.Thistendencymanifesteditselfinanattempttobasemeaningoncontext.Ithasattractedthoselinguistswhohavebeenworkingtowardtheidealofscientific\nobjectivity.Theyholdthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.ArepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.Firth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiod.Heheldtheviewthat'Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps,'andthat'Byregardingwordsasacts,events,habits,welimitourinquirytowhatisobjectiveinthegrouplifeofourfellows."FirthhadbeeninfluencedbytheworksofMalinowski,aPolishanthropologistandofWittgenstein,aGermanphilosopher.Theybelievedrespectivelythat"languageshouldbetreatedasamodeofaction,notaninstrumentofreflection"andthat"Foralargeclassofcases...themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage."Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticular\nspatiotemporalsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,apartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterance,thespeakerandthehearer,theactionstheyareperformingatthetime,thevariousobjectsandeventsexistentinthesituation.Thelinguisticcontext,sometimesknownasco-text,isconcernedwiththeprobabilityofaword'sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe"meaning"oftheword,andalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.Forexample,themeaningoftheword"black"differsinthetwocollocationsof"blackhair"and"blackcoffee".Andthemeaningoftheword"seal"inthesentence"Thesealcouldnotbefound"cannotbedeterminedunlessthecontextinwhichthesentenceoccursisrestored.5.2.4BehaviorismThecontextualistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield,whodrewonbehavioristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningof\nlinguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe"situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer."(Bloomfield,1933)Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.ThisviewofmeaningproposedbyBloomfieldisillustratedbyhisstoryaboutJackandJill,representedbythefigurebelow.Bloomfieldarguedthatmeaningconsistsintherelationbetweenspeechindicatedbythesmalllettersr••••••sandthepracticaleventsrepresentedbythecapitalizedlettersSandRthatprecedeandfollowthemrespectively:JillJackS__________________r……s__________________RWhenJillseesanappleandwantstohaveit,shehasaphysicalstimulus,(representedbythecapitalletterS),whichgivesrisetoaverbalresponse(r)toJill.Forinstance,shemightsaytoJack"I'mthirsty".WhatshesaysresultsinaverbalstimulustoJack(representedbythesmallletters).Thisstimulus,initsturn,leadsto\nanon-verbalresponsefromJack,suchaspickingtheappleforher.5.3Lexicalmeaning5.3.1SenseandreferenceSenseandreferencearetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Forexample,theword"dog"isgiventhedefinition"adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform".(CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,1979)Thisdoesnotrefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition.Sothisisthesenseoftheword"dog".Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththe\nrelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Ifwesay"Thedogisbarking",wemustbetalkingaboutacertaindogexistentinthesituation;theword"dog"referstoadogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer.Thisisthereferenceoftheword"dog"inthisparticularsituation.Obviously,linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Averygoodexampleisthetwoexpressions"morningstar"and"eveningstar".Thesetwodifferinsensebutasamatteroffact,whattheyrefertoisthesame:theverysamestarthatweseeinthesky.5.3.2Majorsenserelations5.3.2.1SynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.\nEnglishisrichinsynonymsforhistoricalreasons.IntheEnglishvocabularytherearetwocategoriesofwords:nativewordsandborrowed(loan)words.ThenativewordsarethosethatwereoriginallyusedinthespeechofthenativeinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles,i.e.,theAnglo-Saxons,althoughtheywereactuallymigrantsfromthenorthernpartofEurope.Theninitslonghistoryofdevelopment,theEnglishlanguagehastakeninalargenumberofwordsfromotherlanguages,mostlyEuropeanlanguages,suchasFrench,Latin,Greek,Italian,andGerman.Mostoftheborrowedwordshavebeennaturalized.Therefore,weoftenfindinEnglishpairs,ortripletsofwordsbearingmoreorlessthesamemeaning.Butbecauseoftheirdifferentorigins,thereareoftensubtledifferencesbetweenthesesynonyms.Completesynonyms,i.e.synonymsthataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstances,arerare.Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:\nDialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsThesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisnotdifficulttofindexamplesofsayingthesamethingbyusingdifferentwordsinthetwodialects:BritishEnglishAmericanEnglishautumnfallliftelevatorluggagebaggagelorrytruckpetrolgasolineflatapartmentwindscreenwindshieldtorchflashlightThendialectalsynonymscanalsobefoundwithinBritishEnglish,orAmericanEnglishitself.Forexample,"girl"iscalled"lass"or"lassie"inScottishdialect,and"liquor"iscalled"whiskey"inIrishdialect.\nii.Stylisticsynonyms—synonymsdifferinginstyleWordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.Herearesomeexamples:oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparentstart,begin,commencekid,child,offspringkickthebucket,popoff,die,passaway,deceaseiii.SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningThesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.Forexample,thetwowords"collaborator"and"accomplice"aresynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningof“apersonwhohelpsanother",buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsomethinggood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherina\ncriminalact.Sowhichwordyouwouldusedependsonyourevaluationofthenatureoftheactivitythepersonconcernedhelpsin.iv.CollocationalsynonymsSomesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.Forexample,whenwewanttosaythatsomeonehasdonesomethingwrongorevencriminal,wecanuse"accuse","charge","rebuke",buttheyarefollowedbydifferentprepositions—accuse...of,charge...with,rebuke...for.Anotherexampleisthewordweusetodescribefoodthathasgonebadandisnotfitforeating.Differentadjectivesareusedfordifferentkindsoffood,e.g.rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconorbutter,sourmilk.v.SemanticallydifferentsynonymsThesearesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.Forexample,thetwowords"amaze"and"astound"areverycloseinmeaningtotheword"surprise",buthaveverysubtledifferences.While"amaze"suggestsconfusionand\nbewilderment,"astound"suggestsdifficultyinbelieving.5.3.2.2PolysemyWhiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.TherearemanypolysemicwordsinEnglish.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.Taketheword"table"forexample.ItisaverycommonwordinEnglish.Ifwelookitupinanydictionary,wewillfindthatithasatleastthefollowingsevenmeanings:(1)apieceoffurniture(2)allthepeopleseatedatatable(3)thefoodthatisputonatable(4)athinflatpieceofstone,metal,wood,etc.(5)orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.(6)partofamachine-toolonwhichtheworkisputtobeoperatedon(7)alevelarea,aplateau\nHistoricallyspeaking,polysemycanbeunderstoodasthegrowthanddevelopmentoforchangeinthemeaningofwords.Weassumethatatfirsttheform"table"hadonlyonemeaning;verylikelyitreferredtoathinpieceofstone,orwood.Thisiscalleditsprimarymeaning.Lateronitgraduallycametoacquiretheothermeaningsitnowrepresents.5.3.2.3HomonymyHomonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.Belowareexamplesofeachkind:Homophones:rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peaceleak/leekHomographs:bowv./bown.tearv./tearn.lead\nv./leadnCompletehomonyms:fastadj./fastv.scalen./scalev.Atthisstageaquestionthatreadilycomestomindisthatwhentwoformsareidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,howcanwetellwhethertheyaretwomeaningsofthesamepolysemicword,ortwocompletehomonyms?Thisisaninterestingquestionbutdifficulttoanswer.Whatwecandependonistheetymologyofthewordsinquestion.Apolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword.Thevariousmeaningsofthewordarerelatedtosomedegree,aswehaveseeninthecaseof"table"above.Completehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.Forinstance,"ball"meaning"aroundobjectusedingames"and"ball"meaning"alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance"arecompletehomonyms.Theword"ball"bearingthefirstmeaningisanativeEnglishword.Itoriginallyexistedinthelanguage.Itsohappenedthatin\nFrenchthereexistedawordspeltinthesameway,bearingthesecondmeaning.AndthiswordsomehowfounditswayintotheEnglishlanguage.TheresultisthatinEnglishtodaywehavethetwocompletehomonyms"ball"and"ball."5.3.2.4HyponymyHyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother,e.g.Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily,morningglory...Superordinate:animalHyponyms:dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear.jSuperordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,settee...\nHyponymyisarelationofinclusion;intermsofmeaning,thesuperordinateincludesallitshyponyms.5.3.2.5AntonymyThetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.Weshouldnotbemisledintothinkingthatwordscontrasteachotheronlyonasingledimension;infact,oppositenesscanbefoundondifferentdimensionsanddifferentkindsofantonymshavebeenrecognized.i.GradableantonymsSomeantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.Forexample,"old"and"young"areimmediatelyrecognizedasantonyms,buttheystandfortwoextremes,betweenwhichthereexistintermediateformsrepresentingdifferingdegreesofbeingoldoryoung,suchas"middle-aged,mature,elderly".^Similarlybetween"hot"and"cold"thereexistvaryingqualities\nbeingneither"hot"nor"cold",suchas"cool","warm"and"lukewarm".ii.ComplementaryantonymsApairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Inotherwords,itisnotamatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitheroneortheother.Forexample,apersoncanbeeither"alive"or"dead",either"male"or"female";thereisnothirdpossibility.Therefore,"alive"and"dead"areapairofcomplementaryantonyms,andsoare"male"and"female".iii.RelationaloppositesPairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,ifAisthehusbandofB,thenBisthewifeofA.So"husband"and"wife"areapairofrelationalopposites.Similarrelationisfoundbetween"father"and"son","teacher"and"pupil","doctor"and"patient","buy"and"sell","let"and"rent",\n"above"and"below".5.4SenserelationsbetweensentencesAstherearecertainrelationsbetweenlexicalitems,soaretherecertainrelationsbetweensentencesandalsobetweenconstituentsofthesamesentence.Belowarethemajoronesofsuchrelations,andtheyareanalyzedintermsoftruthconditions.i.XissynonymouswithY.e.g.X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthedog.Y:Thedogwaskilledbytheboy.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,YistrueandifXisfalse,Yisfalse.ii.XisinconsistentwithY.e.g.X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.X:Thisismyfirstvisittoyourcountry.Y:Ihavebeentoyourcountrybefore.Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yisfalse,andifXisfalse,Yistrue.\niii.XentailsY.(YisanentailmentofX.)e.g.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:HehasbeentoFrance.Y:HehasbeentoEurope.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.Analyzingtherelationofentailmentintermsoftruthcondition,wecometothefollowingconclusions:IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue,e.g.IfhehasbeentoFrance,hemusthavebeentoEurope.IfXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse,e.g.IfhehasnotbeentoFrance,hemayhavebeentoEuropeorhehasnotbeentoEurope.iv.XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX.)e.g.X:John'sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhasabike.X:ThequeenofEnglandisold.Y:Englandhasaqueen.Analyzingtherelationofpresuppositioninterms\noftruthcondition,wecanconclude:IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue,e.g.IfJohn'sbikeneedsrepairing,Johnmusthaveabike.IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue,e.g.IfJohn'sbikedoesnotneedrepairing,Johnstillhasabike.v.Xisacontradiction.WhenXisacontradiction,itisinvariablyfalse,e.g.Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.vi.Xissemanticallyanomalouse.g.Thetablehasbadintentions.WhenXissemanticallyanomalous,itisabsurdinthesensethatitpresupposesacontradiction.Thesentenceabovepresupposes“Atablecanhaveintentions",whichisobviouslyabsurd.5.5Analysisofmeaning5.5.1ComponentialanalysiswaytoanalyzelexicalmeaningComponentialanalysisisawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.\nThisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Forexample,theword"man"isanalyzedascomprisingthefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.OneadvantageofComponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.Forexample,thetwowords"man"and"woman"sharethefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,and+ANIMATE,butdifferinthefeatureofMALE.Andthewords"man"and"boy"sharethefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ANIMATE,and+MALE,butdifferinthefeatureofADULT.Componentialanalysisprovidesaninsightintothemeaningofwordsandawaytostudytherelationshipsbetweenwordsthatarerelatedin\nmeaning.5.5.2Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaningBeforelookingattheanalysisofsentencemeaning,twopointsaboutsentencemeaningneedtobeclarified.First,themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents,thatis,themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitsconstituentwords.Forexample,thetwosentences:"Thedogbittheman"and"Themanbitthedog",thoughconsistingofexactlythesamewords,differwidelyinwhattheymean.Inthisrespect,asentenceisdifferentfromaword,themeaningofwhichisthesumtotalofallitscomponents,i.e.,itssemanticfeatures.Thesecondthingaboutsentencemeaningisthattherearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammatical\nwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.WithourknowledgeofEnglishgrammar,wecaneasilytellthatthefollowingsentencesarenotgrammaticallywell-formed:*Thedogarechasingthecat.*Hegavethebookme.*WewillwenttoBeijingtomorrow.Acertaingrammarruleisviolatedineachofthesentences.Thenwhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.,constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.Somesentencesmaybegrammaticallywell-formed,i.e.,theycomplyperfectlywiththegrammarrulesofthelanguage,yettheymaynotbesemanticallymeaningful.Thereasonisthattheycontainwordswhicharenotsupposedtogotogether,thusviolatingtheselectionalrestrictions,e.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.\nThetwosentencesare,grammaticallyspeaking,perfect.Theyhaveallthenecessarygrammaticalcomponentsofasentence,andthereisnomistakeinagreementortense.Buttheproblemwiththefirstsentenceisthatnoonehaseverseenanygreenclouds,andcloudsneversleep,stillless,sleepfuriously.Theproblemwiththesecondsentenceisthatsincerity,beinganabstractnotion,cannotperformtheactionofshakinghands,andnooneevershakeshandswithanapple,stillless,ablackapple.Soinbothsentencessomeselectionalrestrictionshavebeenviolated.Thishasledtosemanticill-formednessofthesentences.Linguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbytheBritishlinguistG.Leech.Inhisframeworkofanalysis,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichisthe\nabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Forexample,thepredicationofthesentence"Tomsmokes"issaidtoconsistoftheargument"TOM"andthepredicate"SMOKE",andthepredicationcanbewrittenasTOM(SMOKE).Asthegrammaticalformofthesentencedoesnotaffectthesemanticpredicationofthesentence,allthefollowingsentencesaresaidtohavethesamepredication:Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke!DoesTomsmoke?Tomdoesnotsmoke.Theycanallberegardedasthevariousgrammaticalrealizationsofthesamesemanticpredication:TOM(SMOKE).Thensomesentencescontainmorethanone\nargument.Forexample,thesentence"Kidslikeapples"hastwonominalelements"kids"and"apples",soitspredicationcanbewrittenasKID,APPLE(LIKE).Andtheninsomesentencesthereisnoargumentatall,suchasthoseEnglishsentencescontainingtheimpersonal"it",e.g."Itishot"."It"inthissentencecannotbeconsideredasanargument,and(BEHOT)isthepredicateofthepredication.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).Althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsofthecomponentialmake-upofasentence,theyhavedifferentrolesinthepredication.Thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modality,etc.anditmayalsobesaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberandnatureofthearguments.forher\nRevisionexercises:1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?2.WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?3.Explainwithexamples"homonymy","polysemy",and"hy-ponymy".4.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong?north/southvacant/occupiedliterate/illiterateabove/blowdoctor/patientwide/narrowpoor/richfather/daughter5.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:'Tom'swifeispregnant.Tomhasawife.Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced.Mysisterisamarriedwoman.Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby.Theyhaveachild.Helikesseafood.Helikescrabs.6.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?7.Whatisgrammatically?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?8.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis;\nThemansellsice-cream.Isthebabysleeping?Itissnowing.Thetreegrowswell.Chapter6PRAGMATICS6.1Somebasicnotions6.1.1DefinitionPragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.Ageneraldefinitionisthatitisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingandunderstandingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Pragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics;itsdevelopmentandestablishmentinthe1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudyoflinguistics,especiallythatofsemantics.Inourdiscussionofsemantics,wemadementionofseveralviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning.Oneofthemistheconceptualistview,whichplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.Thisviewproposedinthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyisoftenconsideredtobeaninitialefforttostudymeaninginapragmaticsense.\nPragmaticsstudiessuchtopicsasrelatedtolanguagecommunication,includingdeixis,speechacts,indirectlanguage,conversation,politeness,cross-culturalcommunication,andpresupposition.Inthischapterwewilltakeabrieflookatsomeofthem.6.1.2Pragmaticsvs.semanticsAspragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,thenhowaretheyrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?ThepublicationofSaussure'sworkCourseinGeneralLinguisticsintheearly20thcenturymarkedthebeginningofmodernlinguisticsandatthesametimelaiddownthekeynoteformodernlinguisticstudies,i.e.languageshouldbestudiedasaself-contained,intrinsicsystem;anyseriousstudyoflanguagecannotaffordtoinvestigatetheuseoflanguageandextra-linguisticfactorswerenottobeconsidered.Formorethanhalfacenturythishasbeenthedominanttraditionoflinguisticstudy.Thisisthespiritinwhichtraditionalphonologystudiedthesoundsoflanguage,traditionalsyntaxstudiedthestructureofsentences,andtraditionalsemanticsstudiedmeaning.Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.Butgraduallylinguistsfoundthatitwouldbeimpossibletogivean\nadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageusewasleftunconsidered.Butoncethenotionofcontextwastakenintoconsideration,semanticsspilledoverintopragmatics.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.6.1.3ContextThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledgehavebeenidentified,e.g.knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace,andknowledgeabouteachother.Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseoflanguageandalsothehearer'sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withoutsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationwouldnotbepossible,andwithoutconsideringsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationcannotbesatisfactorilyaccountedforinapragmaticsense.Lookatthefollowingsentences:(6-1)Howdiditgo?j(6-2)Itiscoldinhere.\n(6-3)ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.Sentence(1)mightbeusedinaconversationbetweentwostudentstalkingaboutanexamination,ortwosurgeonstalkingaboutanoperation,orinsomeothercontexts;(2)mightbesaidbythespeakertoaskthehearertoturnontheheater,orleavetheplace,ortoputonmoreclothes,ortoapologizeforthepoorconditionoftheroom,dependingonthesituationofcontext;(3)makessenseonlyifthehearerhastheknowledgethatChristmasfallsinsummerinthesouthernhemisphere.16.1.4Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningAshasbeensaidbefore,asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Butifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Soitisimpossibletotellif"Thedogisbarking"isasentenceoranutterance.Itcanbeeither.Italldependsonhowwelookatitandhowwearegoingtoanalyzeit.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreating\nitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Therefore,whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualizd,thatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Now,takethesentence"Mybagisheavy"asanexample.Semanticanalysisofthemeaningofthesentenceresultsintheone-placepredicationBAG(BEINGHEAVY).Thenapragmaticanalysisoftheutterancewillrevealwhatthespeakerintendstodowithit.Theutterancemeaningofthesentencevarieswiththecontextinwhichitisuttered.Forexample,itcouldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthehearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Anotherpossibilityisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeone'srequestforhelp.Allthesearepossibleinterpretationsofthesameutterance"Mybagisheavy".Howitistobeunderstooddependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.Whilemostutterancestaketheformofgrammaticallycompletesentences,some\nutterancesdonot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.Forexample,"Goodmorning!""Hi!"and"Ouch!"areallutterances,whichhavemeaningincommunication.If"Goodmorning!"canberestoredto"Iwishyouagoodmorning",wedonotknowfromwhichcompletesentences"Hi!"and"Ouch!"havebeenderived.6.2Speechacttheory6.2.1Austin'smodelofspeechactsSpeechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50'softhe20thcentury.Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion"Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?"Traditionallyphilosopherswereinterestedinthetruth-valueofsentences,i.e.,howtojudgewhetherasentenceistrueorfalse;theybelievedthatastatementwasusedeithertostateafactortodescribeastateofaffairs.Althoughaphilosopherhimself,Austinexpresseddoubtaboutthisassumptionbecausehefoundsomestatementswerenotusedtostateortodescribe,theycouldnotbejudgedastrueorfalse;rathertheywereusedbythespeakertodosomething.Thushemadeadistinctionbetweenwhathecalled"constatives"and"performatives".Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateor\ndescribe,andwerethusverifiable;performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.ThefourexamplesAustinusedtoillustratethepointhavebecomeclassicalandarefrequentlyquotedintheliterature:(6-4)"Ido."(6-5)"InamethisshipElizabeth."'(6-6)"Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother."(6~7)"Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.""Ido"isusedinthecourseofamarriageceremonyforthespeakertogetmarried."Inamethisship..."isusedbyanauthorizedpersontoperformtheactofnamingaship.Similarly,theutterance"Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother",occurringinawill,isusedtoperformtheactofbequeathing.Andwhenaspeakersays"Ibetyou..."heisdoingnothingelsebutbetting.Soinsteadofstatingsomething,thespeaker,whenutteringthesesentences,isactuallydoingsomething,i.e.performingcertainacts.ThefourexamplesAustincitedareallconventionalizedcases.Buttheideaofdoingsomethingwhilespeakingcancertainlybebroadenedtoincludenon-conventionalactssuchasstating,promising,requesting,andsuggesting.Hencethetheorycametobeknownasthespeechacttheory,accordingtowhichweareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.Lateron,foravarietyofreasons,Austingaveuphisinitialdistinction\nbetweenconstativesandperformatives.Hesetupanothermodeltoexplainthewayactswereperformedbymeansoflanguage.Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Let'slookatanexample:(6~8)Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerishisutteranceofallthewords"you","have","door","open",etc.thusexpressingwhatthewordsliterallymean.Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingonthecontext.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthe\nhearergetsthespeaker'smessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstotellhimtoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullyIbroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.Ofthethreespeechacts,linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutionaryactbecausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeaker'sintention,andintheirstudyoflanguagecommunication,linguistsaremostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.6.2.2Searle'sclassificationofspeechactsThespeechacttheoryprovidedgreatphilosophicalinsightintotin-natureoflinguisticcommunication.InthelightofthisIhcoiy,whenwearespeakingalanguage,wearedoingsomething,orinotherwordsperformingacts;andtheprocessoflinguisticcommunicationconsistsofasequenceofacts.Thetheoryarousedgreatinterestamongscholarsinthe1960'sand1970's.OneofthosewhomadenotablecontributionstoitistheAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearle.OneofthecontributionsSearlehasmadeishisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.ThisissomethingAustinhimselfhadtriedtodobutdidnotdoverysuccessfully.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories,i.e.,therearefivegeneraltypesofthings\nwedowithlanguage.Specificactsthatfallintoeachtypesharethesameillocutionarypoint,butdifferintheirstrength,isayingwhatthe2.3.representatives:statingordescribingspeakerbelievestobetruedirectives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomethingcommissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction4.expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate5.declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomethingTheillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhehimselfbelievestobetrue.Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizingareamongthemosttypicaloftherepresentatives,e.g.(6-9)(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.(6-10)(Istate)Theearthisaglobe.\nDirectivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass,e.g.(6-11)Openthewindow!(6-12)You'dbettergototheclinic.(6-13)Yourmoneyoryourlife!(6-14)Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?Commissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction,i.e.whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalcases,e.g.(6-15)Ipromisetocome.(6-16)Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating,e.g.(6-17)I'msorryforthemessIhavemade.(6-18)It'sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.Thelastclass"declarations"hasthecharacteristicthatthesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.ThisremindsoneofAustin'sfamousclassicalexamples.Otherexamplesare:(6-19)Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.(6-20)I\nappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.(6-21)Ifireyou!Ashasbeensaidpreviously,alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce.Forinstance,therearevariouswaystoletothersknowwhatyoubelievein.Youcansay"Iswearheisthekiller",or"Iguessheisthekiller",or"Ibelieve/thinkheisthekiller".Thenalltheutterancesthatcanbemadetoperformthesameactmayvaryintheirsyntacticform.Forexample,inordertogetsomeonetodosomething,wecanusetheimperativeform"Closethedoor";wecanalsochooseonefromavarietyofotherforms.-(6-22)Willyouclosethedoor!(6-23)Canyouclosethedoor!(6-24)Doyoumindclosingthedoor?(6-25)Iwouldbeverygratefulifyoucouldclosethedoor!(6-26)Thedoorisopen!(6-27)Thedoorplease!6.3Principleofconversation^..ffAstheobjectiveofpragmaticstudyistoexplainhowlanguageisusedtoeffectsuccessfulcommunication,conversation,asthemostcommonandnaturalformofcommunication,hasdrawntheattention\nofmanyscholars.Aphilosopherandlogician,PaulGricemadeanattempttoexplainthecourseofnaturalconversation,inwhichimpliedmessagesarefrequentlyinvolved.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,;itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows.-Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:ThemaximofquantityI1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofquality•;1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThemaximofrelationBerelevant.:•.\nThemaximofmanner1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.,:3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).4.Beorderly.ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons,butonlywhentheyare"flouted",touseGrice'sterm,does"conversationalimplicature"occur.Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.Whenwefloutamaxim,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.Thefollowingfourconversationexchangesillustratetheviolationofthefourmaximsandtheresultantimplicaturesrespectively:(6-28)A:WhenisSusan'sfarewellparty?B:Sometimenextmonth.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBknowsexactlywhenSusanisgoingtogiveherfarewellparty.ThusBiswithholdingsomeoftheinformationrequiredatthisstageofconversationandisthusfloutingthemaximofquantity.Theimplicaturethatresultsis"Idonotwishtotellyouwhenthepartyisgoingtobeheld."(6-29)A:WouldyouliketojoinusforthepicniconSunday?\nB:I'mafraidIhavegotaclassonSunday.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBisnothavinganyclassthatwillpreventhimfromgoingforthepicnic.ThusBissayingsomethingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandisfloutingthemaximofquality.Hisimpliedmessageis"IdonotwanttojoinyouforthepicniconSunday."(6-30)A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?B:Wehadabasketballmatchwiththeotherclassandwebeatthem.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatitisentirelypossibleforBtotellAhowwellorhowpoorlyhedidinthemathexam.B'sresponseisthustotallyirrelevanttoA'squestion.Thereforeheisfloutingthemaximofrelation.Theimplicatureis"Idon'twishtotalkaboutthemathexam."(6-31)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingtheword"ice-cream".ThusBhasfloutedthemaximofmanner.B'utterancehastheimplicaturethat"Idon'twantthekidstoknowwearetalkingaboutgettingthemsomeicecream."ThesignificanceofGrice'sCPliesinthatitexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterallysaid.As\npragmaticsfocusesontheconveyanceofmeaninginthecourseofcommunication,CPisundoubtedlyanimportanttheoryinthearea.Revisionexercises:1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?2.Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialinthepragmaticstudyof;linguisticcommunication?3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:a)Theroomismessy.•',b)Oh,itisraining!'c)Themusicofthemovieisgood.'d)Youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow.;5.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.6.WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?7.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingthesemaximsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature?\n这里注意3处：一、2.2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonants（英语辅音的分类）此章埋伏若干表格；二、3.5  Compounding（复合）此章有表格埋伏三、4.4Wordgroups此章有大范围奇形怪状、异形图表，大家集中力量注意对付。四、校内日志上限字数为12万。。。所以4.5章往后在下一篇，觉得还有用的劳烦请点下一篇。。。下面开始破解。。。。。。1INTRODUCTION1介绍 1.1Whatislinguistics?11什么是语言学? 1.1.1Definition1.1.1定义Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Ittriestoanswerthebasicquestions"Whatislanguage?"and"Howdoeslanguagework?"Itprobesintovariousproblemsrelatedtolanguagesuchas"Whatdoalllanguageshaveincommon?","Whatrangeofvariationisfoundamonglanguages?","Whatmakeslanguagechange?","Towhatextentaresocialclassdifferencesreflectedinlanguage?","Howdoesachildacquirehismothertongue?",andmanyothers.语言学是通常被定义为学习语言的方法更为科学。它试图回答的基本问题”是什么语言?”和“语言是如何工作的呢?”探讨了各种相关的问题,语言如“,所有的语言都会有什么共同之处呢?”、“变化范围已出现在语言吗?”、“什么使语言变迁呢?”、“在什么程度上是社会阶级差异反映在语言呢?”、“孩子如何获得他的母语吗?”,以及其他许多人。Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,e.g.English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin,butitstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisascientificstudybecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.Inordertodiscoverthenatureandrulesoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguisthastodofirstistocollectandobservelanguagefacts,whicharefoundtodisplaysomesimilarities,andgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem;thenheformulatessomehypothesesaboutthelanguagestructure.Butthehypothesesthusformedhavetobecheckedrepeatedlyagainsttheobservedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.Inlinguistics,asinanyotherdiscipline,dataandtheorystandinadialecticalcomplementation;thatis,atheorywithoutthesupportofdatacanhardlyclaimvalidity,anddatawithoutbeingexplainedbysometheoryremainamuddledmassofthings.语言学研究,例如没有特定的语言。英语、华语、阿拉伯语、和拉丁语,但它研究语言的原理。它是一种科学的研究,因为它是系统地研究基础上进行语言数据,参照的语言的共性。为了发现自然和规则的潜在的语言体系,语言学家必须做的第一件事是收集和观察中,语言事实显示许多相同点,也对他们的行政;然后,他有针对性地制定一些假设的语言结构。但假设从而形成了反复确认对充分证明他们观察到的事实的有效性。在语言学,其他纪律,站在数据和理论辩证互补理论;也就是说,不支持的数据很难索赔数据有效性,并且没有被解释为一些理论,保持一份糊涂的大规模的东西。 \n1.1.2Thescopeoflinguistics1.1.2语言学的范围Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.学习的语言作为一个整体,通常被称为一般语言学。Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy,incontrasttothosebranchesofstudywhichrelatelinguisticstotheresearchofotherareas.这涉及到基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法应用于任何语言研究相比,那些树枝的学习内容涉及语言学研究的其他领域。Languageisacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacets,soitishardlypossibleforthelinguiststodealwithitallatonce.Theyhavetoconcentrateononeaspectofitatatime.Thishasgivenrisetoanumberofrelativelyindependentbrancheswithintheareaoflinguistics.语言是一种复杂的实体,有多个图层,所以它方面几乎是不可能的语言学家来解决它一次付清。他们必须专注于生活的一部分。这引起了一些相对独立的分支机构范围内的语言学。Whatfirstdrewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.Thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationledtotheestablishmentofphonetics.什么首次吸引了语言学家的注意是在听起来使用的语言。听起来使用的研究在语言交际,建立了幅员辽阔的语音。Then,aslinguistsbecameinterestedinhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication,theydevelopedanotherbranchofstudyrelatedtosoundscalledphonology.然后,随着语言学家变得有兴趣听起来如何摆放在一起时,用的表达方式,他们发展了相关研究的另一个分支的声音叫音系学。Thesoundsusedinlinguisticcommunicationarerepresentedbysymbols,i.e.morphemes.Thestudyofthewayinwhichthesesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordshasconstitutedthebranchofstudycalledmorphology.使用在语言交际的声音中用符号,即语素。这项研究的方式,这些符号被安排并结合成为单词构成了研究部门叫的形态。Thenthecombinationofwordstoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesinlanguagesisgovernedbyrules.Thestudyoftheserulesconstitutesamajorbranchoflinguisticstudiescalledsyntax.然后结合形式的文字语言句子文法允许适用规则。研究这些规则构成专业部门叫语言研究的语法。Buttheultimateobjectiveoflanguageisnotjusttocreategrammaticallywell-formedsentences.Inmostgeneralterms,languageisusedtoconveymeaning.Thestudyofmeaningisknownassemantics.但最终目标语言不仅仅是创建语法规范的句子。在大多数一般术语,语言是用来表达的意思。研究意义被称为语义。Languagecommunicationdoesnotoccurinavacuum,italwaysoccursinacontext.Whenthestudyofmeaningisconducted,notinisolation,butinthecontextoflanguageuse,itbecomesanotherbranchoflinguisticstudycalledpragmatics.语言交际不发生在真空状态下,它总是发生在一个语境中的具体化。当进行意义的研究,而不是孤立的,而是语言使用的语境中,它成为语言研究的另一个分支称为务实的。\nThestudyofalltheseaspectsoflanguageformsthecoreoflinguistics.这些方面的研究对语言形式的语言学的核心。Then,languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon;itisasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.Naturally,inthecourseoftimethestudyoflanguagehasestablishedcloselinkswithotherbranchesofsocialstudies,resultinginsomeinterdisciplinarybranchesoflinguisticstudy.然后,语言并非一个孤立的现象,它是一种社会行为进行了一定的社会环境的人。自然的,随着时间的推移学习的语言建立了紧密的与其他有关部门会导致其承担一些社会研究、语言研究部门跨学科。Languageandsocietyarecloselyconnected.Thelanguageapersonusesoftenrevealshissocialbackground,andthereexistsocialnormsthatdeterminethetypeoflanguagetobeusedonacertainoccasion;andlanguagechangesareoftencausedbysocialchanges.Thestudyofallthesesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyformthecoreofthebranchcalledsociolinguistics.语言与社会是密切相关的。使用语言与人经常揭示了他的社会背景,也有社会规范语言的类型决定,被用在某些场合,语言改变通常会引起的社会变革。研究这些社会诸方面的语言形式及其相互关系与社会的核心社会语言学分厂。Psycholinguisticsrelatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychology.Itaimstoanswersuchquestionsashowthehumanmindworkswhenweuselanguage,howweasinfantsacquireourmothertongue,howwememorize,andhowweprocesstheinformationwereceiveinthecourseofcommunication.总结学习的语言与心理学。它目的是回答这样的问题:人类心智活动是当我们使用的语言,我们如何像婴儿获得了我们的母语,我们如何记忆,并且我们怎么处理过程中我们接受到的信息交流。Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstothestudyoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.在语言学研究发现常常可以应用于解决一些实际问题,语言的恢复能力。这些应用的研究通常被认为是应用语言学。但狭义上,应用语言学是研究和原则,对语言学理论的教学语言教学,特别是外国和第二语言。1.1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics1.1.3一些重要的区别,在语言学1.1.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptive1.1.3.1规定vs.描述性Prescriptiveanddescriptiverepresenttwodifferenttypesoflinguisticstudy.Ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive;ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor"correctandstandard"behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.规定的,描述性的代表两种不同类型的语言学习。如果一种语言研究的目的是要说明与分析人们实际使用的语言,据说是描述性;如果语言研究的目的是要躺下“正确的规则和标准”行为,即在语言运用中告诉人们他们什么该说甚麽、他们不应说,据说说明性的。Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.Itdiffersfromearlierstudiesoflanguagenormallyknownas"grammar"inthatthelatterisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.It\naimstosetmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.Ontheotherhand,modernlinguisticsissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveanditstaskistodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,beit"correct"ornot.Modernlinguistsbelievethatwhateveroccursinthelanguagepeopleuseshouldbedescribedandanalyzedintheirinvestigation.现代语言学主要清楚。它不同于早期的研究通常被称为“语言的语法”,后者是基于“高”(宗教、文学)的书写语言。它的目标是,语言使用者模型应走的路。另一方面,现代语言学应该是科学、客观,它的任务是描述人们如何使用的语言,它是“正确的”。现代语言学家相信,不管发生在语言的人使用应该的描述和分析在他们的调查。1.1.3.2Synchronicvs.diachronic1.1.3.2同步vs.历时Languageexistsintimeandchangesthroughtime.Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy;itstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.语言存在于时间和改变穿越时空的旅程。语言的描述于某点时间,共时研究历史的描述的语言,就像它改变是一个历时通过时间学习。学习语言的一个历时是一个历史的研究;探讨了语言的发展历史经过一段时间的。Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronicapproachseemstoenjoypriorityoveradiachronicone.Itisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsaresuccessfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment.Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsofalanguageinitscurrentexistence,andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.在现代语言学、时享有优先于方式似乎在不同历史时期的一个。据信,除非这一不同的状态在不同历史时期的一种语言研究,成功地将很难再描述变化发生在历史发展。同步描述常被认为是一种语言的描述在当前的存在,而大多数语言学研究是这种类型。1.1.3.3Speechandwriting1.1.3.3演说和政治文章Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasthenaturalortheprimarymediumofhumanlanguageforsomeobviousreasons.Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.Evenintoday'sworld,therearestillmanylanguagesthatcanonlybespokenbutnotwritten.Thenineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.Andalso,speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongue,andwritingislearnedandtaughtlaterwhenhegoestoschool.Formodernlinguists,spokenlanguagerevealsmanytruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe"revised"recordofspeech.Thus,theirdataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeverydayspeech,whichtheyregardasauthentic.\n演讲和写作是两个主要的语言交际媒体。现代语言学以口语的自然或主要的人类语言媒介来传达的一些显而易见的原因。从的角度来看,语言进化,说话是写作之前。文字系统的任何语言总是“发明”由用户来记录发言,需要的时候。即使在今天的世界上,仍有很多种语言,那只是说不能被写的。然后在日常的沟通、语音发挥更大的作用方面比写的信息量表达了。同时,演讲总是在每一个以英语为母语的人获得他的母语,写作是后天的,教以后他上学。现代语言学家、口语会发现许多真正人类的语音特点,书面语是只有“修订”纪录言论。因此,他们的数据进行调查和分析日常用语中,多数都来自他们认为是有效的。1.1.3.4Langueandparole1.1.3.4语言词和言语ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetoabideby,andparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Paroleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.语言和言语之间的区别是由瑞士语言学家f.索绪尔那里在20世纪初。语言是法语和言语词。语言是指抽象的语言系统中分享言语社团的成员,假释是指在实际运用语言的实现。语言是语言的形态和规则必须遵守用户,假释是混凝土使用规范和规则的适用。语言是抽象的;它不是语言,人们实际上使用。假释是具体的,它指的是自然发生的语言活动。语言是相对稳定的,它不频繁改变;而假释因人而异,从情况的情况。Saussuremadethisdistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Inhisopinion,paroleissimplyamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedandconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,andwhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics..1.1.3.5Competenceandperformance1.1.3.5能力和性能SimilartoSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance,whichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950's.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.AccordingtoChomsky,aspeakerhasinternalizedasetofrulesabouthislanguage;thisenableshimtoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.Despitehisperfectknowledgeofhisownlanguage,aspeakercanstillmakemistakesinactualuse,e.g,slipsofthetongue,andunnecessarypauses.Thisimperfectperformanceiscausedbysocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,anxiety,andembarrassment.SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinksthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker'scompetence,nothisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.Althoughaspeakerpossessesaninternalizedsetofrulesandappliestheminactualuse,hecannottellexactlywhattheserulesare.Sothetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifytheserules.\n类似于索绪尔区分语言和言语之后假释是,区分能力和功能,提出了一种基于:美国语言学家乔姆斯基最迟在1950年的。乔姆斯基定义能力为最理想的用户的规则方面的知识的言语,表现出的实际落实知识在语言交际。根据乔姆斯基,说话者的一组规则内化了关于他的语言,这使他能来表达和理解数量无限的句子量大,和识别句子的语法而模糊。尽管他自己的圆满智慧的语言,演讲者,可以在实际运用中还是会犯错误,即g,口误的舌头,和不必要的停顿。这个不完美的表现是由于社会、心理因素,如压力,焦虑和尴尬。类似的索绪尔的语言学理论,乔姆斯基想一想,语言学家应该学习是理想的语水平,而不是他的表演,这太盲目需要研究。虽然演讲者具有内在化套规则,并将其应用在实际运用中,他也不确切说出这些规则。所以任务的语言学家是善于发现、指定这些规则。WhileSaussure'sdistinctionandChomsky'sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.当索绪尔的鉴别和乔姆斯基的是非常类似的,至少在不同的观点了索绪尔社会学语言和他的概念语言是一种社会习俗、和乔姆斯基看着语言从心理学的角度来看,他的能力是一种财产的思想的归属感。1.1.3.6Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics1.1.3.6传统语法和现代语言学ItisgenerallybelievedthatthebeginningofmodernlinguisticswasmarkedbythepublicationofF.deSaussure'sbook"CourseinGeneralLinguistics"intheearly20thcentury.ButwehavetobeawarethatbeforethatlanguagehadbeenstudiedforcenturiesinEuropebysuchscholarsasphilosophersandgrammarians.Thegeneralapproachthustraditionallyformedtothestudyoflanguageovertheyearsisroughlyreferredtoas"traditionalgrammar."Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinseveralbasicways.Someofthesehavealreadybeenbrieflymentionedbefore.人们普遍认为,现代语言学的开始上f出版的《索绪尔那里普通语言学课程在20世纪初。但我们必须警觉,在这之前的语言研究等几个世纪以来,欧洲的学者作为哲学家和语法。这样的传统的一般方法形成学习的语言多年来大概是被称为“传统语法。”不同于传统现代语言学的一些基本语法方式。这些之中的一些被简单提到过。Firstly,linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Alinguistisinterestedinwhatissaid,notinwhathethinksoughttobesaid.Hedescribeslanguageinallitsaspects,butdoesnotprescriberulesof"correctness".Hedoesnotbelievethatthereissomeabsolutestandardofcorrectnessconcerninglanguageusewhichlinguistsorschoolteachersshouldviewastheirdutytomaintain.Instead,hewouldprefertobeanobserverandrecorderoffacts,butnotajudge.Hemightrecognizethatonetypeofspeechappearstobemoresociallyacceptablethanothersbecauseoftheinfluenceoffashion.Butthiswillnotmakehimthinkthatthesociallyacceptablevarietycanreplacealltheothervarieties,ortheoldwordsarealwaysbetterthannewonesorviceversa.Hewillregardthechangesinlanguageandlanguageuseastheresultof.anaturalandcontinuousprocess,notsomethingtobefeared.首先,语言学是描述性而传统语法是说明性的。一个语言学家感兴趣的是什么,而不是在说什么,他认为应该说。他描述了语言的各个方面,但并无明文规定“正确性”规则。他不相信有某种绝对标准的正确性的有关语言使用哪些语言学家或者学校的老师要看为己任,以维护。相反,他宁愿被观察者和录音机的事实,但并不是一个法官。他可能认识到一种类型的演讲似乎比其他人更能为社会所接受,因为时尚潮流的影响。但这些不会让他认为社会可接受的品种的更换所有的其它品种,再看看过去的单词总是比新设计更好或反之亦然。他会把语言与语言使用的变化的结果作为一个自然、连续操作,不应该害怕。Second,modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Traditionalgrammarians,ontheotherhand,tendedtoemphasize,maybeoveremphasize,theimportanceofthewrittenword,partlybecauseofitspermanence.Beforetheinventionofsoundrecording,itwasdifficultforpeopletodealwithutteranceswhichexistedonlyforseconds.Then,thetraditionalclassicaleducationwasalsopartlytoblame.Peoplewereencouragedtoimitatethe\n"bestauthors"forlanguageusage.Manyof(therulesoftraditionalgrammarapplyonlytothewrittenlanguage;theycannotbemademeaningfulintermsofthespokenlanguage,withoutmuchqualificationandaddition.其次,现代语言学以口语为主要,而不是写的。传统的语法,另一方面,往往过份强调,也许的重要性,文字,部分由于其永久。发明之前,录音,是件很难的话语处理那些仅存在于持续几秒钟。然后,对传统的经典教育也要承担部分责任。市民被鼓励模仿的“最佳著作者”语言使用。(有关的许多传统的语法只适用于书面语;他们不能使有意义的从口语,没有太多的资格和补充。Then,modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammaralsointhatitdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.ForalongtimeontheEuropeancontinentitwasunquestionablyassumedthatLatinprovidesauniversalframeworkintowhichalllanguagesfit.Asaresult,otherlanguageswereforcedtofitintoLatinpatternsandcategories,especiallyitscasesystemandtensedivisionsofpast,presentandfuture.Tomodernlinguists,itisunthinkabletojudgeonelanguagebystandardsofanother.Theyareopposedtothenotionthatanyonelanguagecanprovideanadequateframeworkforalltheothers.Theyaretryingtosetupauniversalframework,butthatwillbebasedonthefeaturessharedbymostofthelanguagesusedbymankind.然后,现代语言学传统语法也不同,它不是强迫语言成为一个Latin-based框架。在很长一段时间在欧洲大陆是毫无疑问假定拉丁提供一个通用框架将所有语言健康。因此,其他语言被迫适合拉丁语模式和类别,尤其是它的案例教学和紧张的区分的过去、现在和未来。现代语言学家,12达标来判断一种语言的另一个国家的边界。他们反对这样的观念,任何一种语言也可以提供足够框架,用于所有其他的人。他们正试图建立一个通用框架,但那将是基于特征的大部分共享的人类所使用的语言。1.2Whatislanguage?12语言到底是吗?1.2.1Definitionsoflanguage1.2.1语言的定义。Ifwetakelinguisticstobethescientificstudyoflanguage,ournextquestionthenis"Whatislanguage?"如果我们把科学语言学,我们下一步学习语言的问题并”是什么语言?Thismayatfirstsoundlikeanaiveandsimplequestion.Yettothisextremelyfamiliar,everydayphenomenon,itisdifficulttogiveasatisfactorydefinition.Somepeopleprobablywillsay"languageisatoolforhumancommunication".Farfromadefinition,thisonlytellsuswhatlanguagedoes,orwhatitisusedfor,i.e.itsfunction.Alternatively,onemightsay"languageisasetofrules."Thenthistellsnothingaboutitsfunctions,andthereareactuallyothersystemsthatarealsorule-governed.这乍听起来像是个幼稚和简单的问题。然而这极熟悉的,每天的现象,就很难给出一个满意的定义。有些人可能会说“语言是人类交际的工具”。远离定义,这只告诉我们什么语言,或是它是用来,即它的功能。另外,有人可能会说“语言是一组规则。”那么这告诉没有关于它的功能,事实上也rule-governed其它系统。Modernlinguistshaveproposedvariousdefinitionsoflanguage,someofthemarequotedbelow:现代语言学家们提出了电子商务的语言,其中的一些报价如下:"Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotions\nanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols."(Sapir,1921)“语言是一个纯粹的人类和non-instinctive的通信方法的想法、情绪和欲望通过自愿产生符号。”(萨皮尔是1921年出版的,Languageis"theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols."(Hall,1968)语言是“机构,人类的沟通和相互作用通过习惯使用任意符号oral-auditory。”(厅,1968年)"FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeaset(finiteorinfinite)ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelementsJ"(Chomsky,1957)“从现在起,我将考虑语言是一套(有限的或无限的),每个句子的有限长度和构造出有限的元素的元素集合J”(乔姆斯基,2003年)Eachofthesedefinitionshasitsownspecialemphasis,andisnottotallyfreefromlimitations.However,therearesomeimportantcharacteristicsofhumanlanguagelinguistshaveagreedon;theseareembracedinthefollowinggenerallyaccepteddefinition:每一种定义都有其特殊的重点,并非完全不受限制。但是,有一些重要的特点,语言学家都同意人类语言联系在一起,这是下列公认定义:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是一种系统中的任意声乐符号用人类的交流。Shortasitis,thisdefinitionhascapturedthemainfeaturesoflanguage.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.,elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Thisexplainswhy"iblk"isnotapossiblesoundcombinationinEnglish,andalsowhy"Beenhewoundedhas"isnotagrammaticallyacceptablesentenceinEnglish.短,这个定义已经俘获主要特点的语言。首先,语言是一种制,即语言的元素组合根据规则。这就解释了为什么“iblk”并不是一个可能的声音也说英语,结合的就是他为什么“受伤”并不是一个有语法可以接受的英语句子。Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor,forinstance,betweentheword"pen"andthethingwewritewith.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.Thisalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:wordsarejustsymbols;theyareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.byconvention.ThisconventionalnatureoflanguageiswellillustratedbyafamousquotationfromShakespeare'splayRomeoandJuliet":"Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.”第二,语言是任意在这个意义上说,没有一种语言之间的内在关联,象征符号代表,例如,在“笔”这个词,这东西我们写。事实上不同的不同语言有不同的文字来就是一个很好的例子相同的物体的随意性的语言。这也解释了这个具有象征意义的自然词语仅仅是北京:北京语言符号;与他们有联系的物体、行动、观念、等按照惯例。这个传统的自然语言是由一位著名的精美的插图引用了莎士比亚的剧本《罗密欧与朱丽叶》:“玫瑰,依然芳香如故。”Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumforalllanguagesissound.Allevidencepointstothefactthatwritingsystemscameintobeingmuchlaterthanthespokenformsandthattheyareonlyattemptstocapturesoundsandmeaningonpaper.Thefactthatchildrenacquirespokenlanguagebeforetheycanreadorwritealsoindicatesthatlanguageisprimarilyvocal.第三,语言的歌唱,因为所有的语言的主要媒介是合理的。所有证据指出这样的事实:书写系统晚很多形成了所说的形式和,就是他们只是尝试用声音和意义在纸上。事实上,孩子们获得口语前就会读或写也表明主要语言表达。\nTheterm"human"inthedefinitionismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific,i.e.,itisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,suchasbirdsongsandbeedances.术语“人”指的是在定义指定这个语言,即human-specific。,它非常不同于通信系统具有其他形式的生命,如鸟儿的歌声和蜜蜂舞蹈。1.2.2Designfeatures设计特征1.2.2"Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguage(thatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.Bycomparinglanguagewithanimalcommunicationsystems,wecanhaveabetterunderstandingofthenatureoflanguage.AframeworkwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett.Hespecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.设计特点是指人类语言的特性,任何动物区别系统的通信。通过比较语言与动物通信系统,我们可以有更好的理解自然语言。一个框架,提出了Hockett查尔斯美国语言学家。他指定的十二个设计特点,其中的5将在此讨论。1)Arbitrarinessv.Asmentionedearlier,languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.1)专断v如前所述,语言是任意的。这就意味着义项之间的逻辑连接和声音。一个很好的例子就是事实,不同的声音是用来指同一事物在不同的语言。Ontheotherhand,weshouldbeawarethatwhilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirearbitrary;certainwordsaremotivated.Thebestexamplesaretheonomatopoeicwords,suchasrumble,crash,cackle,banginEnglish.Besides,somecompoundwordsarealsonotentirelyarbitrary.Forexamplewhile"photo"and"copy"arebotharbitrary,thecompoundword"photocopy"isnotentirelyarbitrary.But,non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthevocabularyofalanguage.另一方面,我们应该注意的是,虽然语言是任意从本质上讲,它不是整个任意;某些单词的动力。最好的例子是摘要象声词长期以来,如的隆隆声,坠毁,咯咯叫,刘海英文。此外,一些复合的单词也可以不完全随意的。例如,“图”和“拷贝”都是任意、复合字“复印”是不完全随意的。但是,non-arbitrary的话只占一小部分词汇的语言。Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.任意自然语言是一种成熟的标志,它可以使语言拥有无限的源的表情。2)Productivity2)的生产率Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.Theycansendmessageswhichnooneelsehaseversentbefore.Muchofwhatwesayandhearwearesayingorhearingforthefirsttime.语言是生产或创造性的,它就有可能建设和解释的新信号,在它的使用者。这就是为什麽它们能够表达和理解一个无限的大量的句子,包括新句型让他们从来没有听说过的。他们能传达信息别人曾经前寄出。太多的说,听我们说或听力来说,这还是第一次。Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobe\nhighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.Forexample,gibboncallsarenotproductive,forgibbonsdrawalltheircallsfromalimitedrepertoire,whichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Andbeedancingisusedonlytoindicatefoodsources,whichistheonlykindofmessagethatcanbesentthroughthedancing.生产力唯一人类语言。大多数动物通信系统呈现高度限制就许多不同的信号,他们的用户可以发送和接收。例如,长臂猿电话没有生产力时,因为斯吸引他们的电话从有限的优异表现,迅速疲惫,使任何新奇是不可能的。和蜜蜂舞蹈是只用于显示食物来源,这是唯一类型的短信,可以通过发送跳舞。3)Duality3)二元性Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whicharemeaninglessbythemselves.Butthesoundsoflanguagecanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning,whicharefoundatthehigherlevelofthesystem.Forexample,thegroupingofthethreesounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/canmeaneitherakindoffish(carp),orapublicplaceforrestandamusement(park).Thentheunitsatthehigherlevelcanbearrangededandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.Noanimalcommunicationsystemhasdualityorevencomesneartopossessingit.语言是一种系统,它由两套结构,或是两层。在较低水平的基本结构的声音,这都是没有意义的自己。但语言的声音已经可以聚合起来到大量的意义单位中,在更高的层次上的制度。例如,分组的三个声音、k/,/a:/和/p/可以指的是一种鱼(鲤鱼),或公共场所为休息和娱乐(公园)。然后在更高的层次上的单位可以arrangeded然后重组成无数的句子。这种二元性或双发音结构的语言使用户来谈论任何事情在他们的知识。没有动物通信系统二元性或持有挨近。4)Displacement4)位移Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisiswhat"displacement"means.Thispropertyprovidesspeakerswithanopportunitytotalkaboutawiderangeoffilings,freefrombarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandplace.用这样的语言指的东西在场或不在场,真实的,还是想象中的重要的过去、现在或未来,或在遥远的地方。换句话说,语言可以用来指立即除去环境的现状,结合的演说者。这就是“位移”的意思。这个属性的扬声器提供一个机会来谈论广泛的文件里,没有障碍分离造成的时间和地点。Incontrast,noanimalcommunicationsystempossessesthisfeature.Animalcallsaremainlyutteredinresponsetoimmediatechangesofsituation,i.e,incontactoffood,inpresenceofdanger,orinpain.Oncethedangerorpainisgone,callsstop.相比之下,没有动物通讯系统拥有这一特点。动物的叫声主要发出屈从于当前变化情况,即在接触的食物,存在危险,还是很痛。一旦危险或痛苦是走了,叫停止。5)Culturaltransmission5)文化传播\nWhilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,i.e.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.AnEnglishspeakerandaChinesespeakerarebothabletousealanguage,buttheyarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Itispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Incontrast,animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted,i.e.,animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.而人类语言是有能力遗传基础,就是说,我们都具有天生的能力获取语言,一种语言机制的细节遗传上不传送,而是要教授和学习的。讲英语的演讲者和中国都可以使用的语言,但他们并不是相互的理解。这说明,语言是文化的传输。这是代代相传的教与学挨次经过,而不是出于本能。与此形成对比的是,动物叫系统,即基因传播,动物生下来就有能力生产的电话特别是对于她们的物种。Revisionexercises:修改练习:1.Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.1。你怎样解释以下定义的语言学:语言学是学习语言的方法更为科学。2.Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?2。有哪些主要分支的语言学?每个人有什么学习?3.Inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?3。在现代语言学是基本方法与传统语法?4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?4。是现代语言学主要历时或等时?为什么?5.Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?5。是什么原因是现代语言学语音为主,而不是写的吗?6.HowisSaussure'sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?6。怎样索绪尔区分语言和言语之后假释类似乔姆斯基的区分能力和性能么?7.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?7。语言的什么特点你认为应该包含在一个很好的,定义的过程语言呢?8.WhatarethemainfeaturesofhumanlanguagethathavebeenspecifiedbyC.Hocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?8。的主要特色是什么,人类语言之规定Hockett显示它在本质上不同于动物通讯系统吗? 2PHONOLOGY2音系学 2.1Thephonicmediumoflanguage2.1光纤中的语言Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Manylanguagesintheworldtodayarebothwrittenandspoken.Butstatisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.\n演讲和写作是这两种媒体或物质自然语言使用的一种交通工具,进行交流沟通的!多种语言世界上的口语和书写能力。但是统计仔细调查表明造成超过5,000种语言在世界上,三分之二的具有没有书面形式。Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwritingforreasonsthatwerediscussedinthelastchapter.Thewritingsystemofanylanguageisalways"invented"byitsuserstorecordspeechwhentheneedarises.这两种媒体的语言,言语是比写更基本的原因进行了讨论,最后一章。文字系统的任何语言总是“发明”由用户来记录发言,需要的时候。Languageisfirstperceivedthroughitssounds.Thusthestudyofsoundsisofgreatimportanceinlinguistics.Naturally,linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds;theyareconcernedonlywiththosesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.Thesesoundsarelimitedinnumber.Thislimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationconstitutethephonicmediumoflanguage;andtheindividualsoundswithinthisrangearethespeechsounds.语言是第一感知声音。通过其因此研究的声音是非常重要的在语言学方面享有盛名。当然,语言学家所有的声音都不感兴趣,他们只关心那些声音人类通过生产他们的语言器官和发挥了很大的作用在语言交际。这些声音的数字是有限的。这个有限的范围的声音是一个很有意义的人类交际的光纤构成,与该语言媒介个体声音该范围内语音。2.2Phonetics22语音2.2.1Whatisphonetics?注意语音是什么?Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld'slanguages.定义语音学研究的对象中的语言,它的声音是关于发生在世界的语言。Phoneticslooksatspeechsoundsfromthreedistinctbutrelatedpointsofview.语音看着口音但相关的三种截然不同的观点。First,itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeaker'spointofview,i.e.,howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.Then,itlooksatthesoundsfromthehearer'spointofview,i.e.,howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.Lastly,itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.Thesethreebranchesofphoneticsarelabeledarticulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,andacousticphoneticsrespectively.一、考索者的声音的观点,即,演讲者使用他的演讲器官清晰地表达的声音。然后,它看了一下这位声音听者的观点,即理解的声音都是如何的增长。最后,研究了声音旅行方式通过看声波,物理方法,通过空气传播的声音从一个人传到另一个人。这些三个分支的语音标示发音语音学语音、听觉及声波语音的分别。Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,articulatoryphoneticshasthelongesthistory.However,someimportantfactshavealsobeeneitherdiscoveredorconfirmedbyacousticandauditoryphonetics,especiallybytheformer.Acousticphoneticianstrytodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissues.Todescribetheseproperties,theyrecordthesoundwavesonmachinescalledspectrographs.Bystudyingthesoundwavesthusrecorded,theyhavediscoveredthatwhatmightbeheardasthesameoneutteranceisonlycoincidentally,ifever,physicallyidentical.The"same"soundsweclaimtohaveheardarein\nmostcasesonlyphoneticallysimilar,butrarelyphoneticallyidentical.Phoneticsimilarity,notphoneticidentityisthecriterionwithwhichweoperateinthephonologicalanalysisoflanguages.的三个分支机构的语音、发音语音学最长的历史。然而,一些重要的事实也被要么发现或经声和听觉的语音、尤其是前者。声学phoneticians试着去描述一下这个的溪流的物理性质音扬声器的问题。来描述这些特性,他们记录声波机器叫做光谱摄影机。通过对声波从而记录,他们发现可能被听到话语的同一只是巧合的是,要是、身体相同。“同样的“听起来我们宣称的那样,你听到过别人在大多数情况下,只有相似的,但很少语音顺序排列相同。语音相似,而不是语音身份时,我们所使用的标准操作的语音分析的语言。2.2.2Organsofspeech演讲的器官2.2.2Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thepharyngealcavity—thethroat,theoralcavity—themouth,andthenasalcavity—thenose.Theairstreamcomingfromthelungsmaybemodifiedinthesecavitiesinvariousways.Itmayalsobemodifiedinthelarynxbeforeitreachesanyofthecavities.Suchmodificationresultsfromsomekindofinterferencewiththemovementoftheairstream.Theprincipalsourceofsuchmodificationsisthetongue,andtheword"language"itselfderivesfromtheLatinword"lingua",meaningthe"tongue".电器关节的人都被包含在三个重要领域:咽腔——咽喉,口腔-口,鼻腔-鼻子。空气中来自肺部可能需要修改在这些蛀洞方法多种多样。它也可以被修改喉才能到达任何蛀牙。结果修改从某种干扰空气的流动流。修改的主要来源是舌头。道“语言”本身源于拉丁文“混合”,意思是“舌头”。Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Aircomingfromthelungsandthroughthewindpipepassesthroughtheglottis,apartofthelarynx,whichisabonystructureattheendofthewindpipe.Thisisthefirstpointwheresoundmodificationmightoccur.Lyingacrosstheglottisarethevocalcords.Thesetwothintissuescanbeheldtightlytogethertocutoffthestreamofair,aswhenoneis'holdinghisbreath'.Theycanberelaxedandfoldedbackateachsidetoletairflowthroughfreelyandsilentlyasinnormalbreathing.Thentheymayalsobeheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthematdifferentspeedswhenforcingitspassagethroughthem.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled"voicing",whichisafeatureofallvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.Suchconsonantsarevoiced.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarevoiceless.空气来自肺部和通过气管经过声门是否有震动,有部分喉,这是一个骨结构尽头的气管。这是第一个声音可能发生的地方修改。躺在声门是否有震动是到声带。这两个薄薄的组织能够紧紧地连在一起举行切断的空气流、如同人是“屏息”。他们可放心,再将折边反转过来,在每一边让气流通过自由并且静静地在正常呼吸。然后他们可以同时举行,在空气中得振动以不同速度他们把它经过他们。声带的振动的结果语音质量称作为“调音”,它的特点是所有的元音和某些辅音字母在英语的世界里。这样的辅音提及的。当声带宽都被吸引,让空气穿过而不引起振动,声音产生在这样的条件是寂静无声的。Theoralcavity口腔\nThegreatestsourceofmodificationoftheairstreamisfoundintheoralcavity.Thespeechorganslocatedinthiscavityarethetongue,theuvula,thesoftpalate(thevelum),thehardpalate,theteethridge(thealveolus),theteethandthelips.修改最主要的来源是在空气中口腔。演讲器官位于此腔内它的舌头,小舌头了,柔软的上颚的时候(膜),硬的嘴巴,牙齿土坎(折),牙齿和的嘴唇。Ofallthese,thetongueisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g].Thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j].Theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].Partialobstructionbetweentheupperfrontteethandthetipofthetongueproducesthesounds[θ]and[ð].所有这些,舌头是最为灵活,并负责发音方法越来越多的种类。阻塞的后面之间的舌头和膜地区的发音的结果[k]和[g]。间隔空间的拉近了艰苦的口感和前的舌头导致声音[j]。梗阻的顶端间生成的舌头和牙槽嵴结果的声音,“北]和[d]。部分性梗阻之间的前牙和尖上的舌头生产听起来(θ]和[ð]。Apartfromthetongueandtheroofofthemouth,obstructioncanbecreatedbetweentheupperteethandthelowerlipresultingintheproductionofthetwosounds[f]and[v].Obstructionbetweenthelipscreatesthesounds[p]and[b].除了的舌头和屋顶的嘴部、阻塞之间可以创造出上齿和下唇导致两个声音的生产(女声]和[v]。阻塞的嘴唇创造声音之间[p]和[b]。TheSpeechOrgans演讲器官1.lips2.teeth3.teethridge4.hardpalate5.softpalate6.uvula7.tipofthetongue8.bladeofthetongue9.backoftongue10.vocalcords11.pharyngealcavity12.nasalcavity1.嘴唇2,3,6,7,11,14]4.来讲牙齿脊牙齿5.努力口感软颚髓舌头尖往往舌头8.根舌头后面9.舌头10声带11.鼻腔12.咽腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔Thenasalcavityisconnectedwiththeoralcavity.Thesoftpartoftheroofofthemouth,thevelum,canbedrawnbacktoclosethepassagesothatallairexitingfromthelungscanonlygothroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthisconditionarenotnasalized,suchasthevowelsandmostconsonantsinEnglish.Then,thepassagecanalsobeleftopentoallowair(orpartofit)toexitthroughthenose.Inthiscase,thesoundspronouncedarenasalized,suchasthethreenasalconsonantsinEnglish[m],[n],and[ŋ].Generally,thepassageisdefinitelyopenorclosed.Butinsomestylesofspeakingorinsomedialects,partialopeningmaybeobserved,andtheresultisspeechwithanasalcolouringor"twang".连接鼻腔口腔。柔软的屋顶的一部份的嘴,软颚,可以拖回关闭通道,从肺退出所有的空气通过口腔只能往前。在这种情况下产生的声音不nasalized,如元音和大多数的声母英语。然后,这篇文章也可以开的了,让空气(或它的一部分)出境透过鼻子。在这种情况下,听起来明显是nasalized,如三鼻的声母》[m],[n],[ŋ]。一般来说,这篇文章确实是打开或关闭。但在某些说话风格或一些方言,可以观察到部分开放,其结果是演说以鼻着色或“投资”。2.2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptions图2.2.3的表现和狭窄的收录语音-broadTowardstheendofthenineteenthcentury,whenarticulatoryphoneticshaddevelopedtosuch\nanextentintheWestthatscholarsbeganlofeeltheneedforastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedphonetictranscription.ThustheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA)cameintobeing.Withminormodificationsitisstillwidelyusednow.ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingoneletterselectedfrommajorEuropeanlanguagestorepresentonespeechsound.末,当发音语音学19世纪已达到这样的程度,西方学者开始感觉需要损失规范化、国际接受语音的方法。因此国际音标(亚洲)公司应运而生。与重要的改动它仍然是广泛使用了。表达的基本原理是利用一个字母选自欧洲主要语言来代表一种语音听起来。Assomespeechsoundsproduceddifferonlyinsomedetailedaspects,theIPAprovidesitsuserswithanothersetofsymbolscalleddiacritics,whichareaddedtotheletter-symbolstobringoutfinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemaypossiblydo.一些语音产生的区别,仅仅在一些详细文字方面,提供了它的用户与另一组符号,叫做谐和音(字音)中带来了letter-symbols更比字母单独区别可能做的事。Thustwowaystotranscribespeechsoundsarenowavailable.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyandtheotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Theformeriscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooksforgeneralpurposes.Thelatter,i.e.thetranscriptionwithdiacritics,iscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionneededandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.因此两种语音转录,现已。一是转录与letter-symbols只有,另一个是转录与letter-symbols谐和音(字音)一起。这位前被称为广泛的方法。这是转录一般应用在词典和教学教材用于一般。后者,如下。与转录谐和音(字音),被称为狭窄的方法。这是转录需要和使用的phoneticians研究语音。谐和音(字音)的帮助,他们能够不折不扣地表现为许多细节,因为它是必要的,他们的目标。Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[1]isusedforthesound[1]inthefourwordsleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ]在广阔的符号记音,用于[1][1]的声音叶子的四个字[李:福],感受[fi:我],营造[《图片报》),和健康[helθ]Asamatteroffact,thesound[1]inallthesefoursoundcombinationsdifferslightly.The[1]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[1],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;The[1]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringattheendofawordorbeforeanotherconsonant,ispronounceddifferentlyfromtheclear[1]asin"leaf".Itiscalleddark[ł]andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[~]isusedtoindicateit.Theninthesoundcombinationthesound[l]isfollowedbytheEnglishdentalsound[θ].Itspronunciationissomewhataffectedbythedentalsoundthatfollowsit.Itisthuscalledadental[1],andinnarrowtranscriptionthediacritic[。]isusedtoindicateit.Itistranscribedas[helθ].作为一个事实,声音[1]这四样声音组合稍有不同。[1][李:福],元音之前出现,被称为一个清晰的[1],而且也没diacritic是有需要的,以表明它;[1][fi:我]和[《图片报》),是发生在一个字或年底之前,另一个辅音读音清楚不同[1]在“叶子”。它的名称是“黑[ł]和[diacritic在狭窄的转录的~]可以用来表示它。然后结合的声音听起来[我]其次是英国牙科声音[θ)。它的发音是有点受牙科的声音,仿效它。因此,称为牙科[1],而且在狭窄的diacritic[]转录可以用来表示它。这是helθ转录[]。Anotherexampleistheconsonant[p].Weallknowthat[p]ispronounceddifferentlyinthetwowordspitandspit.Inthewordpit,thesound[p]ispronouncedwithastrongpuffofair,butin\nspitthepuffofairiswithheldtosomeextent.Inthecaseofpit,the[p]soundissaidtobeaspiratedandinthecaseofspit,the[p]soundisunaspirated.Thisdifferenceisnotshowninbroadtranscription,butinnarrowtranscription,asmallraised"h"isusedtoshowaspiration,thuspitistranscribedas[phit]andspitistranscribedas[spit].另一个例子就是辅音[p].我们都知道[p]宣告这两个词的方法,在坑和随地吐痰。坑里,世界上的声音宣告方法[p].用大能的一团的空气,但即便空气吹就留下了某种程度的影响。坑的情况下,[p]声音说成是吸气和的情况下,吐痰方法[p].unaspirated声音。这种差异不显在广阔的转录,但在狭窄的转录,一个小提“h”被用于显示的愿望,因此坑phit]和[转录吐唾沫先转录成[吐唾沫]。2.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds2.2.4分类的英语语音AninitialclassificationwilldividethespeechsoundsinEnglishintotwobroadcategories:vowelsandconsonants.Twodefinitionsofvowelsasageneralphoneticcategoryarequotedbelow:最初的分类将把语音在英语分为两大类:元音和辅音。两个定义元音字母的发音作为一种普遍的语音类别报价如下:"Vowelsaremodificationsofthevoice-soundthatinvolvenoclosure,friction,orcontactofthetongueorlips.(Bloomfield)“元音是修改中的有关涉及voice-sound没有关闭,摩擦,或联系的舌头或嘴唇。(·布卢姆菲尔德)“Avowelisdefinedasavoicedsoundinformingwhichtheairissuesinacontinuousstreamthroughthepharynxandmouth,therebeingnoaudiblefriction."(Jones)"是元音被定义为一种表示的声音在形成空气的络绎不绝的问题通过咽、口,因为没有发声的摩擦。”(·琼斯)Thetwodefinitionspointtooneimportantfeatureofvowels,i.e.inproducingavoweltheairstreamcomingfromthelungsmeetswithnoobstructionwhatsoever.Thismarkstheessentialdifferencebetweenvowelsandconsonants.Intheproductionofthelattercategoryitisobstructedinonewayoranother.这两个定义指向一个重要特征,即元音字母的发音在生产元音空气中会见来自肺部没有阻碍物可言。这是最基本的区别元音和辅音。生产后者的文章是妨碍在一种或另一种方式。2.2.4.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonants2.2.4.1分类的英语子音Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintwoways:oneisintermsofmannerofarticulationandtheotherisintermsofplaceofarticulation.英语辅音可分为两种方式:一是在方式上合唱条款,另一个在场所的发音。IntermsofmannerofarticulationtheEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:从各样的清晰度英语辅音可以分为以下几种形式:stops:Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.TheEnglishstopsfallintothreepairs:[p][b],[t][d],and[k][g]停止:当阻塞演讲器官创造的全部或齐全,语音听起来生产的阻塞空气释放,由于昏倒了被称为中止或plosive。英语停止分为三组:[p][b],[t]和[d],[k][g]fricatives:Whentheobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthe\nmouthsoastocausedefinitelocalfrictionatthepoint,thespeechsoundthusproducedisafricative.ThefricativesinEnglishare[f][v][s][z][ʃ][ʒ][θ][ð][h].摩擦音:当阻塞是部分和空气被迫通过狭窄通道在口腔使明确的地方中产生摩擦点,语音听起来是这样产生摩擦。在英语方面是摩擦音的(女声][v][s][z][ʃ][ʒ][θ][ð][h]。affricates:Whentheobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlywiththefrictionresultingfrompartialobstruction(asinfrictives),thesoundsthusproducedareaffricates.InEnglishtherearetwoaffricates[tʃ]and[dʒ].affricates:当阻塞、完整的起初,慢慢释放摩擦产生的部分性梗阻(frictives),声音是affricates这样产生。英语里是两种affricates[tʃ]和[dʒ]。liquids:Whentheairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongue(thetiporthesides)andtheroofofthemouth,thesoundsthusproducedarecalledliquids.TheEnglishliquidsare[1]and[r].[1]iscalledalateralsoundbecauseintheproductionofitthesurfaceofthetongue,insteadofbeingmoreorlessflat,ismadeslightlyconvexandcausesstoppageinthecentreoftheroofofthemouthwhileallowingairtopassatthesides.Intheproductionoftheotherliquid[r],thetipofthetongueiscurledbackandtheairpassesoverit.Itisalsocalled"retroflex".液体:当气流阻塞溜过被允许通过部分或部分之间的舌头(提示或双方),屋顶的嘴,声音这样产生了被称为液体。英语液体[1]和[r].[1]被称为外侧的声音,因为生产它舌表面,不要被或多或少平的,是由在内的比赛造成轻微的中心口的屋顶上,使空气通过在边上。生产其它液体[j],笔尖舌头卷曲的背部和后气流。也称为“代表卷舌音的”。nasals:Whenthenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalateatthebackofthemouthandairisallowedtopassthroughit,thesoundsthusproducedarecallednasals.TherearethreenasalsinEnglish[m][n]and[ŋ].nasals:当鼻腔通过降低打开软颚在背后的口中,空气被透过它,声音这样产生了被称为nasals。用英语有三nasals[m][n]和[ŋ]。glides:Glides,sometimescalled"semivowels",arearathermarginalcategory.TheEnglish滑行:滑行,有时被称为"半元音:”,是一个相当边际范畴。英语glidesare[w]and[j],bothvoiced.Theyareformedinthesamemannerasthevowels[u]and[i],withanarrowerpassagebetweenthelipsorbetweenthetongueandthehardpalatetocausesomeslightnoisefromthelocalobstruction.滑行是[女]和[j],包括提及的。形成以相同的方式由元音[u]和[我],以及之间的狭窄通道之间的嘴唇和舌头,坚硬的口感引起一些轻微的噪音肠梗阻。Intermsofplaceofarticulation,theEnglishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:从清晰度,将英语辅音可以分为以下几种形式:bilabial:Intheproductionofthesesounds,theupperandthelowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstruction.TheEnglishbilabialsare[p][b][m][w].bilabial:在生产这些所谓的声音,上、下游的嘴唇是汇集在一起,以创造的阻塞。英语bilabials是[p][b][m][女]。labiodental:Intheproductionofthesesounds,thelowerlipisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth,thuscreatingtheobstruction.ThelabiodentalsoundsinEnglishare[f]and[v].在描写生产这些所谓的声音,下唇被带进联系上齿,从而形成了阻塞。在英语方面是描写的声音(女声]和[v]。dental:Theobstructioniscreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandtheupperteeth.Thereare\ntwodentalsoundsinEnglish;theyare[θ]and[ð].牙科:阻力间生成舌头的顶端和上的牙齿。有两个牙科的声音;他们是[英语θ]和[ð]。alveola:Thetipofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththeupperteeth-ridgetocreatetheobstruction.Thealveolarsoundsare[t][d][s][z][n][1][r].alveola:指尖的舌头是它接触与上teeth-ridge创造的阻塞。肺泡听起来是[t][d][s][z][n][1][j]。palatal:Theobstructionisbetweenthebackofthetongueandthehardpalate.Thepalatalsoundsare[ʃ][ʒ][tʃ][dʒ][j].腭:阻塞在舌背的和硬的口味。声音领[ʃ][ʒ][tʃ][dʒ][j]。velar:Thebackofthetongueisbroughtintocontactwiththevelum,orthesoftpalate.ThesoundsthusproducedinEnglishare[k][g]and[ŋ].膜:背了舌头的接触到软颚,或者柔软的上颚的时候。这样产生的声音在英语方面是[k][g]和[ŋ]。glottal:Thevocalcordsarebroughtmomentarilytogethertocreatetheobstruction.ThereisonlyoneglottalsoundinEnglish,i.e.[h].glottal了声带的瞬间,共创阻塞。只有一个glottal声音,特别是英语。[h]。Thetwoclassificationsarecombinedinthetablebelow,withthehelpofwhichwecanadequatelydescribeaconsonant,oridentifyaconsonantwhengivenitsphoneticfeatures:这两个分类下表相结合的帮助下,我们能够充分描述一个辅音辅音或识别时,由于它的语音特点:2.2.4.2ClassificationofEnglishvowels2.2.4.2英文字母的分类Asintheproductionofvowelstheairstreammeetswithnoobstruction,theycannotbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorplaceofarticulationasconsonants.Othercriteriahavetobefoundfortheirclassification.Vowelsoundsaredifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionofthetongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.元音生产的空气中没有阻碍物会见,他们就不能被从各样的清晰度或地点,合唱子音。找到其他标准的分类。元音分化有许多因素:舌头的位置在口中,玲珑的嘴巴,形状嘴唇的果子,长度的元音字母。Vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfront,central,andbackaccordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighest.Afrontvowelisoneintheproductionofwhichthefrontpartofthetonguemaintainsthehighestposition;theEnglishfrontvowelsinclude[i:][i][e][æ][a].Ifitisthecentralpartofthetonguethatisheldhighest,thevowelsthusproducedarecalledcentralvowels.ThecentralvowelsinEnglishare[ə:][ə]and[ʌ].Thenifweraisethebackofthetonguehigherthantherestofit,weproducethebackvowels:[u:][u][ɔ:][ɔ]and[ɑ:].元音可以区分为面前,中央,然后再根据舌头的哪一部分举行最高的地方。一个前面的元音是生产的舌头的前部保持最高的位置,英国元音包括[我面前][我][e][æ][A]。假如它是中部地区举行的舌头,元音这样产生最高,被称为中央元音字母。中央元音英语是[ə:][ə]和[ʌ]。如果我们提高舌背的高于其他部分,我们生产后面的元音:[u][u][ɔ:][ɔ]和[ɑ:]。Tofurtherdistinguishmembersofeachgroup,weneedtoapplyanothercriterion,i.e.theopennessofthemouth.Accordingly,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowels,andopenvowels.Theclosevowelsare[i:][i][u:]and[u];thesemi-closevowelsare[e]and[ə:],thesemi-openvowelsare[ə]and[ɔ:]andtheopenvowelsare[æ][ɑ][ʌ][ɔ]and[ɑ:].Thefollowingdiagramsummarizesourclassificationby\napplyingthetwocriteria:为了更好辨认每个小组的成员,我们需要将另一个标准,那就是。玲珑的嘴。因此,我们将元音分成四组:关闭元音、semi-close元音、semi-open元音、开放的元音字母。密切的元音是[i:][i][u:]和[u];semi-close元音是[e]和[ə:),semi-open元音是[ə]和[ɔ:]和开放元音是[æ][ɑ][ʌ][ɔ]和[ɑ:]。下面的图表了采用这两种分类标准:Athirdcriterionthatisoftenusedintheclassificationofvowelsistheshapeofthelips.InEnglish,allthefrontvowelsandthecentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,i.e.,withoutroundingthelips,andallthebackvowels,withtheexceptionof[ɑ:],arerounded.Itshouldbenotedthatsomefrontvowelscanbepronouncedwithroundedlips.三分之一的标准分类中常常使用的形状是元音字母的发音的嘴唇。用英语,所有前面的元音和中央元音是unrounded元音,也就是说,没有有关的嘴唇,和所有后面的元音,除[ɑ:],是圆形的。值得注意的是,一些前元音可以明显、圆形的嘴唇。Afterapplyingthethreecriteria,wecannowaptlydescribesomeoftheEnglishvowels.Forexample,thevowel[e]canbedescribedasfront,semi-close,andunrounded.Butthefeature"unrounded"isusuallyomittedsinceallfrontvowelsinEnglishareunrounded.应用于三个标准,我们现在可以准确地描述一些英语元音字母。例如,元音(e)可以被描述成面前,semi-close,unrounded。但功能,“unrounded"常省略因为所有unrounded英语元音前。ThentheEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedaccordingtothelengthofthesound.Correspondingtothedistinctionoflongandshortvowelsisthedistinctionoftenseandlaxvowels.Thelongvowelsarealltensevowelsandtheshortvowelsarelaxvowels.Whenwepronouncealongvowel,thelarynxisinastateoftension,andinthepronunciationofashortvowel,nosuchtensionoccurs,thelarynxisquiterelaxed.然后英文字母的也可以进行分类的长度的声音。对应于不同的元音长、短的区别紧张而松弛的元音字母。长元音都紧张的元音和短元音变得这么低元音字母。当我们读一段韵母以外,喉头紧张状态,在发音的短暂的元音,没有这种张力发生,喉很轻松。Sofarwehavebeenclassifyingtheindividualvowels,alsoknownasmonophthongs.InEnglishtherearealsoanumberofdiphthongs,whichareproducedbymovingfromonevowelpositiontoanotherthroughinterveningpositions.Thediphthongsinclude[ei][ai][au][əu][ɔil[iə][eə][uə].到目前为止我们还将个人的元音,也被称为monophthongs。在英语也有一些diphthongs,生产的移动,从职位高低的一个元音通过中介位置。美国饭店协会教育学院的diphthongs包括[][ai][金][əu][ɔil[iə][eə][uə]。 2.3Phonology23音系学2.3.1Phonologyandphonetics2.3.1音韵、语音Bothphonologyandphoneticsarcconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage—thespeechsounds.Butwhilebotharerelatedtothestudyofsounds,theydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Aswehaveseeninthelastsection,phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.\n两个音韵、语音弧关心相同的外观的语言——语音。但是当两者都与研究的声音,还是他们的方法及焦点问题。正如我们所看到的在最后一段,一般性的语音学,旨在对语音应用到所有人类语言:他们是如何产生,他们如何不同,他们所拥有的语音特点,他们怎么能被分类等。音系学,另一方面,目的在于发现如何在语言语音形式模式和这些听起来是用来表达在语言交际。Nowlet'stakethe[l]soundinEnglishasanexampleandseehowthesamesoundcanbeinvestigatedfromboththephoneticandthephonologicalpointofview.Asweknow,the[l]soundinthetwoEnglishwordsleapandpeelispronounceddifferently.Thefirstoneiswhatwecallaclear[l]andthesecondoneadark[l].Thedifferencebetweenthesetwosoundsiswhatthephoneticiansareinterestedin.Butphonologicallythesesoundsareregardedtobetwoversionsofthesameonebasicentity.Fromthephonologicalpointofview,thesetwosoundsarefundamentallythesame,sincetheyhaveoneandthesamefunctionincommunication,indistinguishingbetweenwordsandmeaningsdespitetheirdifferenceinpronunciation.Ifsomeoneshouldpronouncethedark[l]intheword"peel"incorrectlyasaclear[l],anEnglishspeakerwouldnotforthisreasonfailtounderstandhim,hewouldstillunderstandwhatactionheistalkingaboutbutwouldonlyfindhispronunciationalittlebitstrange.Thephonologistshavefoundthatthevariousversionsofthe[l]sounddonotoccuratrandominEnglish;theirdistributionfollowsanicelycomplementarypattern:weuseclear[l]beforeavowel,suchasloaf,anddark[l]attheendofawordafteravowelorbeforeaconsonant,suchastell,quilt.Thisisanimportantphonologicalconclusion.Butphonologyisconcernedwiththesoundsystemofaparticularlanguage,sotheconclusionswereachaboutthephonologyofonelanguageisveryoftenlanguagespecificandshouldnotbeappliedtoanotherlanguagewithoutdiscretion.Whatistrueinonelanguagemaynotbetrueinanotherlanguage.现在让我们送(l)的声音在英语为例,看到同样的声音可以分别从语音、研究的语音的观点。正如我们所知道的,[l]听两英语单词,剥离宣告跨越不同。第一个就是我们所说的一个清晰的(l),另一个黑暗的[我]。区别这两个听起来是phoneticians感兴趣的内容。但phonologically这些声音被认为有两个版本的相同一个基本的实体。从语音的观点来看,这两个声音基本上同样的,因为他们就有一辆,而同样的功能在交流中,区分词语的意思的不同,尽管发音。如果有人来读这个黑暗的[我]这个单词是明显的错误剥皮”(l),讲英语的人不会因为这个原因无法理解他,他还是会明白的行动,他正在谈论但只会发现他的发音有点奇怪。phonologists已经发现的各种版本的[l]声音不发生在随机英文,其分布遵循一个好互补的模式:我们用清(l)元音前,如面包、黑[l]一句话结束后或之前一个辅音字母,如讲,棉被。这是一个重要的语音的结论。但音系学是针对某一特定语言的音响系统,所以结论我们达到大约从一种语言的语音特定语言的非常普遍,不应当适用于另一种语言没有作出决定。什么是真正的:用一种语言可能不是真的在另一种语言。2.3.2Phone,phoneme,andallophone2.3.2电话,音素,音位变体Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Whenwehearthefollowingwordspronounced:pit,spit,tip,feel,leaf,thephoneswehaveheardare[ph](asinpit),[p](asinspit,[ph](asintip),[s],[t],[f],[i:][i][l](asinleaf)[l](asinfeel).电话是一个语音单位或部分。语音我们听到和生产都是在语言交际的手机。当我们听到下列单词明显:坑里、吐痰,提示、感觉、叶、电话我们曾听见是[ph](如在坑内),[p](吐痰,[ph](提示),[s],[t],[f],[我:][我][我](叶)[我](感觉)。\nButaphonedoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning;somedo,somedon't.Forexample,[s]and[t]do,as[si:m]and[ti:m]aretwowordswithtotallydifferentmeanings,and[th]and[t]don't,as[stop]and[sthɔp]meanthesametoaspeakerofEnglish.Again,weshouldremindourselvesthatwhatdoesnotdistinguishmeaninginonelanguagemayprobablydoinanotherlanguage.一个电话而并不一定能区分意义;有些人,有些人则不然。例如,[s]和[t],[m],[斯:钛:m]是两个词和完全不同的含义,和[届]和[t]不要,“停止]和[sthɔp]指相同的一个英国人。此外,我们应提醒自己,什么不区分意义:用一种语言也许会在另一种语言。Aphonemeisaphonologicalunit;itisaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit.Itisnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphoneticcontext.Forexample,whenwepronouncethetwowordspeakandspeak,weareawarethatthesound[p]ispronounceddifferently.Inthewordpeak,the[p]soundispronouncedwithastrongpuffofairstream;butthesamestopsoundispronouncedslightlydifferentlyinthewordspeak,thepuffofairiswithheldalittle.The[p]soundinpeakiscalledanaspirated[p],andthe[p]soundinspeakisanunaspirated[p].Therelationbetweenaspirated[p]andunaspirated[p]correspondstothatbetweenclear[1]anddark[l]:thereisaslightdifferenceinthewaytheyarepronounced,butsuchadifferencedoesnotgiverisetodifferenceinmeaning.So/p/isaphonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem,anditcanberealizeddifferentlyasaspiratedorunaspiratedindifferentcontexts.Conventionallyphonesareplacedwithinsquarebrackets,andphonemesinslashes.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample,thephoneme[1]inEnglishcanberealizedasdark[l],clear[1],etc.whichareallophonesofthephoneme[1].一个音素是一个语音单位;它是一种单位独特的价值。这是一个抽象的单位。它不是什么特别的声音,而是实现被表现,在某一特定的电话在一个特定的语音上下文。例如,当我们这两个词发音峰值和对话,我们明白声音宣告方法[p].不同。单词方法[p].山顶,具有强烈的声音宣告团的气流,但同样的停止声音是明显的情况略有不同单词说话,一团的空气是保留了一点。[p]声音虽被称作高峰[j],[p]的声音在说出来是一个unaspirated[p]。吸入的关系[j],[j]unaspirated应清楚之间[1]和黑[l):有一个细微差异在他们的方式都发,但是这种差异不引起不同的意义。所以/p/是一个音位英语声中,该系统可实现吸入或unaspirated不同,在不同的语境。传统电话,方括号中放置在音素的结果。不同的电话是一个音位在不同的语音环境里体现为不同的变体,音位的。例如,音素[1]英文可以当作黑[我],[1]的基础上,明确等音位变体的的[1]。Then,howaphonemeisrepresentedbyaphone,orwhichallophoneistobeused,isdeterminedbythephoneticcontextinwhichitoccurs.Butthechoiceofanallophoneisnotrandomorhaphazard;itisrule-governed.Oneofthetasksofthephonologistsistofindouttheserules.Therulethatgovernsthedistributionofclear[l]anddark[l]isanexample.然后,一个音素出过一个电话,或使用音位变体就是,就决定于语音环境,在它发生。但选择一个音位变体不是随机或偶然的;它是rule-governed。的重要任务之一phonologists就是要找出这些规则。规则管理分布[我]和黑暗清晰(l)就是一个例子。Althoughphonemesaretheminimalsegmentsoflanguagesystems,theyarenottheirminimalelements.Aphonemeisfurtheranalyzablebecauseitconsistsofasetofsimultaneousdistinctivefeatures.Itisjustbecauseofitsdistinctivefeaturesthataphonemeiscapableofdistinguishingmeaning.AnativespeakerofEnglishcantellbyintuitionthatthefollowing\nsoundcombinationsallcarrydifferentmeanings:[mæn],[pæn],[bæn],[tæn],[ræn],[kæn],[ðæn].Thisisbecausetheyallcontainadifferentphoneme.Thefeaturesthataphonemepossesses,makingitdifferentfromotherphonemes,areitsdistinctivefeatures.虽然最小段音素进行语言系统,他们不是他们的最小元素。一个音素进一步约定俗成,因为它包含一组同时突出的特征。这只是因为它独特的功能,一个音位区别的能力意义。的母语是英语能告诉凭直觉组合到下列的声音都具有不同的含义:[mæn],[pæn],[bæn],[tæn],[ræn],[kæn],[ðæn]。这是因为他们都包含一个不同的音素。一个音位的特点,使其具有不同于其他音素,是其突出的特征。2.3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair2.3.3音素的对比,互补的分布及最小对立体Itcanbeeasilyobservedthatphoneticallysimilarsoundsmightberelatedintwoways.Iftheyaretwodistinctivephonemes,theyaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast,e.g./p/and/b/in[pit]and[bit],[rəup]and[rəub].Iftheyareallophonesofthesamephoneme,thentheydonotdistinguishmeaning,butcomplementeachotherindistribution,i.e.theyoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments.Forinstance,theclear[1]alwaysoccursbeforeavowelwhilethedark[l]alwaysoccursbetweenavowelandaconsonant,orattheendofaword.Sotheallohphonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.它可以很容易地观察到相似的语音之间可能有两种关系。如果是两个区别性音位,据说它们能形成一个语音的对比,大肠g。/p/和/b/[坑]和[一些],[rəup]和[rəub]。如果他们是同一音位的变体,那么他们就会不清的意义,而在分配是相辅相成的,即他们发生在不同的语音环境。例如,清澈的[1]总是发生在昏暗的字母(l)总是出现在一个元音和辅音或最后一个单词。所以说,allohphones是相辅相成的分布。Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanother,resultsinachangeofmeaning.Ifitdoes,thetwosoundsthenrepresentdifferentphonemes.Aneasywaytodothisistofindtheminimalpairs.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.SoinEnglish,pillundbillareaminimalpair,andsoarepillandtill,tillandkill,killanddill,anddillandgill.Accordingly,wecanconcludethat/p//b//t//d//k/arephonemesinEnglish.Thenallthesesoundcombinationstogetherconstituteaminimalset;theyareidenticalinformexceptfortheinitialconsonant.Thisalsoappliestothevowels.Thepronunciationsofthefollowingwordsareidenticalexceptforthevowel:beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.Sotheyformaminimalset,fromwhichwecanconcludethatallhosevowels:/i://i//e//æ//u://ʌ//eI//aI//əu/arephonemesinEnglish.•一个基本的办法确定一种语言的音位的是看如果用一个语音代替另,结果不同的意义。如果它,两个语音就代表不同的音素。一个简单的办法就是找出最小对立对。当两种形式都是相同的,在各方面,除了一个完善的部分,会出现在同一个地方在串,二者音组合是说形成一个最小对立体。故而在英语,药丸和比尔是一个最小对立体,因此他们的药丸,直到,直到和杀,杀和莳萝,和莳萝、吉尔。因此,我们可以得出结论:/p//b//吨//d//k/音素英文。然后这些声音组合最小集共同构成;他们是同一样的形成除了辅音。这也适用于由元音。下列单词的发音是一致的,除了元音:击败、钻头、打赌,蝙蝠,引导,但是,诱饵,咬,船。所以他们形成最少的,从中我们可以得出这样的结论:所有软管元音/我:本人//e//æ/你//ʌ//eI//I//əu/音素英文。•2.3.4Somerulesinphonology\n一些规律2.3.4音系学2.3.4.1Sequentialrules2.3.4.1系列规则Toidentifythephonemesofalanguageisonlypartofthetaskofthephonologist.Healsohastofindoutinwhatwaythephonemescanbecombined.Thepatterningofsoundsinaparticularlanguageisgovernedbyrules.Thephonologicalsystemdetermineswhichphonemescanbeginaword,endaword,andfolloweachother.Supposeyouaregivenfourcards,eachofwhichhasadifferentphonemeinEnglishprintedonit:确定一种语言的音位的仅仅是一部分phonologist的任务。它还必须知道,他们的组合,既能音位的方式。模式的声音在一种特定的语言是由规则。决定音素的语音系统可以开始一个词,最后一句话,互相追随。假设你有四张卡片,每一种都有不同的音素英语印上:kb1i凯西b我Nowifyouareaskedtoarrangethesecardstoformallthe"possible"wordsinEnglish,youmightorderthemas:blik,klib,bilk,kilb.YourknowledgeofEnglish"tells"youthatthesearetheonlyarrangementsofthesephonemespermissibleinEnglish,andthatIbki,ilbk,bkil,ilkb,etc.arenotpossiblewordsinEnglish.Thisindicatesthattherearerulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Theserulesarecalledsequentialrules.现在如果你被要求安排这些卡片形成整个英语单词中“有可能”,你可能会令其,klib:blik,诈骗,kilb。你的英语知识”告诉你,这是唯一可以安排这些音素的英语,并且那Ibki,ilbkilkb等,bkil,英语单词中是不可能的。这表明有统治规则的语音的组合在一个特定的语言。这些规则被称为系列规则。TherearemanysuchsequentialrulesinEnglish.Forexample,ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.Thatiswhy[ibik][ikbi]areimpossiblecombinationsinEnglish.Theyhaveviolatedtherestrictionsonthesequencingofphonemes.有很多这样的系列规则在英语的世界里。例如,如果一个词开始于一个[我]或[j],后来的声音必须是元音。这就是为什么[ibik][ikbi]是不可能混合英语。违背了序列的限制音素。Also,ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:同时,如果有三个辅音应该集群一起,总而言之,开始组合应该遵守以下三个规则:(1)Thefirstphonememustbe/s/(1)第一音素必须/s/(2)Thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/(2)第二音素必须/p/或/吨/或/k/(3)Thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/or/j/.(3)第三音素必须/l/或/r/or/w/or/j/。ThisiswhyallwordsbeginningwithacombinationofthreeconsonantsinEnglisharewordslikespring[spriŋ],strict[strikt],square[skwɛə],splendid[splendid],scream[skri:m].这就是为什么所有文字组合三开始用英语辅音的话语spriŋ][喜欢春天,严格strikt],[[skwɛə],精彩的广场[灿烂的],[skri尖叫:m]。Again,therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.WhatisnotpermissibleinEnglishmightbepermissibleinanotherlanguage.Forexample,thevelarnasal[g]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishorstandardChinese.ButitdoesinotherlanguagesandsomeregionaldialectsofChinese,suchasVietnamese,Shanghaidialect,andCantonese.\n重复一遍,规则是语言的语音模式特定。什么是不被允许的英语会在允许的另一种语言。例如,膜鼻[g]从来没在初始位置英文或普通话水平。但它在其他的语言,方言的中国,如越南人、上海话和广东话。2.3.4.1Assimilationrule2.3.4.1同化规则Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby"copying"afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.Assimilationofneighbouringsoundsis,forthemostpart,causedbyarticulatoryorphysiologicalprocesses.Whenwespeak,wetendtoincreasetheeaseofarticulation.This"sloppy"tendencymaybecomeregularizedasrulesoflanguage.同化规则即一声:“模仿”给另一个连续的一个特征,从而使音位两个音素变得相似。同化周边听起来,在很大程度上,所引起的关节或生理的过程。我们说话时,我们往往会增加轻松的发音。这种“邋遢”的倾向可能成为正规化的规则的语言。WeallknowthatnasalizationisnotaphonologicalfeatureinEnglish,i.e.,itdoesnotdistinguishmeaning.ButthisdoesnotmeanthatvowelsinEnglisharenevernasalizedinactualpronunciation;infacttheyarenasalizedincertainphoneticcontexts.Forexample,the[i:]soundisnasalizedinwordslikebean,green,team,andscream.Thisisbecauseinallthesesoundcombinationsthe[i:]soundisfollowedbyanasal[n]or[m].我们都知道nasalization不是一个语音特征英语,即它不区分意义。但这并不意味著,在英语从不nasalized元音发音;在实际nasalized事实上却在某些语音的情境。例如,[i:]nasalized声音是用文字喜欢吃蚕豆,绿色,球队,和尖叫。这是因为在所有这些声音的组合[i:]随后的声音是鼻[n]或[m]。Theassimilationrulealsoaccountsforthevaryingpronunciationofthealveolarnasal[n]insomesoundcombinations.Theruleisthatwithinaword,thenasal[n]assumesthesameplaceofarticulationastheconsonantthatfollowsit.WeknowthatinEnglishtheprefixin-canbeaddedtoanadjectivetomakethemeaningofthewordnegative,e.g.discreet—indiscreet,correct—incorrect.Butthe[n]soundintheprefixin-isnotalwayspronouncedasanalveolarnasal.Itissointhewordindiscreetbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsit,i.e.[d],isanalveolarstop,butthe[n]soundinthewordincorrectisactuallypronouncedasavelarnasal,i.e.[ŋ];thisisbecausetheconsonantthatfollowsitis[k],whichisavelarstop.Sowecanseethatwhilepronouncingthesound[n],weare"copying"afeatureoftheconsonantthatfollowsit.同化规则同样占不同的发音牙槽骨鼻[n]在一些不错的组合。的规则是:在一个字,鼻[n]承担相同的地方的辅音发音方法跟它。我们知道,在英语的前缀-可以被添加到形容词使这个词的含义是负面的,例如慎重,谨慎,正确,不正确的。但[n]的声音在前缀-并不总是发成一个肺泡鼻。所以在这个词,因为这个辅音轻率,即仿效它。[d],是一种肺泡停止,但[n]的声音在这个词实际上是明显错误,即鼻膜作为。[ŋ];这是因为这个辅音是之后[k],这是一种的膜停止。因此,我们可以看到,虽然发这个音[n]是,我们“模仿”辅音的一个特征,仿效它。Thesoundassimilationisactuallyreflectedinthespellinginmostcases.Insteadofinpossible,thenegativeformofpossibleisimpossible,asthe[n]soundisassimilatedto[m].Forthesamereason,thenegativeformsofmoral,legal,regularareimmoral,illegal,andirregular.声音却反映出自己在被同化的拼法在大多数情况下。而不是inpossible,否定形式可能是不可能的,因为[n]的同化的声音是[m]。基于同样的原因,负面的形式的道德、法律,一定都是不道德的,非法和不规则。2.3.4.3Deletionrule\n2.3.4.3规则删除。Anotherphonologicalruleisthedeletionrule.Ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.Wehavenoticedthatinthepronunciationofsuchwordsassign,design,andparadigm,thereisno[g]soundalthoughitisrepresentedinspellingbytheletterg.Butintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,andparadigmatic,the[g]representedbythelettergispronounced.Therulecanbestatedas:Deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant.Giventherule,thephonemicrepresentationofthestemsinsign—signature,resign—resignation,phlegm—phlegmatic,paradigm—paradigmaticwillincludethephoneme/g/,whichwillbedeletedaccordingtotheregularruleifnosuffixisadded.另一个语音规则是删除规则。它告诉我们什么时候一个声音是被删除虽然是在发音中却省略了。我们发现在这样的单词的发音为标志的、设计、和范式,没有[g]听起来虽然它反映在拼字,字母g。但是在他们相应的形式签名、设计、、聚合,(g)为代表的字母g是明显。规则,可归纳为:删除一个[g]如果正好发生在最终的鼻写辅音。给规则、语音的代表,在签订杆签字、辞职——辞职,痰-冷漠的范例,聚合将包括音位/g/,这将被删除按正常规则如果没有词尾是补充。2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures—stress,tone,intonation2.3.5Suprasegmentalfeatures-stress、音调、语调Sofarwehavebeendealingwiththephonemes—soundsegmentsthatdistinguishmeaning.Butdistinctivefeaturescanalsobefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures;thesearethephonologicalpropertiesofsuchunitsasthesyllable,theword,andthesentence.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonation,andtone.到目前为止我们还处理音素,声音段区分意义。但特色也可以发现运行在一连串的两个或两个以上的音素的细分市场。语音特点,发生的各环节的市级以上被称为suprasegmental特征;这些都是语音财产单元,音节、一句话,这句话。主要suprasegmental功能包括压力,语调,和语调。2.3.5.1Stress2.3.5.1应力Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress—wordstressandsentencestress.根据压力的环境,考虑到有两种stress-word应力和句子的重音。ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Forexample,ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.Thenounhasthestressonthefirstsyllableandthecorrespondingverbhasthestressonthesecondsyllable.Thisisexemplifiedinsuchwordsas'importn.—im'portv.,increasen.—in'creasev.,'progressn.—progressv.,'insultn.—insultv.,'convictn.—convictv.,rebeln.—rebelv.,producen.—producev.,combinen.—combinev.,permitn.—permitv,pervertn.—pervertv.英语的位置不同压力意义。例如,压力转移可能改变一个词的词性从一个名词动词,虽然它的拼写不变。名词有重音落在第一个音节动词和相应的应力第二个音节重读。这是体现在“这样的话。-我的进口,港口v。,增加n。-在'折痕,攫取的进步n。-进步的侮辱,攫取氮。-侮辱v,”犯罪n。-定罪、反叛的、氮。-叛军黄静雯,产生n。-生产黄静雯,结合n。-结合黄静雯,允许n。-允许v,偏离n。-变态v。\nSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,andthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.Forexample,thecompoundnounblackbirdconsistsoftwoelements—blackandbird.Inpronouncingtheword,westressthefirstelementblack.Ablackbirdreferstoaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack.Itdiffersfromthenounphraseblackbird.Thenounphraseisstresseddifferentlyfromthecompound.Asitisanounphrasewithbirdasitsheadnounandblackamodifier,thewordbirdisprimarilystressed.Asimilardifferenceinstresspatternandmeaningcanbefoundinsuchpairsasgreenhouseandgreenhouse,hotdogandhotdog.类似的压力也会发生改变的复合名词之间,同样的元素组成的短语。一个语音特征的英语化合物的话的压力总是落在第元素,第二元素收到次重音念。例如,复合名词黑鸟含有两种元素——黑色和鸟。在发这个字,我们强调的第一个元素。黑色的。画眉鸟的指的是一种特殊的鸟、而不一定是黑色的。它不同于名词黑色的鸟。强调的名词短语的不同于化合物。因为它是一个名词和作为头的鸟名词,黑色的一个修改人,这个词鸟主要强调。在有同样的差别重音模式与意义会情侣中发现温室和绿色的房子,热狗热狗。Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns.ItiscommoninEnglishtofindan-ingformfollowedbyanoun,suchasdining-room,readingglasses,sewingmachine,sleepingbaby,swimmingfish.Althoughidenticalinform,these-ing+nouncombinationsareoftwotypes.Foronetype,the-ingformservesasamodifierofthenoun,e.g.dining-room,readingglasses.Theseareactuallycompoundnouns.Asarule,inpronouncingthistypeof-ing+nouncombinations,thewordstressalwaysfallsonthefirstelement;thesecondelementreceivessecondarystress:'dining-room,'readingglasses,'sewingmachine.meaning-distinctive扮演的角色的词的重音是也表现在尸的组合形式和名词。英语是很普遍的形式找到一个吸引跟随一个名词,餐厅等、老花镜、缝纫机、睡着的宝宝,游泳的鱼。虽然相同的形式,这些尸+名词两种类型的组合。摘要针对某型号形式,吸引作为改性剂的名词,例如餐厅,阅读眼镜。这些的确是复合名词。一般来说,这种类型的尸不好拼读这个词的组合,+名词压力总是落在第元素,第二个因素受到二次应力:“的餐室,”老花镜、的缝纫机。Fortheothertypeof-ing+nouncombinations,thenounisactuallythedoeroftheactionindicatedbythe-ingform,e.g.sleepingbaby,swimmingfish.Thesearenotcompoundnouns,butnounphraseswithan-ingparticiplemodifier.Forthesecombinations,theprimarystressfallsontheheadnoun,andthe-ingformreceivessecondarystress.其他类型的尸的名词+名词的组合,实际上是行动出来的结果表明形式,如敞开式尸熟睡的婴儿,游泳的鱼。这些不是复合名词,但与过去分词的名词短语尸改性剂。这些组合,重音落在头名词,吸引收到二次应力形式。Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.ThepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentencearenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns;theothercategoriesofwordslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Forexample,inthesentence:Heisdrivingmycar,thewordsthatarenormallyunstressed,i.e.He,is,my,canallbearthestresstoexpresswhatthespeakerintendstomean.\n句子的重音是指了相对力量的组件的句子。词性,一般是强调在一个英文句子名词、主要动词、形容词、副词、数字和示范代词;其他类型的文章,这样的字眼人称的代名词、助动词、介词、连接词通常没有压力。给应该将重点放在一定的观念中,在一个句子里,一个字通常非重读可以有压力。例如,在一句话:他开车送我的车,内容,即通常是非。他,是,我的,都可以承担压力说出演讲者打算的意思。2.3.5.2Tone2.3.5.2音调Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes;therefore,thetoneisasuprasegmentalfeature.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantinwhatwecalltonelanguages.Englishisnotatonelanguage.Ourmothertongue,Chinese,isatypicaltonelanguage.Ithasfourtones.Thefirsttoneislevel(阴平),thesecondrise(阳平),thethirdfall-rise(上声),andthefourthfall(去声).Theroleofthetonecanbewellillustratedbypronouncingthesamesoundcombinationsuchas"ma"inthefourdifferenttones:mā(妈)má(麻)mǎ(马)mà(骂)音调是定调变化,但由于不同的共振到声带。定调变化可以区分意义就像音素,所以,这个调养的suprasegmental特征。meaning-distinctive功能的非常重要的音调是我们所说的音调的语言。英语不是一个音调的语言。我们的母语,中国,是典型的音调的语言。它有4音调。第一个音调水平(阴平),其次起来(阳平),第三fall-rise(上声),四秋(去声)。音调的作用可以很好地说明了同样语音发音,如“女士结合在四种不同的音调:mā(妈)硕士(麻)mǎ(马)硕士(骂)2.3.5.3Intonation2.3.5.3语调Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,andtherise-falltone.Themostfrequentlyusedarethefirstthree.Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Comparethefollowingthreedifferentwaysofsayingthesamesentence:当音高、重音和音长与句子而不是单个单词时,这些音素合起来叫做语调。语调中扮演着重要的角色意义运输几乎在每一个语言,特别是在语言,如英语。英语有四个基本类型的语调,如大家所知的四个声调:降调,升调,fall-rise音调,rise-fall的语调。最常用的是第3。当说出在不同的音调,同一序列的话可能都有不同的意义。一般来说,降调表明,所说的是一个很简单的,平静的声明中,升调常常使一个问题,这是怎么回答后,fall-rise音调往往指示出有一项默示的信息在说。比较以下三种不同的方法说相同的句子:(1)5That's'notthe'bookhewants.(1),5的不是用书他想要的。(2)5That's'notthe'bookhe9wants.(2)的5的书里,他的9想要的。(3)5That's,notthe'bookhe9wants.(3),5的,而不是书里,他的9想要的。Spokeninthefalling-tone,version(1)simplystatesafact,i.e.,thebookinquestionisnottheonehewants.Version(2),saidintherisingtone,indicatesuncertaintyonthepartofthe\nspeaker;heisaskingthequestion:Isthatnotthebookhewants?Version(3),spokeninthefall-risetoneindicatesthatapartfromwhatissaidliterally,thereisanimpliedmessage,i.e.,besidestellingthelistenerthatthebookinquestionisnottheonehewants,thespeakerimpliesthatthereissomeotherbookhewants.falling-tone所说,版本(1)只单纯指出了一个事实,即那本书在问题不是他想要的。版本(2)表示,升调,表明部分不确定性对扬声器;他是提出这个问题——这本书,他想要什么?版本(3),所说的语气fall-rise表明,除了字面上所说的,有一项默示的信息,那就是。,除了告诉听众,这本书很有可能是他想要的不是,演讲者意味着有一些其它的书他想要的。Similarly,thesentenceIcan'teatanything,whensaidinthefallingtone,isequalinmeaningtoIcaneatnothing.Butifthesentenceissaidinthefall-risetone,itimpliesthatthereareparticularthingsthatIcaneat.同样,句我不能吃东西,当说降调意义等于我可以吃任何东西。但如果句子是说,这将意味着fall-rise音调有特别的事情我可以吃点东西。Intonationcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingthenucleusonit.Nucleusreferstothemajorpitchchangeinanintonationunit.Withinoneintonationunit,thenucleusnormallyfallsonthelaststressedsyllable.Shiftingthenucleustoanothersyllable,normallystressedorunstressed,willcausedifferenceinmeaning.语调可以使一个句子中的某一部分将核尤其突出。细胞核是指在一个音高变化主要语调单位。在一个语调单位、核通常落在最后音节。移到另一个音节核,通常有压力或非重读,会导致不同的意义。Acompanyisnotgoodbecauseithasalonghistory.一个公司不好,因为它有着悠久的历史。Tomdidn’tgotothepartybecauseofMary.汤姆没去参加那个晚会,因为玛丽。Hedidn’tgotothelibrarybecausehewantedtoborrowabook.他没有去图书馆,因为他想要借了一本书。Shedidn’tcometothepubtosaythattheking’sEnglishisbadtoAustralians.她没来参加酒吧喝酒,说,王的英语不好澳大利亚人。 Revisionexercises:修改练习: 1.Whatarethetwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?1。是那两个主要媒体语言沟通?在这两者中,哪一个是主要的,为什么?2.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?2。是什么引起的?它是如何表达?3.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?3。举例说明如何广泛的转录和狭窄的转录的不同之处吗?4.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?4。英语辅音如何分类?5.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?5。什么标准来分类的英文字母?6.Givethephoneticsymbolforeachofthefollowingsounddescriptions:\n6。给音标为以下的声音描述:1)voicedpalatalaffricate1)表示腭affricate2)voicelesslabiodentalfricative2)无声摩擦描写3)voicedalveolarstop3)表示肺泡停止4)front,close,short4)方面,闭上,短5)back,semi-open,long5)回来,semi-open,长6)voicelessbilabialstop6)无声的bilabial停止 Givethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthefollowingsounds:给的语音特征进行以下的声音响起:1)[d]2)[1]3)[tʃ]4)[w]5)[u]6)[æ]1)的研究[d].2)[1]第4期tʃ3)[[女]5)[u]6)[æ]7.Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween,say,clear[1]anddark[l],[ph]and[p],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?7。语音学与音系学如何不同的重点的学习呢?你认为谁会更感兴趣,比如,清楚区别[1]和黑[我],[ph]和[p],phonetician或phonologist吗?为什么?8.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?8。什么是电话吗?它是如何不同于音素吗?如何与音位变体吗?9.Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationrule,andthedeletionrule.9。举例说明序列的规则,同化规则,而删除规则。10.Whataresuprasegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?10。suprasegmental有什么特征吗?如何suprasegmental特征主要英语表达意义功能吗? Chapter3MORPHOLOGY第三章形态 3.1Morphology3.1形态3.1.1Openclassandclosedclass3.1.1开放式课堂和关闭班InEnglish,nouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbsmakeupthelargestpartofthevocabulary.Theyarethecontentwordsofalanguage,whicharesometimescalledopenclasswords,sincewecanregularlyaddnewwordstotheseclasses.Beatnik,forexample,wasaddedtotheclassofnounstomean"amemberoftheBeatGeneration",or"apersonwhorejectsoravoidsconventionalbehaviour".\n英语中,名词、动词、形容词和副词构成了最大的部分词汇量。他们是词的一种语言,有时被称为开放式课堂的话,因为我们可以定期增加新词汇这些课程。Beatnik,例如,被加到一个类的名词意思是“垮掉的一代”的一员”,或者“一个人如果拒绝或避免传统行为”。Theothersyntacticcategoriesinclude"grammatical"or"functional"words.Conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofrelativelyfewwordsandhavebeenreferredtoasbeingclosedclasswordssincenewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.Forexample,itisnoteasytothinkofnewconjunctionsthathaveenteredtheEnglishlanguagerecently.Oneexamplewecanthinkofisthat,withthegrowthofthefeministmovement,somepeoplehavesuggestedthatweuse"e"pronouncedliketheletteritself,asanewneutralthirdpersonsingularpronoun,neithermasculinenorfeminine,whichcouldbeusedasthegeneralform.Others,however,havepointedoutthatthey/theirarealreadybeingusedasaneutralthirdpersonsingular,asinthesentencesAnyonecanjointheclubiftheylike.Everyonecandotheirbest.Ofthetwoproposals,whichoneisthebettercandidate?Aspronounshave"closed"nature,wepredictthatthey/theirwillstandabetterchancetoservethisneedthanacompletelynewpronoun.其他的句法类别包括“语法”或“实用性”字。连词、介词、文章、代词由相对少说空话,被称为类词在关闭自生词通常不被添加到他们。例如,它是不容易的,认为是新的合用最近进入英文。我们所能想到的一个例子是,不断增加的女权主义运动中,有人建议我们用“e”明显喜欢信自己,作为一种新的中性第三人称单数代词,也没有男性和女性,可作为的一般形式。然而,另一些人却指出,他们/他们的已经被用来作为中立第三人称单数,就像在句子任何人都可以加入那个俱乐部,如果他们喜欢的事。每个人都可以做他们的最佳状态。在以下两个方案中,哪一种是更好的人选?作为代词“封闭”自然,我们预测,他们/他们会站在一个更好的机会为这需要比一个全新的代名词。 3.1.2Internalstructureofwordsandrulesforwordformation内部结构的词和3.1.2构词规则Ifwelookatthefollowingpairsofwords,wewilldiscoverthatthemeaningsofallthewordsincolumnBconsistofthemeaningsofthewordsincolumnAplusthemeaning"not".如果我们看看下面的组单词,我们将发现的意义,B柱中的所有单词的含义包括塔A单词的意义以及“不”。AB乙 likedislike喜欢不喜欢appeardisappear出现消失approvedisapprove批准反对agreedisagree同意不同意advantagesdisadvantages优点缺点entangledisentangle解开纠缠\nSpeakersofEnglishwouldknowthemeaningofthewordbeginningwithdis-iftheyknowthewordwithoutdis-.说英语的会知道这个字的意思的开始,如果他们知道了德词没有dis-。Ifweassumethatthemostelementalunitsofmeaningarethewordsofalanguage,itwouldbeacoincidencethatdis-hasthesamemeaninginallthecolumnBwordsabove.Butthisisobviouslynocoincidence.ThewordsincolumnBallconsistofatleasttwomeaningfulunits:如果我们假设最基本的意义单位是语言的词汇,它会是一种巧合:dis-同样的意思在所有柱B字以上。但这是显而易见没有巧合。所有单词由B柱对至少两个有意义的单位:dis+approvedis+appeardis+likedis+批准dis+出现dis+喜欢AnotherfactaboutEnglishwordsisthattheirinternalstructureissubjecttorules.Anegative,forexample,isformednotbyaddingdistotheendoftheword,butbyaddingittothebeginning.ThusdisorderlyanddisgracefularewordsinEnglish,but*orderlydis®(tomeannotorderly)and"gracefuldis(tomeannotgraceful)arenot.Morphologythusreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.[®Theasteriskreferstononsensewordsorunacceptablesentences.]对英语词汇是另一个事实,他们的内部结构受规则。消极,例如,通过增加不形成德道的末尾,通过增加它的开始。因此乱、可耻的词语是英语,但*orderlydis®(意味着不整洁)和“gracefuldis(并不优美的)是没有意义的。如此是研究形态的词的内部结构,并制定话是形成。[®星号指无意义单词或不可接受的句子。)InthefollowingsectionswewillbediscussingbrieflyhowwordsareformedinEnglishandwhatitisspeakersofEnglishknowaboutwordformation,aboutthemorphologyoftheirlanguage.在接下来的几个部分中我们将讨论简单单词形成在英语和它是什么说英语的了解关于构词法,的形态,他们的语言。 3.2Morphemes—theminimalunitsofmeaning3.2语素-最小单位的意思Wehavealreadyseenthatsomewordsareformedbycombininganumberofdistinctunitsofmeaning.Themostbasicelementofmeaningistraditionallycalledmorpheme.我们已经看到一些单词是由整合一些特定的单位的意思。最基本的元素语素传统上称,意义的。ThefollowinglistshowsthatinEnglishasinglewordmayconsistofoneormoremorphemes.下面的列表显示在英语单词可由一个或多个语素。onemorphemedesire一个语素的欲望twomorphemesdesire+able两个语素的愿望不能。+threemorphemesdesire+able+ity三个语素的欲望+能+密度fourmorphemesun+desire+able+ity四语素联合国+欲望+能+密度Infacteverywordineverylanguageiscomposedofoneormoremorphemes.事实上每一个字每一种语言都是由一个或多个语素。\nTheaboveexamplestelluswhilesomemorphemeslikegirlandrelycanconstitutewordsbythemselves,otherslike-ishand-ableareneverwordsbutalwayspartsofwords.Thusun-islikedis-(disorder,disagree);itoccursonlybeforeothermorphemes.Suchmorphemesarecalledprefixes.Othermorphemesoccuronlyassuffixes,i.e.onlyafterothermorphemes.Examplesofsuchmorphemesare-or(operator),-er(writer),and-ful(wonderful),tomentionjustafew.上述的例子告诉我们一些语素喜欢的女孩,依靠自己能构成的话,有些人喜欢-ish和-able从不的话却总是单词的一部分。因此联合国——就像dis-(紊乱,不同意),只有在其它语素发生。这样的语素被称为前缀。其它语素只发生于后缀只有在其它语素,即。这样的例子——语素是接线生),-er(作者),-ful(美妙的),提到仅是几个例子。Traditionally,theseaffixeshavebeencalledboundmorphemes,i.e.theycannotoccur"unattached",asdistinctfromfreemorphemeslikegirl,relyandsoon.Inspeaking,weseldomuseboundmorphemesalone.Instead,wecombineallmorphemesintolongerunitsandsentences.传统上,这些贴上一直被称为黏着语素,例如,它们不能发生“独立的”,不同于自由语素喜欢的女孩,信任和等等。听,说,我们很少使用黏着语素孤独。相反,我们把所有的语素进了单位和句子。3.3Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes330派生和屈折语素YoumayhavenotedthatinEnglishtherearemorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords.Averb,forexample,isformedbyadding-entotheadjectiveblack,—blacken,orbyadding-izetothenouncomputer—computerize.Otherexamplesare:你也许已经注意到在英语改变语素的类别,或文法课的话。动词,例如,通过增加-en形成的形容词黑,变黑、或通过增加-ize藉由电脑,与名词。其他的例子是:noun–adjective名词——形容词affection+ate感情+吃alcohol+ic酒精+ic-en,-ate,and-icarethuscalledderivationalmorphemes,becausewhentheyareconjoinedtoothermorphemes(orwords)anewwordisderived,orformed.-en,-ate,-ic,因此被称为派生语素,因为当他们做其它语素(或字)推导出了一个新字,或者形成。Otherderivationalmorphemesdonotchangegrammaticalclass,asin其他派生语素是不改变的语法阶级inter+collegiatemacro+economicstele+commutemulti+media国际米兰+学院的宏观+经济学远程+通勤多+媒体Asnoted,manyprefixesfallintothiscategory.Similarly,wefindsuffixesofthistype,asin:值得注意的是,许多前缀也是属于这一类。同样地,我们发现这种类型的后缀,如:physic—ianfad+ismAmeric+an物理-伊恩时尚+ism访华+Asmentionedpreviously,amorphemecanbedefinedasaminimalunitofmeaning.This\ndefinition,however,istoosimple.Somemorphemesmayoccurinmanywords,combiningwithdifferentmorphemesbutforwhichitisdifficulttofindaconstantmeaning.Forexample,howdoyouassignmeaningtothemorpheme-ceiveinwordslikereceive,perceive,conceiveor-mitinremit,permit,commit,submit?Whenwecombinewordstoformsentences,thesesentencesarecombinationsofmorphemes.Let'sstudythefollowingsentences:如前所述,一个实语素可以被定义为一个最小单位的意思。这个定义,然而,太过简单。一些语素的许多的话,可能发生在结合不同的语素但很难找到一个不断的意义。例如,你们怎么分配意义在-ceive之类的词语素接收、明白,-mit期间在汇出、许可证、全心投入,投降吗?当我们组合词造句,这些句子的组合,语素。让我们研究下面的句子:(3~1)Theyareplanningtocomputerizetheirentireaccountingsystem.(3~1)他们打算藉由他们整个核算体系。(3-2)Itiswettoday.(2)是湿的今天。(3-3)Cathyfounditexcitingtodriveontheelevatedroad.Whatisthemeaningoftoanditintheabovesentences?Obviouslywecannotassignthemalexicalmeaning.Tohasonlyagrammatical"meaning"asaninfinitivemarker,andit,asamorpheme,isrequiredbythesyntacticrulesofthelanguage.Aconclusioncanthusbedrawnthatitisnotalwayspossibletoassignalexicalmeaningtosomeofthemorphemes.凯西"找到(3胜3败)是一件很刺激的高架道路行驶。的意思是什么和它在上面的句子,好吗?显然,我们不能指定给它一个词义。到只有一个语法“意”作为一种不定式标记,它作为一种语素、需要语法规则的语言。结论加强筋,因此我们不可能总指定一个词义的某些语素。Similarly,thereareboundmorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon.相同的,也有人黏着语素,大部分是纯粹的语法标记等概念,标志紧张、数量、箱等。Suchboundmorphemesarereferredtoasinflectionalmorphemes.Theyareattachedtowordsormorphemes,buttheyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory.Considertheverbformsinthefollowingsentences:这样的黏着语素是指屈折语素。他们被绑在文字或语素,但却永远不会改变他们的语法范畴。考虑到在下列句子的动词形式。(3~4)Johnhasnoticedthechangeinhisfriend.(3~4约翰已经注意到了这种变化在他的朋友。(3-5)Ashewaswalkingtothestation,henoticedoneofhisformersupervisors.(3-5)在走向车站时,他注意到一个老监事。Herethe-edand-ingendingsaremorphemeswhichdonotaddanylexicalmeaning,butwhichrepresenttheconceptoftenseandaspect.在这里,吸引了语素末梢不添加任何词义,但为代表的概念紧张而方面。 3.4Morphologicalrulesofwordformation构成的词语3.4形态规则Lookatthefollowinglistofwords:看看下面的生词:AB乙 \n*kroupslowly*kroup慢慢*rearnclearly*rearn清楚*slarmquickly*slarm迅速WhileeachwordincolumnAisonlyapermissiblesoundsequencewithnomeaningattachedtoit,incolumnBwefindperfectEnglishwordsmadeupoftwomorphemes.Thewayswordsareformedarecalledmorphologicalrules.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.尽管每个词只允许塔A声音序列送达的,没有意义的操作我们找到完美的英语单词由两个语素。形成的方法的话被称为形态规则。这些规则决定如何语素结合成为单词。Someofthemorphologicalrulescanbeusedquitefreelytoformnewwords.Wecallthemproductivemorphologicalrules.Wecan,forexample,addtheprefixun-toderivedwordsthathavebeenformedbymorphologicalrules:一些形态的规则也可以使用比较自由,形成新单词。我们称他们为生产形态规则。我们可以,例如,加上前缀联合国——的话,已经形成了由形态学规则:un+accept+able联合国+接受+能够帮上忙un+think+able,,联合国+认为+能够,un+touch+able联合国+碰+能够帮上忙un+warrant+able联合国+保证+能够帮上忙un+impeach+able联合国+弹劾+能够帮上忙un+inhabit+able联合国+居住+能Sucharulecanbestatedas:un+ADJECTIVE=not—ADJECTIVE这样的规则,可归纳为:联合国+形容词=不是——形容词Thisruleholdsgoodforthewordsabove,thoughwenoticethefollowingexceptions:这条规则有效期为以上单词,虽然我们注意以下的例外:sad—*unsad•;'brave—*unbrave伤心——*unsad•;“的勇气——*unbraveItmightbepresumedthatthe"un-Rule"isnotasproductiveforadjectivescomposedofjustonemorphemeasforadjectivesthatarethemselvesderivedfromverbs.Theruleseemstobefreelyapplicabletoanadjectivalformderivedfromaverb,asinundecideduncheckedunabridgedundeclaredunsimplifiedunauthorizedandotherexamples.它可能被视为“un-Rule”不是生产为形容词由只是一个语素至于形容词,自己也源自动词。规则似乎可以自由适用形式adjectival来源于动词,在没决定不unsimplified删节未申报未经授权的,其他的例子。Morphologicalrulesmaythusbeproductive(constantlyusedtoformnewwords)orlessproductive.Thesuffix-ityisfoundinmanywords:\n形态规则不断产量,从而也可以用来形成新单词或更小的生产力。尾找得到,在其他许多-ity的话:Sincerityfromsincere真诚从真诚scarcityfromscarce短缺从稀缺Yetthephrasethefiercityofthelionsoundssomewhatstrange.Assomelinguistspointoutitiseitheraspeecherrororthespeakerisattemptinghumour.Theexistenceoftherelatedpairslikesincere/sincerity(butnotfierce/"fiercity)showsthataproductivemorphologicalrulecan,inthecourseoftime,becomelessproductive.然而fiercity短语狮子听起来有点奇怪。语言学家指出,要么是演讲错误或演讲者正试图幽默。存在的物种对喜欢真诚/真诚(但不是激烈的/"fiercity)显示生产形态规则可以过程,在这个的时候,变得不那么富有成果的。 3.5Compounding3.5复合Inthelastsectionwesawhowderivationalandfreemorphemescombinetoproducenewwords.Anotherwaytoformnewwords,orcompoundwords,tobemoreexact,isbystringingwordstogether,asshownintheexamplesbelow:在最后一节我们看到派生和自由语素结合生产新单词。另一种方法来形成新的词,或复合的话,更确切地说,是通过串联在一起的话,表现在举例如下: -adj.-adj。-noun-noun-verb-verb-prep.-prep。 adj.……bittersweet苦中带甜的clearwayclearwaywhitewash粉刷blackout停电 noun–名词——\nheadstrong倔强的rainbow彩虹spoonfeedspoonfeedheadsoffheadsoff verb-动词-carryallcarryallpickpocket扒手sleepwalk梦游,cutupcutup prep.…..inborn天生off-licenceoff-licenceundertake进行without没有  Whenweformcompounds,thefollowingpointsarenoteworthy:当我们组成的化合物,以下几点注意:a)Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory.-.当这两个字在同一个语法范畴,这种化合物就会朝这个category.-。noun+nounpostboxlandlady名词+名词邮政局房东adjective+adjectiveblue-blackicy-cold形容词+形容词深蓝色的icy-coldb)Inmanycases,thetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories.Thentheclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound:\nb)在很多情况下,这两个字属于不同的类别。然后这类第2或者最后的话语是语法范畴的复合:noun+adjectivehead-strong名词+形容词head-strongverb+nounpickpocket动词+名词扒手This,however,isnotalwaystrue,andcompoundswithaprepositionareinthecategoryofthenonprepositionalpartofthecompound,asin然而,这不是化合物,总是对的,而且在介词的范畴的一部分nonprepositional复合,就像在under'takein'actionup'lift“你要下的行动”电梯c)Itisoftenthecasethatcompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenoncompoundedwordsequence,thusin'redcoat'greenhousec)是很常见的化合物有不同应力模式noncompounded单词序列,从而在’redcoat的温室中wefindtheprimarystressonthefirstpartofthecompound,whereasin我们找到主应力在第一部分的化合物,而在redcoatgreenhouseonthenountheadjectivequalifies.穿红衣服的房子盖在名词绿色形容词符合。d)Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.Comparethefollowingpairofsentences:d)的意义并不总是一种化合物的总和其各部分的意义。比较证明对句子:(3-6)Katefoundaredcoatinheraunt'scloset.(3-6)凯特发现一件红衣服在她的姑妈的衣橱里。(3-7)Katefounda'Redcoatinheraunt'scloset.(3-7)凯特发现“Redcoat在她的姑妈的衣橱里。Ascanbeseen,thetwosentences,thoughseeminglysimilar,arequitedifferentinmeaning.可以看出,两句话,但表面上相似,有很大的不同的意义。Whilethemeaningofeachcompoundincludesatleasttosomeextentthemeaningsofindividualparts,asinafallingstar(astarthatfalls)andalookingglass(whichdoesn'tmean"aglassthatlooks"but"aglassinwhichonecanseeone'sface"),othercompoundsdonotseemtorelatetothemeaningsoftheindividualpartsatall.Abigwig,forexample,doesnothaveabigwig,nordoesahighbrownecessarilyhaveahighbrow.Ajack-in-a-boxisaboxinwhichthereisapuppet,andaturncoatisatraitor.而各层院落的含义包括至少在一定程度上各部分的意义,就像在一颗流星(一颗星,这颗星落)和镜子(这并不意味着“玻璃看起来”,而是“一个杯子里你可以看到你的脸”),其他化合物似乎不涉及到单个零件的含义。一个大人物,例如,没有一个大人物,也没有一次高水准的一定有高额头。一个jack-in-a-box就像一盒,是一个木偶,叛徒是叛徒。Morphologicalrulesthusrevealtherelationsbetweenwordsandprovidethemeansforformingnewwords.Itistheserulesthatenableustocoinnewwords,suchashairspray,teaceremony,spacewalkandteach-in.CompoundingisthenaverycommonandfrequentprocessforenlargingthevocabularyoftheEnglishlanguage.形态规则的关系如此揭示单词和提供必要的手段,为形成新单词。正是这些规则,使我们如新字,如发胶,茶道、空间走路和教育在线。然后非常常见的组合和频繁的过程,扩大词汇量的英语。3.6Conversion\n36转换Conversionisachangeinthegrammaticalfunctionofawordwithoutaddingorremovinganypartofit.Awordbelongingtoonepartofspeechisextendedtoanotherpartofspeech.MostoftheEnglishone-syllablenounscanalsobeusedasverbs:awalk,towalk;aplay,toplay;arun,torun.Sometwo-syllablenounsbecomeverbbyshiftingthestresstothesecondsyllable:increase,contractandconduct.Thisprocesshasbecomemoreproductivethanbefore,asmanyfamiliarWordsareconvertedfreelyaseithernounsorverbsininformalspeech.Somearecommon,suchasaguess,acrazy,todirty,tototal,andsomearenotsocommon.Forexample,must,do,if,but,areusedasnounsinthefollowingsentences:转换发生变化的语法功能词没有添加和移除它的任何部分。属于一个一个词的词性延伸到另一个词的词性。大多数的英语的单音节名词还可以用作动词:一走,走;一出戏,玩;跑,跑。一些双音节的名词动词的应力转移到成为第二个音节:增加、合同和行为。该工艺具有比以前变得更有成效,因为很多话被转换自如,或者名词或动词在非正式讲话。一些很常见,如一个猜想,一个疯狂的、去脏,总的,而另一些则不是非常普遍。例如,必须做的,如果,但是,用作名词在下列句子:1)Englishproficiencyisconsideredamustforcollegestudents.1)英语水平被认为是一种必须针对大学生的。2)Ihavenoknowledgeofthepoliticaldosanddon'ts.2)我不认识你们,不part政治dos。3)Aswithalltheseproposals,ifsandbutsabound.3)所有这些建议、国际单项体育联合会和其他的人。3.7Backformation7Backformation3。Backformationisa"reverse"processofaffixation.Thewordisformednotbyaddingamorphemetoastembutbyassumingapartofthestemasasuffixandremovingit.Forexample,historically,theEnglishwordsswindler,editor,beggarweresinglemorphemewords.Theyarenotwordsformedbyderivation.Byassumingthattheending-er,-orand-arweresuffixesindicatingtheagent,peopleremovedthemandbegantousewhatwereleftasverbs:toswindle,toedit,tobeg.Backformationalsoexplainswhywordsliketelevision,emotionandenthusiasmcameintotheEnglishvocabularyearlierthantheirverbformstotelevise,toemoteandtoenthuse.Backformation是一个“反转”式的过程。这个词是通过增加一个实语素不形成一个干,但通过假设在阀杆的一部分作为一个后缀和删除它。例如,从历史上来看,英语单词的骗子,编辑器,乞丐是单身,语素词。他们不构成词语推导,假定,结束-er,或是和-ar后缀表示了代理,人赶出他们是什么,开始使用左动词:诈骗、编辑、乞求。Backformation也解释了为什么的话就像电视、情感和热情进了英语词汇早于动词形式播放,动作和热心。3.8Borrowing38借款Borrowingconsistsinsimplyadoptingforeignwords.Throughoutitshistory,theEnglishlanguagehasadoptedmanywordsfromotherlanguages.Somearecalledloan-words,retainingtheiroriginalphoneticorevenwrittenforms,suchasbungalowfromHindi,verandafromPortuguese,patiofromSpanish,spaghettifromItalian,robotfromCzechandalcoholfromArabic.Othersarecalledloan-translationsorcalques,adirecttranslationoftheforeignwordintoEnglish,assupermanisfromtheGermanUbermensch.\n借款在于简单地采用外文单词等。自成立以来,采取了许多英语词汇都是从别的语言。一些被称为loan-words、保留原有的语音甚至书面形式,例如平房从北印度语,阳台和葡萄牙语、天井的从西班牙语,面条从意大利、机器人捷克和酒精阿拉伯语。其他人被称为loan-translations或并,直接翻译成英文,外国词成超人从德国鼓吹者。3.9Clipping9剪裁3。Clippingisareductionprocessinwhichawordofmorethanonesyllableisreducedtoashorterform.Thewordssoformedareusuallyusedininformalspeech.Forexample,adisfromadvertisement;labisfromlaboratory;fanisfromfanatic;fluisfrominfluenza,mathisfrommathematics.剪辑是一项还原过程中以一个字超过一个音节减为较短的形式。这些话是如此形成通常被用在非正式讲话。例如,广告广告;实验室从实验室;风机;从狂热流感是从流感,数学是数学。3.11Blending混合3.11Blendingisaparticularwayofcompoundingbecauseitisnotaprocessofcombiningtwowordsintheircompleteforms.Onlythebeginningofthefirstwordisusedtojointtheendoftheotherword,asinsmog(smoke+fog),brunch(breakfast+lunch),motel(motor+hotel),telecast(television+broadcast),modem(modulator+demodulator)混合是某种复合,因为它不相结合的过程两个词的完整的形式。仅仅是个开始的第一个词用来联合结束的时候,就像在另一个词的烟雾(烟+雾),早午餐(早餐+午餐),旅馆(电机以上酒店),电视(电视+广播)、调制解调器(调制器+解调器)3.12Acronym的缩写词3.12Acronymsarewordsformedbystringingtogethertheinitiallettersofthewordsinaphrase,typicallythenamesoftechnicalapparatusandinstitutions.Andsometimesthephrasaloriginsofanacronymisgraduallylosttoitsspeakers.Forexample:首字母缩写词列在一起,从而形成的初始的字母词的名字短语,典型的技术设备和机构。短语的起源,有时候首字母缩写词就是逐渐失去了它的人。例如:radarradiodetectingandranging雷达无线电检测和范围WASPwhiteAnglo-Saxonprotestant白种盎格鲁撒克逊基督教黄蜂AIDSacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome艾滋病获得性免疫缺陷综合症SARSSevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome,严重急性呼吸系统综合症——SARSAPECAsia-PacificEconomicCooperationAPEC亚太经济合作UNESCOUnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization联合国教科文组织联合国教育、科学、文化组织AcquiredImmureDeficiencySyndrome获得性免疫缺陷综合症3.13InitialismInitialism3.13\nSomenewwordsarecomposedofthefirstlettersofaseriesofwordsandpronouncedbysayingeachletterinthem,suchasCD[si:di:](compactdisc),VIPandWHO.Thiskindofwordsarecalledinitialisms.Otherexamplesare:一些新单词的第一个字母组成的一系列的单词和明显说每个字母在,如CD[斯:迪:](光盘),贵宾和谁。这种话被称为initialisms。其他的例子是:ATMATMCPUCPUCIA中央情报局GDP/GNP国民生产总值GDP/GPSGPSGREGREIELTS雅思3.14Coinage3.14货币CoinageistheleastcommonprocessofwordformationinEnglish.Itreferstotheinventionoftotallynewterms.Asspeakerswouldnotacceptsomethingofpurelyarbitraryinvention,thecoinedwordsareoftensomefamiliartradenamessuchaskleenex,xerox,andnylon.货币是最常见工艺构词英文。它指的是完全的发明新条款。作为演讲者将不接受一些纯任意发明,词语通常是一些常见、贸易名称如面巾纸、影印、和尼龙材料。Revisionexercises:修改练习:1.Dividethefollowingwordsintotheirseparatemorphemesbyplacinga"+"betweeneachmorphemeandthenext:1。分以下的话付诸各自语素由把一个“+”之间每个语素与未来:a.microfileb.bedraggledc.announcement答:microfileb湿透的声明。cd.predigestione.telecommunicationf.forefather(即祖先简化电信楼g.psychophysicsh.mechanistmechanist如心理物理:2.Thinkofthreemorphemesuffixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybesuffixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.2。想想三个语素后缀,给他们的意义,并说明类型的干他们可能suffixed。给至少两个例子的分量。Model:-or——模式:suffix:-or\n后缀——:meaning:thepersonorthingperformingtheaction的人或东西的意义:执行行动stemtype:addedtoverbs阀杆型:添加到动词examples:actor,"onewhoactsinstageplays,motionpictures,etc."translator,"onewhotranslates"例子:一个演员”,在舞台剧目的人行事、电影,等等。”翻译,翻译””3.Thinkofthreemorphemeprefixes,givetheirmeaning,andspecifythetypesofstemtheymaybeprefixedto.Giveatleasttwoexamplesofeach.3。想想三个语素前缀,给他们的意义,并说明类型的干他们可能前缀。给至少两个例子的分量。Model:-a模型:-preffix:-apreffix:-meaning:"without;not"意义:“不,不”stemtype-,addedtoadjectives阀杆类型-,加上形容词examples:asymmetric,"lackingsymmetry"asexual,"withoutsexorsexorgans"例子:不对称,“缺乏对称性“无性:“没有性别或性机关对“4．Theitalicizedpartineachofthefollowingsentencesisaninflectionalmorpheme.Studyeachinflectionalmorphemecarefullyandpointoutitsgrammaticalmeaning.(四)参与各项用下列的句子是一个屈折语素。每个屈折语素仔细研究,指出其语法意义。Suemovesinhigh-societycirclesinLondon.苏运动high-society绕在伦敦。AtrafficwardenaskedJohntomovehiscar.一个交通管理员说:“约翰,移动他的汽车。TheclubhasmovedtoFriday,February22nd.俱乐部已搬到2月22日,星期五。Thebranchesofthetreesaremovingbackandforth.旁的柳树正在来回摆动。Chapter4Syntax:TheSentencePatternsofLanguage第四章语法句型的语言 4.1Syntaxandgrammar4.1语法和语法Asanothersubfieldoflinguistics,syntaxisthestudyofsentencestructure.Itisconcernedwiththerulesofhowwordsareputtogetherincertainpatternstoformdifferentsentences.Asinflectionsareusedbyspeakerstoindicatethegrammaticalrelationsbetweenthewordsinasentence,traditionally"grammar"referstosyntaxandthepartofmorphologythatdealswithinflections.Thisiswhatwemeanbysaying"thegrammarofthesentence"or"agrammaticalstudyofsentences".Wearenotusingtheterm"grammar"inthesenseChomskyusesittocall\nhislinguistictheories.作为另一个分支学科从语言学、语法是一门研究句子结构。它所关心的词的规则一起被放在特定的模式以形成不同的句子。作为父母的人都被显示这两个词之间语法关系中,在一个句子里,传统上是指“语法语法、部分处理的形态学变化。这就是我们所谓的说:“这个句子的语法”或“语法研究的句子”。我们不使用术语“语法”感觉乔姆斯基用它来给他语言学理论。 4.2Wordorder4.2语序,Aswehavementionedbefore,syntaxdealswiththepatternedrelationsbetweenwordsinthesentences,andwiththesystematicmeansofstatingandanalyzingsuchpatterns.Bysayingthattherelationbetweenwordsinasentenceispatterned,wemeanthatthereareruleswhichgovernthewayswordsareputtogether.Letusconsiderthefollowingsentences:正如我们所前面提到的,语法处理图案的关系,这些句子的手段,以系统说明和分析这样的模式。说的话之间的关系中,在一个句子里是图案,我们指有规则的方法用来管理单词放在一起。让我们考虑以下句子:1.Thechildrensleeppeacefully.1。孩子们睡和平共处。2.*Sleepchildrenpeacefullythe.2。*睡眠孩子。和平3.Theideassleepfuriously.3。睡眠疯狂的想法。4.*Ideasthefuriouslysleep.4.*理念正睡一觉。Sentences1and3arenormalEnglishsentencesinthattheyaregrammaticallywell-formedsequencesofwords.Beinggrammaticallywell-formedmainlymeansthatthewordsinthesentencesareorderedaccordingtosyntacticrulesofEnglishbyfollowingcertainpatterns,suchas"determiner+noun+verb+adverb".Sentence3isnotmeaningfulinnon-poeticcontext,butthislackofmeaningfulnessdoesnotnegateitsgrammaticality.Putinapoeticcontext,itismeaningfulifwestretchourimaginationabit.Butsentences2and4areungrammatical(hencetheasterisk.),becausetheyviolatethesyntacticruleswhichcontrolthewordorder,positionofwordsofvariousclassesrelativetooneanotherinsentences.WordorderisparticularlyimportanttoEnglishasitisnotsoinflectionalassomeotherIndo-Europeanlanguages.ThegrammaticalfunctionsperformedbyinflectionsinhighlyinflectionallanguagesarethereforeperformedbywordorderinEnglish.ForexampleinEnglishtheidentitiesofsubjectorobjectaresolelydeterminedbywordorder,notbytheinflectionsindicatingasubjectiveorobjectivecase.Wordorderisoftenreferredtobythetermsyntagmaticrelation.\n句子1号和3号是正常的,它们是英语句子文法完备的序列的单词。主要是被语法规范句句子命令根据语法规则的英语按照特定的模式,如“书写+名词+动词+副词“。第3句不是有意义的non-poetic语境,而这种缺乏丰富的含义不否定它的三大类。放在一个充满诗意的背景,是有意义的,如果我们伸展想像力一点。但句子2和4是不符合语法(因此星号。),因为他们违反语法规则控制词序;位置相对于各阶层的言语彼此的句子。词序尤其重要的不是那么英语的印欧语系的屈折。语法功能进行高的屈折变化进行语言词序因此英文。例如在英语主语和宾语的身份完全取决于词序的标志着一个主观的还是客观的变化情况。词序常被称为"这个词的组合关系。 4.3Wordclasses43词类Aswehavementionedbefore,syntaxisthepatterningofwordsinthesentences.Speakersofonelanguagedonothavetotalfreedomincombiningwordstomakesentences.Theyhavetofollowcertainsyntacticrulesconcerningthepatterningofwords,forexample,thewordorder"determiner+noun+verb+adverb"mentionedintheprevioussection.Wordsareputtogetherinthisorderaccordingtotheclassestheybelongto.Wordclassesaresetsofwords,whichhavethesamegrammaticallimitationsandthesamepotentialforoccurrence.Thatistosay,theyarelikelytofitintothesameslotinasentenceandmutuallysubstitutableinparticulargrammaticalcontext.Forexample,allthewordsin"Thechildrensleeppeacefully"canbesubstitutedbywordsofthesameclasses:正如我们所前面提到的,语法模式的词汇的句子。一种语言的人没有完全的自由在联合的话来的句子。他们必须遵循一定的句法规则涉及模式的话,例如字秩序”+名词+动词+书写副词“提到在前一节。字一起被放在这个顺序依照他们所属的类。单词,单词的集合类是有相同的语法的局限性和相同的潜在的发生。也就是说,他们很有可能加入到同一个电池槽中,在一个句子里、相互替代特别是语法上下文。举例来说,所有的字安眠的“孩子们”可以代替彷的话类:1.Acavecollapsedsuddenly.1。一个洞里突然倒塌。2.Thatmanwroteslowly.2。那个人写了缓慢。3.Thosedogsbarkedangrily.3。这些狗叫了起来生气。Theresultingsentencesofthesubstitutionareallgrammatical,becausethe,a,that,thosebelongtothesamewordclass"determiner";children,cave,man,dogareallthemembersoftheclass"noun";sleep,collapse,write,barkare"verbs"andpeacefully,suddenly,slowly,angrilyare"adverbs".由此产生的词句替代都是语法,因为,a,,属于同一词汇类型”;“书写孩子,洞穴,你这个人,狗是所有成员的课堂”名词",睡眠、塌陷、写、树皮是“动词“和平,突然,慢慢地,气愤地“副词”。Wearequitefamiliarwithsuchtermsas"nouns","verbs",and"adverbs"sincetheyaretraditionallyreferredtoaspartsofspeech.However,inmanylinguisticworkstheterm"wordclass"isusedinsteadof"partofspeech".Linguistsinsistthatwordsshouldbesolelyclassifiedinaccordancewiththeirsyntacticproperties,theirdistributioninsentences,asintheabovediscussion.Theyregardthetraditionaldefinitionforpartsofspeech,suchas"Anounisthenameofanyperson,place,orthing","Averbisawordwhichdenotesanaction","Anadjectivemodifiesanoun",asamixtureofinflectional,syntacticandsemanticdescriptionandaslogicallydefectiveorcircular.我们非常熟悉等术语“名词”、“动词”、“副词“因为他们通常被称为的词类。然而,在很多语言工作术语”字阶层”是用来代替“词的词性”。语言学家坚持完全单词应该根据他们的分类、分布句法特性在句子,上面的讨论。他们认为传统定义为词类,如“名词就是任何人的名字、地方或事物的”、“动词就是一个字是一个行动”、“形容词修饰的名词",作为一个混合的屈折,句法和语义描述和逻辑上的缺陷和圆。\nThesyntacticrelationofsubstitutionbetweenwordsofthesameclassisalsoreferredtoastheparadigmaticrelation.Theterm"paradigmatic"isoftenusedalongsidewiththeterm"syntagmatic"tospecifythetwodifferentlinguisticrelations,"vertical"and"horizontal",atmanylevelsoflinguisticsystemotherthanwords.句法之间的替代关系是同一类的词也被称为聚合关系。术语“范式”常常用来摘要伴随着于术语“组合“要指定这两种不同语言的关系,“垂直”和“水平”的理念,在不同形态的语言系统中除了的话。Syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsarenotconfinedtotherelationsbetweensinglewords.Forexample,in"Whoevertakesthispillwillsleeppeacefully",theprimarysyntagmaticrelationistheonethatexistsbetween*"whoevertakesthispill","willsleep"and"peacefully".Ifthesentenceis:substitutedby"Thechildrensleeppeacefully",thenthereisaparadigmaticrelationbetween"whoevertakesthepill"and"children",andbetween"willsleep"and"sleep".Similarrelationsalsoexistonphonological,morphological,phrasal,andeventextuallevels.Inthetwophonemestrings/pit/and/bit/,thereisasyntagmaticrelationbetween/p/or/b/,/i/and/t/,andaparadigmaticrelationbetween/p/and/b/.Inthetwowordsmeaningfulandmeaningless,morphemesmean,-ingand-fulcanbeviewedashavingasyntagmaticrelationbetweenthem,andtherelationbetween-fuland-lesscanbeviewedasaparadigmaticone.组合、聚合关系不局限于单个词之间的关系。例如,在“无论谁来担任这颗药丸会安眠,”,主要组合关系之间存在的*“无论谁来担任这药丸”、“会睡”和“和平”。如果一句话是:“孩子们所取代,然后安眠之间有一个聚合关系“无论谁来担任这个丸”和“孩子”,“睡之间”和“睡觉了”。相似关系也存在于语音、形态,短语,甚至文本的水平。在这两个音素字符串/坑/和/位/,有一个组合关系或/p/b/,/我/和/吨/,聚合关系//p/b/。在这两个字的意义,并没有意义的,语素的意思是,吸引和-ful可以看作是有一个组合关系,-ful和-less之间的关系被视为一个示范。Wordclassescanbe"closed"or"open".Ifawordclassisnotexpandedbythecreationofadditionalmembers,itisclosed.Forexample,inEnglishwerarely,ifever,inventoradoptaneworadditionalpronoun.Semanticallyclosedclasswordsformasystemandtheyaremutuallyexclusiveandusuallydefinedinrelationtotherestoftheclass.Ontheotherhand,anopenclassisindefinitelyextendible.Newwordsareconstantlyaddedtoopenclasses.Wordsbelongingtothesameopenclassarenotmutuallydefining.Theyonlyhavethesamegrammaticalpropertiesandfitintothesameslotinasentenceastheotherwordsintheclass.InEnglish词的类可能“关闭”或“开放”。如果一个单词的班不是增长了创造额外的会员,是关闭。例如,在英语中我们几乎不可能发明或采取一种新的或额外的代名词。语义关闭类词形成一个系统,他们都是相互排斥的,通常定义与其他同学。另一方面,一个开放的课程可无限期地。新单词不断添加到公开课。属于同一单词定义并不是相互开放课程。他们只有同一个语法特性和融入同一个电池槽中,在一个句子里其他词在上课。在英语wehavethefollowingclosedwordclasses:我们有以下关闭词类:Prepositionin,on,at,infrontof,beneath,etc.介词,,在,之前,在等。Pronounyou,it,his,herself,mine,etc.代词你,它,他的,她自己,我的,等。Determinera,the,this,those,both,etc.\n一、书写,这,那些人,两个,等。Conjunctionbut,or,and,etc.连接或和等。Modalverbcan,may,must,ought,etc.情态动词可以的,必须应该等。Primaryverbhave,be,do.主要动词有,当,去做。Andthefollowingopenwordclasses:以下的开放的词类:Nounman,dog,China,etc.名词的人,狗,中国,等。Adjectivegood,wonderful,green,old,etc.形容词好,奇妙的、绿的、年老的、等。Adverbfast,swiftly,slowly,wonderfully,etc.副词快捷、迅速,慢慢地,得好,等。Fullverbrun,walk,arrive,beat,etc.全动词跑,走,到、鼓包、等。 4.4Wordgroups44词Wehavelearnedthatwordsareplacedoneafteranotherinasentenceaccordingtocertainwordorder,butsentencesaremorethanamerelinearsequenceofsinglewords.Therearewordgroupsinasentence.Forexample,inthesentence"Thetwouglysistershadgonehomewithouther",itisobviousthatcertainwords,suchashadandgone,orthe,two,uglyandsisters,"belongtogether"inawayinwhichothersdonot.Andhadgoneappearstohaveacloserrelationwithhomeandwithoutherthanwiththetwouglysisters.Usuallywordgroupscorrespondtosyntacticcategoriessuchassubject,predicate,object,complement,etc.ononehandandclausesorphrasesontheother.Intheaboveexample,thewordgroupthe"twouglysisterscorrespondstothecategoryof"subject"or"nounphrase"withtherestofthesentencecanbegroupedtogetherasitcorrespondstothecategoryof"predicate"or"verbphrase".我们已经学会了言语是放置在你的心中,在一个句子一个接一个地按照一定的词序;但句子并不仅仅是整句话的线性序列。有词中,在一个句子里。例如,在判决是“两个丑的姐妹们已经回家了没有她的”,很明显,某些词,如已经结束了,或者,二,丑陋的姐妹”,是在一起”,其他的人却没有。和已经似乎有更紧密的关系,而不是回家,没有她两个丑姐妹。通常字群对应的句法类别,如主语、谓语、对象、补充,一方面却等条款或短语。在上面的例子中,字组与“两个丑陋的姐妹属于“主体”或“名词短语“与其它的句子可组合在一起,因为它符合类别"谓语”或“动词短语”。Thereisahierarchicalrelationbetweenallthepossiblewordgroupsinasentence.Theideaisthatinanygivensentencessomewordsaremorecloselyrelatedthanothers,andasentenceismadeupoftwo-partconstructionsonaseriesoflevelsorlayers.Thebigwordgroupscontainsomesmalleronesandthesmalleronesmayinturncontainsomestillsmallerones.Therearegroups,subgroupsandsub-subgroups.Howfarthegroupingwillgoisdeterminedbytherequireddepthofsyntacticdescription,butusuallywestopatsinglewords.Thewordgroupsinasentencearecalleditsconstituentsand,whentheyareconsideredaspartofbiggerword\ngroups,theyarecalleditsimmediateconstituents.ImmediateConstituentsAnalysisisthetechniqueofbreakingdownsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingsuntilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached.Thesinglewordsresultedfroman1CAnalysisarecalledtheultimateconstituents.TherearemanywaystodemonstratethestagesofICAnalysisandtheresultingconstituentstructure.Forexample,toanalyzethesentences"InthebankIgavethemmyapplication"and"Thenewproducthaspassedtestswithflyingcolours",wecanuseverticalbars:有一个层次关系词的所有可能中,在一个句子里。他们的想法是,任何年龄段的句子有的话是比其他人更加密切相关,一个句子的结构分为两部分,在一系列的水平或层。大词含有一些较小的公司和较小的可能会包含一些仍然较小的公司。有组织,组以及sub-subgroups。分组将该走多远取决于所需要的深度句法描述,但通常我们停在单个词。词的,在一个句子里被称为其构成要件,当他们被认为是更大的一部分词时,他们就叫做它的直接的选民。技术分析是立即成分的破坏的句子变成词进行连续二进制扦插直到水平的单个词就达到了。是一个词时被称为最终的成分分析。有很多方法可以证明的集成电路分析阶段和由此产生的组织结构。例如,分析了在银行句”我给了他们我的应用”,“新产品通过了测试凯旋”,我们可以用垂直条:1.InthebankIIgavethemmyapplication.1。我在银行里我给了他们我的申请。2.InIIthebankIIIIgavethemmyapplication.2。在II,银行我IIgave他们我的申请。3.InIItheIIIbankIIIIgaveIIIthemmyapplication.3。在II,III银行二世二世给III他们我的申请。4.InIItheIIIbankIIIIgaveIIIthemIIIImyapplication.4。在II,III银行我二世IIIImy给三他们申请。5.InIItheIIIbankIIIIgaveIIIthemIIIImyIIIIIapplication.5。在II,III银行我二世IIIImyIIIII给III他们申请。Orsquarebrackets:或者方括号:1.[Thenewproducthaspassedtestswithflyingcolours.]1。[新产品通过了测试凯旋。)2.[[Thenewproduct][haspassedtestswithflyingcolours.]]2。[[新产品][已通过测试]凯旋。3.[[[The][newproduct]][[haspassedtests][withflyingcolours.]]]3。[[[][新产品]][[已通过测试][凯旋]]]。4.[[[The][[new][product]]][[[haspassed][tests]][[with][flyingcolours.]]]4。[[[][[新][产品]]][[[已通过][测试]][[][飞行]]]的颜色。5.[[[The][[new][product]]][[[[has][passed]][tests]][[with][[flying]5。[[[][[新][产品]]][[[[][流逝过去]][测试]][[][[飞行][colours.]]]]][颜色。]]]]]Figure4-2labeledtreediagram图4-2标记的树图Ora"labeledsquarebracketing":或“贴上平方交叉火力”:\n[S[NP[DetThe][NP[Anew][Nproduct]]][vp[vp[tensehas][vpassed]][Ntests]][pp[pwith][S[NP[实例[][名词词组的新][Nproduct]]][vp(副vpassed[紧张已经][[Ntests]][页[pwith][NP[Aflying][Ncolours.]]]]][NP[一飞行的][Ncolours]]]]]。Wordgroupshavetwotypesofconstructions:endocentricandexocentricconstructions.Ifthegroupinquestionissyntacticallyequivalenttooneofthewordsitcontains,or,toputitanotherway,ifoneofthewordsinthegroupcanstandinplaceofthewholegroup,thegroupissaidtohaveanendocentricconstruction.Ifnot,thegroupissaidtohaveanexocentricconstruction.Inanendocentricconstruction,thewordthatcanstandforthewholegroupisthehead,andtheotherwordsareitsoptionalmodifiers.Mostconstructionsareexocentric.forexample,theEnglishprepositionalphraseswithcare,fromthevillage,onthetableandsubordinateclausesifyouarehere,becauseitwon'tdo,whichyoulikeareexocentricconstructionsmadeupofaprepositionandanounphrase,orofaconjunctionandaclause.Neitherofthetwopartsineithercaseissyntacticallyequivalenttotheadverbialormodifiertheymaketogether.ThetypicalEnglishendocentricconstructionsarenounphrasesandadjectivephrases.Takethesentence"Thebeautifulreddressisverygoodindeed"forexample.Theheaddressofthenounphrasethebeautifulreddressandtheheadgoodoftheadjectivephraseverygoodindeedcanreplacethewholephraserespectivelyinthesentenceastherearesyntacticallythesame.词有两类结构:和exocentric着构造。如果团队问题与一条管所包含的单词,或者换句话说,如果一个单词组可以站在整个团队的地方,该组织说着内心的建设。如果不是,该组织还说,有一个exocentric建设。在着内心的建设、词语可以代表整个集团是全球的头,换句话说是它的可选的修正。大多数工程为例,exocentric.英语介词短语小心谨慎,从村,桌子上、从属分句你是否在这里,因为它不会做的事,你喜欢exocentric结构是由介词和一个名词或连接和一个条款。上述两种部分在这两种情况下是相当于管作状语或修改他们使在一起。典型的英语名词短语着结构和形容词短语。把话“漂亮的红衣服是相当不错”为例。头穿的衣服漂亮的红的名词短语,头良好的形容词短语相当不错可以取代整个短语分别在这个句子管就有相同的。4.5语法范畴,Theterm"grammaticalcategory"isusedbysomelinguiststorefertowordclass.InTGgrammaticalcategoriesaresyntacticunitsindicatedby"categorysymbols"suchasS,NP,VP,Det,A,etc.But,inmoregeneraluse,thetermreferstocertaindefiningpropertiesofwordclasseswithcorrespondinginflectionalaffixesastheirformalindications.Theinflectionalaffixescharacterizeindividualwordforms,notlexemes.Forexample,thelexeme"book"hastwowordforms:thesingularbookandthepluralbooks.TogethertheyconstitutethecategoryofnumberinEnglishindicatedbysuffix-s.Similarly,thenon-pastworkandthepastworkedofthelexeme"work"formthecategoryoftenseinEnglishindicatedbythesuffix-ed.Apartfromnumberandtense,therearecaseandgenderfornounsandadjectives,andaspect,voiceandmoodforverbs.Thesegrammaticalcategoriesareanessentialpartoftheinflectionallanguages.ManyofthemarestillusedinthedescriptionoftheEnglishlanguageeventhoughtheformalindicationofthemhasalmostentirelylostlongbefore.\n术语“语法范畴”被语言学家对指词汇类型。在TG是语法范畴表明句法单位"类别的象征”S,实现副﹐,等。但是,在更广泛的使用,它是指某些特性的字与班级相应的屈折贴上作为他们的正式的迹象。个别单词的屈折贴上描述形式,而不是将。例如,lexeme“书”有两个词汇构成:奇异的书和复数的书。他们一起构成类别的数字表明海南岛英语后缀。同样,non-past工作和过去的工作lexeme“工作”形成范畴的紧张用英语发尾说明。除了号码和紧张,有情况和性别的名词和形容词和屏幕、声音和心情动词。这些语法范畴的基本组成部分是屈折的语言。他们中的很多人都仍然使用在英语语言的描述的正式的迹象,尽管他们几乎完全失去了多久。Genderisanarbitrarilyfixedcharacteristicofindividualnouns,pronouns,orotherwordsinthenounphrasessuchasdeterminersandadjectives.Manyinflectionallanguageshavethreemeaning-relatedgenderdistinctions:masculinefeminineandneuter.WecansaythatEnglishhasnogenderbecausenouns,determiners,adjectivesinEnglishhavenoinflectionallymarkedgenderdistinctions.Thesuffix-essinprincess,duchess,actress,etc.arederivationalnotinflectional.ThechoiceofEnglishpronounsisbasedsemanticallyonthenon-arbitrary,naturaldistinctionofsex.This"notionalgender"inEnglishshouldbetalkedaboutintermsof"male"and"female"insteadof"masculine"and"feminine".ComparethefollowingFrenchsentenceswiththeirEnglishcounterparts:性别是固定的特点任意个体名词、代名词、或其他词等名词短语的限定词和形容词。许多的屈折语言有三个meaning-related性别区别:男性阴性和中性。我们可以说,英语已经性别,因为名词、数词、形容词在英语没有inflectionally显著性别特征。在-ess尾公主,公爵夫人,演员等疑问删略结构是不屈折。选择为基础的英语代词在non-arbitrary语义、自然的区别性。这种“概念性别“英文应该讨论这些问题则以“男性”和“女”而不是“男性”和“女性”。将与他们的下面法语句子英足总:Lecadeau(masculine)estbeau.Thegiftisfine.勒cadeau(男性)最好的花花公子。这礼物是好。Lamaison(feminine)estbelle.Thehouseisfine.洛杉矶(女性)是观光的一位美女。这间房子很好。GiftandhousehavenosexdistinctionbuttheyarearbitrarilydistinguishedinFrenchasmasculineandfeminine,andthereisagenderagreementamongthedeterminer,nounandadjectiveinthesentence.礼物和房子没有性生活的区别,但他们是任意的动物,以法语为男性和女性,有性书写一致、名词和形容词在这句话。Thecategoryofcaseappliesnotonlytonounsbutalsotoawholenounphrase.Casesindicatethesyntacticand/orthesemanticroleofanounphraseinasentence.Itisveryprominentinthegrammarofinflectionallanguages.Forexample,Latinhassixcases:nominative(forsubject),vocative(foranounusedinnamecalling),accusative(fordirectobject),genitive(foranounusedtomodifyahighernounphraseortoindicateapossessiverelation),dative(forindirectobject)andablative(foranounwhenadepartingmotionisindicated).ManyEnglishpronounshavedifferentformscorrespondingtothedistinctionofsubjective(nominative),objective(accusativeanddative)andgenitivecases,asinI,me,my;we,us,our;he,him,his,etc.Apartfromthepronounsystem,Englishhasonlyonecasedistinctioninnouns—thegenitivecaseindicatedbythesuffix/-iz/,/-z/and/-s/inphoneticformsand"apostrophe+s"(boy's),oranapostropheonly(boys')inwriting.\n类的案件不仅适用于名词也整个名词短语。情况下注明句法和/或一个名词的语义角色中,在一个句子里。这是非常重要的,在语法的屈折的语言。例如,拉丁有6个病例:指名(为主体的),vocative(名词用于骂人),accusative(直接宾语),谓格(名词用来修饰一个更高的名词或显示占有关系),格(间接宾语)和消融(名词表示当离开运动)。许多英语代词有不同形式相应的主观的区别(主格),目标(accusative和格)和谓格情况中,当我,我,我的;我们,我们,我们的;他,他,他的等。除了代词系统仅1例,英语名词——分别谓格案例表明,由后缀/-iz//-z/和/-/语音形式和“撇号+s”(男孩),或撇号,仅书面的男孩。Ablativen.〈语法〉夺格,离格（与by,with,from等连用）Of,relatingto,orbeingagrammaticalcaseindicatingseparation,directionawayfrom,sometimesmanneroragency,andtheobjectofcertainverbs.ItisfoundinLatinandotherIndo-Europeanlanguages.氮消融。<语法>夺格,离格(与,做起,从等连用),或者与这样的细菌分离,一种重要的语法案例显示方向离开,有时方式或机构,和对象一定的动词。它发现于拉丁和其他印欧语言。Numberisagrammaticalcategorywitharelativelyclearsemanticbasis.Itisacategoryprimarilyfornouns.NotalltheEnglishnounshaveasingular-pluraldistinction.Thosenounsthathavethisdistinctionarecalled"countnouns".Theirregularpluralformsareclearlymarkedbypluralsuffixes.号码是一个语法范畴与一个较为清晰的语义基础。它是一种类型主要是为名词。并不是所有的英语名词都有singular-plural区别。这些名词都有这区别被称为“数名词”。在他们的常规复数形式都有明确的标志采用复数的后缀。Theothermajorinflectionalcategories,suchasperson,tense,aspect,moodandvoice,belongmainlytotheverb.Thecategory"person"isovertlymarkedinEnglishpronounsystem.Italsobelongstotheverbsbecausethenumberofthesubjectisindicatedintheverbformwhenthesubjectisinthethirdpersonandtheverbisinthepresenttense,asinIthurtsasagainstTheyhurt.其他主要的屈折类别,如人称、时态、方面,情绪和声音,属于主要对动词。类别“人”是公开的标注在英语代词系统。它也属于动词因为数量的主题是表明在动词形式的主题是在第三的人,这个动词使用的是现在时态,如在对疼疼。Tenseshowstherelationshipbetweentheformoftheverbandthespeaker'sconceptoftime.InEnglishtheformalindicationisbetweenpastandnon-past,withthepastformallymarkedinregularverbsbysuffix-ed.Aspectdealswithhowtheeventdescribedbyaverbisviewed.Englishhastwoaspectconstructions,theperfectiveandtheprogressive,realizedby"have+-edparticiple"and"be+-ingparticiple"respectively.Moodinvolvesachoicebetweenindicative,imperativeandsubjunctiveformsoftheverbonthesemanticbasisofthefactuality.TheEnglishimperativehasonlya"tenseless"beastheformalmarker.Subjunctivemoodisusedtoindicatesomeofthenonfactualandhypotheticalsituations.Englishhastwoformalmarkersofthesubjunctivemood,thebaseformandwere.Whenthebaseformisused,thereisalackoftheregularagreementbetweensubjectandthefiniteverb,andthepresentandthepastarenotdistinguishable.Whenwereisused,thereisnoindicationthattheverbisinthepasttenseorthesubjectisplural.Compare:紧张的关系显示动词的形式以及说话人的时间观念。在英语中,正式的迹象是过去和non-past之间、过去正式标注在常规动词发后缀。方面处理这个事件被一个动词作了展望。英语有两方面的结构,以及进行性系统,实现了由“+”和“当分词+吸引分词”的号召。情绪包括一个选择之间的象征,祈使语气和虚拟语气形式的动词的语义基础的真实性。英国必须只有一个“tenseless“做正式的标记。虚拟语气可以用来表示一些nonfactual和假设的情况。英语有两个正式标志的虚拟语气,基础形式和。当基部形态使用,缺乏常规协定主题和限定动词,现在和过去不可以区分的。当被使用,并没有说明动词的过去时态或主题是复数名词。比较:IndicativemoodHeis/wascareful.ImperativemoodBecareful.SubjunctivemoodIdemandedthathebecareful.\n他/直说语气很小心。必要的心情小心些而已。虚拟语气我要求他小心些而已。IfIwereyou,Iwouldbemorecareful.如果我是你,我就更加小心。Voiceissomewhatdifferentfromtheothergrammaticalcategories.Althoughitismorphologicallyapropertyoftheverb,itiscloselyrelatedtothesyntacticstructureofthesentence.Itmakesitpossibletoviewtheactionofasentenceineitherofthetwowayswithoutchangesinthefactsreported.ThepassivevoiceofEnglishisrealizedby"be+-edparticiple".Thedoerintheactivesentenceisomittedinthepassiveorisindicatedbya"by-phrase"inpassivesentence.Compare:声音有点不同于其它语法范畴。虽然它是物业形态,是动词的句法结构密切相关的句子。它有可能看句子的动作都不改变这两种不同途径求解在事实的报道。被动语态的英语来实现了“+”。过去分词行事者在主动句子是被动或忽略的“by-phrase表示“在被动句。比较:ActivevoiceJimcaughttheball.积极的声音吉姆接住了球。PassivevoiceTheballwascaught.被动语态球被抓住了。Passivevoicewith"by-phrase"“被动语态by-phrase”TheballwascaughtbyJim.球被吉姆。Wordsoccurinaphraseorasentenceinvariouscategory-indicatingforms.Theselectionoftheseformshastwotypes,governmentandconcord.Governmentreferstothesituationwhereonewordinaphraseorsentencerequiresthatanotherwordinthesamephraseorsentencetakeaparticularcategoryform.Forexample,Englishprepositionsandverbsgoverntheformsofpronounsthatfollowtheminthesamesyntacticconstructionsothatthe"objective"formsofthesepronounsmustbeused,asinwithme,tohim,toinvitethem,tosaveus,etc.ThereflexivepronounsinEnglisharealso"governed"bythesubjectnouninthesameclausestructure.Forexample:出现在一个词在不同的词组或句子category-indicating形式。这些表格的选择有两种类型,政府和和谐。政府认为是一个字的情景在短语或句子要求一词在同一的字眼把某一特定类别的形式。例如,英语介词和动词管理形式的代名词,遵循相同的句法结构,使“客观”形式的这些代词,在必须使用对我来说,他,邀请他们,拯救我们,等。自反代词在英语也正在“管理”的名词同一个句子中主体结构。例如:1.Theboyhurthimself.1。这个男孩受了伤。2.Thewomanhurtherself.;2。那女人;摔伤。3.Themenhurtthemselves.3。人受伤。Concordreferstotheagreementinaphraseorsentenceintermsofmarkedgrammaticalcategories.EnglishdoesnothavegenderconcordinanounphraseasFrenchdoes.Thereisonlyanumberconcordasshowninthefollowingsentences:和谐是指的字眼协议方面的语法范畴标记。英语没有性别和谐在一个名词法国一样。这只是一个号码康科德如下几种句子:\n1.Thisboygoestoschooleveryday.1。这个男孩每天去上学。2.TheseboysareChinese.2。这些男孩子都是中国人。3.Iamateacherandyouareastudent.3。我是老师,你是学生。Thereisaconcordofnumberbetweenthis,boy,goesandthese,boys,are.AndthereisalsoaconcordofnumberandpersonbetweenI,amandyou,are.有一个和谐的数字在这,男孩,小伙子们,这些去。15,还有数量增加和人之间,现在是,你的意见,是。 Sentencestructure句子结构Thegrammaticalstructureofasentenceistraditionallyanalyzedintermsofthefunctionalcategoriesofitsconstituents.Asentenceisseenascomposedofasubject(S)andapredicate(P).Thepredicatemaycontain,apartfromtheverb(V),objects(O),complements(C)andadverbials(A),whicharefurthercategorizedintodirectobject(Od),indirectobject(Oi),subjectcomplement(Cs),objectcomplement(Co),subject-relatedadverbial(As)andobject-relatedadverbial(Ao).Ifwedisregardtheoptionaladverbials,wewillhavesevenmajorsentencetypes:一个句子的语法结构等方面分析了传统的功能类别的成分。一个句子是视为由一课程(S)和谓语(P)。可能含有谓词的,除了动词,(5),对象(11)补充,(C)和状语(A),再分为直接宾语(Od)、间接对象(Oi)、学科补充(Cs)、对象补充(Co),subject-related状语()和object-related状语(熬)。如果不顾可选用的状语,我们将会有7个主要句子类型:1.SVJane'scatsnores.1。西门子威迪欧汽车电子简的猫鼾声。2.SVOJanekeepsacat.2。“主谓宾”简养了一只猫。3.SVCsJaneisveryfit.3。svc简是非常合适的。4.SVAs.Jane'sroomisonthesecondfloor.4。SVAs。简的房间在二楼。5.SVOiOdJaneiskeepingArchieapieceofpie.5。SVOiOd简让阿智一张馅饼。6.SVOCoJaneiskeepingArchiehappy.6。阿奇SVOCo简是保持快乐。7.SVOAoJanekeepshercatinthegarden.7。SVOAo简把她的猫在花园里。Thegrammaticalstructureoftencorrespondstothesemanticstructureofsentences,whichisanalyzedintermsofthesemanticrolesplayedbytheconstituents.Thesesemanticrolesnormallycorrespondtocertainsyntacticcategorieswhenthesentenceinquestionisactiveandwithananimatedoer.Forexample,subjectusuallyhasaroleofanagentandcomplementsareattributes.Indirectobjecthasaroleofabeneficiaryanddirectobjectisapatient.Adverbialsmaybeinstrumental,locativeortemporary.\n语法结构经常与句子的语义结构等方面分析了,这是基于本体论的语义作用的选民。这些语义角色通常符合一定的句法类别当把句子问题的积极作用,与一个栩栩如生的实干家。例如,通常会有问题的角色的赞美是代理商和属性。间接宾语的的作用,由受益人直接宾语是个很有耐心的。状语,可能是起作用locative或暂时的。Thegrammaticalstructurealsocorrespondstothethematicstructure,whichisdescribedintermsoftheinformationvalueoftheconstituents.Theinitialconstituentofasentenceiscalledthemeandtherestofthesentencerheme.Themeisnormallythestartingpointorthetopicandcontainsgiveninformation.AssubjectinEnglishusuallyisthefirstconstituentinasentence,itisoftentheunmarkedtheme.Thewholepredicateistherheme.However,wewillhaveadifferentpicturewhenthereispassivisationorfronting.Thesemanticrolesoftheconstituentsremainthesamebuttheobjectcanbemadesubjectorfrontedtotheinitialpositiontobecomethetheme,asshowninthefollowingtable:语法结构也符合主题结构方面的描述信息价值的成分。最初的组成部分,一个句子是称为主题和主对这句话的其余部分。主题是通常起点,包含或主题给的消息。为主题的英语通常是第一组成一个句子时,它通常会显露的主题。整个谓语是主的。然而,我们将有一个不同的画面时让passivisation或。成分的语义角色的保持相同而对象可以服从了初始位置的fronted或成为主题,如下几种表:Thelabelleddotsinthetreearecallednodes,andthelinesthatconnectthemarereferredtoasbranches.Thesymbolsthatlabelthelowestnodes,suchas"D+N+V+D+N",makeupwhatiscalledtheterminalstring,whichrepresents(onlytheabstractsyntacticstructureofthesentence.WordsaretobetakenfromtheLexiconandtobeinsertedintotheslotsindicatedbythesymbolsintheterminalstringsoastomakethesentencemeaningful.TheLexiconisafulllistofwordswithinformationabouttheircategories(wordclasses)andsubcategoriessuchascountandnon-countfornounsandtransitive,mono-transitiveorditransitiveforverbs),andabouttheirrelevantsemanticpropertiesthatmayrestricttheselectionofwords.Forexample,intheLexicontheinformationconcerningthe,fox,eat,meatmayinclude:在树上标记的点被称为节点,把它们连接起来的纹路(以下简称分支机构。标记的符号的最低节点,如“D+N+V+D…”,使组成了人们所说的终端字符串,代表着(只有文摘句法的句子结构。单词是从字典和被插入到槽的符号显示终端字符串,使句子有意义。字典是一个完整的列表,单词的分类信息(词类)和子种类如计数和non-count的名词和及物性、mono-transitive或ditransitive为动词)、语义学的物质,从而制约了词语的选择。例如,在词汇信息关于,狐狸,吃,肉可能包括:theD(Thewordtheisadeterminer.)D的话书写的。)foxN+[animate](Thewordfoxisanoun.Itisananimatebeing.)狐狸N+[激活](这个词狐狸是一个名词。这是一个栩栩如生的存在。)eatV+[S+[animate]__NP](Thewordeatisaverb.Itrequiresananimatesubject.Itismainlytransitiveandshouldbefollowedbyanounphrase.)吃V+[S+[激活]_NP](这个词的食物,这是一个动词。它需要一个栩栩如生的主题。主要及物和应遵循一个名词。)meatN(Thewordmeatisanoun.)肉N(这个词肉类是一个名词。)Theaboveinformationguaranteesthattheselectionandinsertionofthesewordsareappropriate.AsthePSrulesandtheLexicontogethermakeupwhatiscalledtheBase,thesentence\n"generated"fromtheBasemaybepresentedas:上述资料保证选择和插入这些话是合适的。作为PS的规则和词汇构成了所谓的基地,这句话“从基地产生公布为:AsentencegeneratedinthiswayfromtheBaseiscalledtheDeepStructureofthesentence.Itisastructuredstringofwords,whichcontainsthesemanticinformationfortheinterpretationofthesentence.T-rulesaretobeappliedbeforewecangettheSurfaceStructureofthesentence,whichisthefinalsyntacticandphonologicalrepresentationofthesentence,thesentenceutteredbythespeaker.T-rulesarethesyntacticrulesaccordingtowhichcertainconstituentsofthesentencecanbemoved,deletedandadded.Forexample,ifthe"PassiveT-rule",whichinvolvesswitchingthepositionofthetwoNPsandintroducingbyandtheauxiliarywas,isapplied,thesurfacestructureofthegeneratedsentencecanbe一个句子里产生基地被这样叫的深层结构的句子。这是一款结构完整的串字眼而已,里面包含有语义信息的句子来解释。T-rules之前的申请,我们能表面的句子结构,给,这是最后的句法和语音表现的句子,这个句子说话者说。T-rules语法规则是根据句子的某种成分可以移动,删除了,补充说。例如,如果"被动T-rule”,其中涉及到开关的位置,和引进两个赞助商辅助,运用,表层结构所产生的句子可Themeatwaseatenbythefox.,肉在狐狸吃了。IfthenweapplytheBy-deletionT-rule,wewillget如果,我们采用By-deletionT-rule的,我们将得到的Themeatwaseaten.肉很吃。IfwefollowthisupwithanotherT-rule—the"Yes-noQuestionT-rule”,whichmovestheauxiliarytotheinitialposition,thesentencewillbecomeaquestion:如果我们沿着这和另外一个问题T-rule——“肯定否定相T-rule”,移相辅相成的初始位置,句子将成为一个问题:Wasthemeateaten?是肉吃了吗?Similarly,Beautifulsheis!istransformedfromSheisbeautiful,andItisgoodtodoexerciseistransformedfromTodoexerciseisgood.Theyarepairsofsentencesthathavethesamedeepstructures.同样的,美丽的姑娘啊!经历了从她是很漂亮,,这非常好了从做运动,健身是好的。他们的对句子相同深层结构。Thedistinctionbetweendeepandsurfacestructuresenablesustoexplainthedifferencebetweenthefollowingpairofsentences,whichappeartohavethesamesurfacestructuresyntactically:深的区别和表面结构使我们能够解释这一差异的句子接下来之间而呈现也有同样的表层结构管Johniseagertoplease.约翰是急于迎合别人。Johniseasytoplease.约翰很容易取悦。WecansimplypointoutthattheyhavetwodistinctdeepstructuresandthesyntacticdifferenceisobliteratedbytheapplicationofcertainT-rules.Theirdeepstructuresmayberoughly\npresentedas:我们可以直接指出,他们有两种截然不同的深层擦拭与句法差异是由应用程序一定的T-rules。他们内心深处的结构可能有表现为:Figure4-8deepstructure图4-8深层结构Asentencewithstructuralambiguitycanalsobeexplainedbygivingtwodifferentdeepstructures.Forexample,theambiguoussentence这样的句子结构歧义给可以分成两种不同的深层。例如,模糊判决JohnlikesdogsmorethanMary.约翰喜欢狗比玛丽。hastwodistinctdeepstructuresentences:有两个明显的深层结构的句子:JohnlikesdogsmorethanMarylikesdogs.约翰喜欢狗比玛丽喜欢狗。JohnlikesdogsmorethanJohnlikesMary.约翰喜欢狗超过约翰喜欢玛丽。ManynewruleswereproposedinChomsky'swritingsofthe1980sand1990s.TheproposalsadvancedareregardedasGBTheory(Government/BindingTheory).Someofthesenewrulesareintroducedinthefollowingdiscussion.提出了许多新的规则乔姆斯基的20世纪80和90年代的作品。先进的建议被认为是GB理论(政府或约束理论)。其中的一些新规则下面讨论介绍了。ByacloserobservationofthePSrules,onemayfindthatmanyofthePSruleshaveasimilarformulation.Forexample,NPsalwayscontainsanN,PPsaPandVPsaV,etc.Inotherwords,XPsalwayscontainanX,whichstandsforeitherN,orV,orA,orP.TheXistheheadoftheXP,andtheothercategoriesintheXParethereeitherforthespecificationorcomplementationoftheheadX.WhileXisalwayspresentintheXP,theothercategoriesareoptional.IfweregardasthecomplementoftheheadXanycategorycloselyconnectedwithit,andasits"specifier"anycategorywhichisnotrelatedtoitanddoesnotalwaysconsistofacompletephraseinitsownright,manyPSrulescanbegeneralizedas通过仔细观察PS规则,你会发现许多PS规则有类似的制定。例如,根据NPs总是包含一个氮、聚苯硫醚价格和高级副总裁的V等。换句话说,XPs总是包含一个X,以代表或氮、和V,即,或p.X的首级XP,另一个XP类别都有头的冲突规范或。当X总是存在在XP,其他类别都是可选的。如果我们作为补充的头部X任何范畴,紧密联系的“specifier“任何种类与它,并不总是由一个完全的短语在它自己的权利,许多PS的规则也可以概括为:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement)XP→(Specifier)X(补充)Itisonthebasisofthisgeneralizationofthe"head-centered"characteristicofPSrulesthatanewPStheoryisdeveloped.ThetheoryiscalledX-barTheorybecauseinthistheoryXPisreplacedby"X-two-bar",anXwithtwobarsoverthecategorylabel,andtheintermediateXcategoryonlywithcomplementafteritissymbolizedby"X-bar",anXwithonebaroverthecategorylabel.ThegeneralisedPSrulesintheX-barTheoryare:\n这是在此基础上,对“head-centered概括的PS规则”的特点,一个新的PS理论发展。这个理论被称为X标杆理论,因为在这个理论中XP是取代“X”,X-two-bar与两家酒吧范畴的标签,中间X类别只有补充之后,这是象征着“X标杆”,X一杆在类别标签。广义的PS规则的x标杆理论是:X=→(specifier)X_X=→(specifier)X_X_→X(complement)X_→X(补充) Herewehavebarsontherightofthecategorylabelinsteadofoveritonlyfortypographicalconvenience.AsX=standsforanyphrases,theabovebar-markingcanapplytoNP,VP,APandPP.ThePSrulesresultedareillustratedasfollows:这里我们有酒吧的范畴的权利的标签,而不是排版这仅仅是为了方便。作为X=代表任何短语,可以适用于上述bar-marking﹐副总裁,接入点和页。PS规则说明了如下:Figure4-19图最终议定Traceisaphoneticallynullcategory,butitaffectsthesemanticinterpretationof|thesurfacestructure.Considerthefollowingdeepstructuresentences:《痕迹》是一个语音特点看空类别,但是它会影响语义解释的表面硬度|。考虑以下的深层结构的句子:a.whichbookhaveyoureadt答:哪一本书你读过tb.Teddyistheman(whom)Iwanttosucceedtb。泰迪的那个人是谁想取得成功的tc.Teddyistheman(whom)Iwantttosucceedc。泰迪的那个人是谁我希望不会成功Intheabovesentences,tshowswheretheunderlinedconstituentsareinthedeepstructures.ThedifferentpositionsoftincandbshowthattherearetwodistinctdeepstructuresfortheambiguoussentenceTeddyisthemanIwanttosucceed,whichcanmeaneitherc"IwanttosucceedTeddy"orb"IwantTeddytosucceed".在上面的句子,t显示了下划线的成分在将深厚的结构。让不同位置的c、b表明的深层twodistinct模稜两可的句子泰迪就是我要找的那个男人要成功,这可以指的是c”想取得成功泰迪”或b”我想要玩具成功。”  SystemicFunctionalGrammar系统功能语法Aswithanyfield,thereareanumberofcompetingviewsinthestudyofsyntax.Itisnotpossibletoconsiderallofthemandwehavechosentoemphasizethebestknownone.ArguablyasimportantasChomsky'stheory,isSystemicFunctionalGrammar(SFG).ThisviewoflinguisticshasitsrootsintheworkoftheBritishlinguistJ.R.Firth,althoughitalsoowesmuchtoPragueSchoollinguisticsandtotheworkofHjelmslevandWhorf.However,themastermindbehindthesystemic-functionalperspectiveisM.A.K.Halliday.如同任何领域,有很多竞争的研究的观点语法。它是不可能去考虑所有的他们,我们选择强调最著名的一个。可以说是乔姆斯基的理论一样重要,是SFG系统功能语法)。这一观点语言学扎根于工作的《英国语言学家《佛,但是该研究也在很大程度上要归功于语言学和布拉格学派的工作,Hjelmslev沃尔夫。然而,的主谋后,系统功能语言视角是《m.a韩礼德。\nLinguistswhoadoptthisapproachareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsoflinguisticstructuresandpatternstothefunctionsthatlanguageservesandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.Theseideasarefundamentallydifferentfromthoseheldbytransformationalgrammariansbecausetheynotonlyemphasizelanguagefunctionbutalsosuggestthatlanguagecannotbestudiedoutofitscontext.Languageisalwaysusedinaparticularsituationforaparticularpurpose.采用该方法语言学家的人有关感兴趣的各种语言结构和模式,语言功能服务和社会设置,使用它。这些想法却是完全不同的被转换的语法,因为他们不但强调语言功能而且反映出语言不能设计出了它的上下文。语言是在某一特定情况下总是为一个特别目的。InChapter1,westudiedsevenfunctionsoflanguage,whichareactuallythemicrofunctionsoflanguage,coveringtheparticularindividualuses.Ifinsteadofgoingbelowthelevelofindividualfunctionswegoaboveit,itispossibletoidentifyseveralmacrofunctions.AndperhapsthebestwayofdescribingthemwouldbetofollowM.A.K.Halliday'sthreemetafunctions:ideational,textualandinterpersonalfunctions.在第一章我们研究了七个功能的语言,这确实微观功能的语言,覆盖了个人用途。然而,如果要低于水平的个人函数我们从上面爬过去,就有可能提出数个宏功能。最好的办法也许描述m.将遵循《三metafunctions韩礼德的:概念、文本、人际关系:功能。(i)Ideationalfunction(我)之经验功能Howdoweuselanguagetomaketheworldintelligibletoourselvesandothers?Inotherwords,inwhatwaydowerepresentourexperientialworldinlanguage?Thefunctioninwhichweconceptualizetheworldforourownbenefitandthatofothersiscalledideationalfunction.Inasensewebringtheworldintobeinglinguistically.Thefirstwayinwhichwecanthinkaboutaclause,orasimplesentence,then,isasarepresentationofexperience.Considerthefollowingsentencesintermsoftheprocessesindicatedbytheverbs,andtheparticipantsinvolvedinthem.我们如何用语言来让世界理解自己和别人呢?换句话说,如何在经验的世界我们代表语言吗?我们开发的函数世界为了我们自身的利益和别人的被称为意念功能。在某种意义上,我们将世界带入被语言。第一个方法中,我们可以想想条款,或者简单的句子,然后,是作为表象的经验。考虑以下句子从过程表明,由动词、和名学员参加了培训。(19)Theboykickedthepost.(19)那个男孩踢担任这项工作,请酌定。(20)Themanlikedthenewhouse.(20)这个人喜欢这个新房子。(21)Thechildishomeless.(21)孩子无家可归。(22)Thegirllaughed.(22)女孩笑了。(23)Thevisitorsaid"hello".(3)客人说:“你好!”(24)Thereisagirloverthere.(24)有一个女孩在那里。In(19),wecandescribetheprocesskickedasamaterialone.Materialprocessesarecharacteristically"doing"verbssuchasrunning,dressingandclimbing.Anindicationofthis\ncanbeseeninthefactthatwerarelyusetheminthesimplepresenttense,thatis,Irun,buttendinsteadtoemploythepresentcontinuous,or"-ing"form—Iamrunning.Weassociatethemwithcontinuousactivityofsomekind.Theparticipantsin(19)aretheboyandthepost.Infunctionalterms,Hallidaydescribestheboyastheactor,thatis,thepersonresponsiblefortheaction,andthepostasthegoal,meaningthethingwhichisactedupon.Oneoftheoperationswecancharacteristicallyperformwithmaterialprocessverbsistochangetheclauseorsentencefromactivetopassive.Thisinvolvesswappingoverthegrammaticalsubjectandobjectwhilekeepingthefunctionalrelationsofactorandgoal:在(19),我们可以描述违约过程踢的材料。材料加工的特点是"做"动词,比如跑步、酱和爬山。一个估计这可以从这个事实,我们很少使用他们的简单的现在时态,那就是我跑,但却却能使用现在进行时,或者“吸引”form-I正在奔跑。他们也将活动不断的运动。参加(19)是男孩和担任这项工作,请酌定。在功能上来讲,韩礼德描述了男孩作为演员,也就是说,一个人,负责行为和岗位为目标,这意味着事物是影响。一个作业我们可以物料流程执行的特点是动词,改变这个条款或句子,从被动活跃。这包括交换在语法主体与客体的函数关系,同时保持的演员和目标:(25)Thepostwaskickedbytheboy.(25)这帖子是踢了那个男孩。Eventhoughthepostisnowinthesubjectpositionitisstillfunctioningasgoal,andcorrespondingly,theboy,althoughintheobjectposition,remainsactor.Rearrangingtheclauseinthiswayallowsus,ifwewish,toleaveouttheactor:尽管这帖子是现在仍然是主体地位的功能为目标,相应地,那个男孩,尽管在目标定位、仍是演员。重新安排条款这样让我们,如果我们想要离开了演员:(26)Thepostwaskicked.(26)这帖子是踢。In(20),thepredicatorhereischaracteristicofarangeofprocesseshavingtodowithfeelingandthinking.Theyarenotmaterial—noconcreteactionisperformed.Anyactionisinternalratherthanexternal.Verbssuchashate,love,know,thinkandunderstand,fallintothisgroup.Allofthemincludementalprocesses.Theparticipantsinmentalprocessesaredifferentfromthoseinmaterialones.Wecannotreallydescribethemanasanactorsincehedoesnotperformtheprocessofliking.Heistheonewhoexperiencesthesensationofliking.Hallidayreferstothissubjectasthesensor,andthethingsensedasthephenomenon.Mentalverbsaredifferentfrommaterialonessemanticallyandthisisreflectedintheirgrammaticalcapabilities.Theydonotformthepresentcontinuous,the"-ing"form,soeasily:*Themanislikingthehouse,*/amunderstandingyourpoint.Theyaresometimesreferredtoasstativeverbsinthattheydescribeastateorconditionasopposedtomaterialverbswhicharedynamic.在(20),predicator这里的特点是一系列流程的感觉,失去了思考。他们不material-no具体行动被执行。任何行动是内在的,而不是外部的。动词比如:厌恶,爱,知道,思考和理解,陷入这一行。他们包括心理过程。参加是不同的心理过程在材料的。我们无法比喻一个人作为一个演员,因为他不履行喜欢的过程。他是一个体验者喜欢的感觉。对这一学科韩礼德是作为传感器感觉到,这事的现象。心理动词的语义和不同于资料的这反映在他们的语法功能。他们不会成为现在的持续、“吸引”形式,所以容易:*男人喜欢房子,*/是理解你的意思。它们有时被作为状态动词在他们所形容的状态或条件而不是资料动词,是动态的。In(21),theprocessisdifferentagainfrom(19)and(20).Theprocessincludedintheverbhereisneithermaterialnormental.Itisrelationalinthatitsmainpurposeistorelatethetwo\nparticipantstogether.Withrelationalverbs,likebe,become,appear,therearealotofpossibleparticipantrolesbecauseofabroaderrangeofpossiblerelationships.Onepairofthemiscarrierandattribute.In(21)homelessistheattribute—theconditionbeingattributed,andthechildisthecarrier,orthepersonwhoisinthatcondition.Therelationalprocessdoesnotallowitsverbstoformthepassive:*Homelesswasbeingthechild.在(21),这个过程是不同的再从(19)、(20)。该方法包括在动词在这里既不是物质活动也没有精神。这是关系也就是说它的主要目的是两个人联系在一起。关系动词、喜欢的是,成为,出现,有很多可能因为参加者角色更大范围的可能的关系。一对他们是载体和属性。在(21)无家可归attribute-the状态的原因,小孩载体,的人呢还是在那个条件。关系过程中不让它形成的动词被动:*无家可归的被孩子。In(22),thepredicatorfallsintoacategoryofverbssuchascough,yawnandsmilewhichHallidayclassesasbehavioral.Behavioralverbshavesomesimilaritytomaterialverbsinthattheydescribephysicalactionsofsomekindbuttheyaredifferentinthattheactionisnotperformedonanything—*Agirllaughedaboyismeaningless,whereasAgirlkickedaboyismeaningful.Moreover,behavioralverbsneedasubjectwhichisanimateorliving.Peopleandanimalssmile,yawnandcough,butnottreesorrocks(exceptfiguratively).Materialverbs,ontheotherhand,canhavetreesorrocksassubjects,forinstance,Thetreeswayedinthewind.Inthisrespect,behavioralverbsarelikementalones,whichalsorequireanimatesubjects.Sotheyareadistinctgroup,semanticallyandsyntactically.Wecanseethisinthefactthattheyonlyrequireoneparticipant—thepersondoingthelaughing,coughing,oryawning.Hallidaytermsthisparticipant,thebehaver.Verbsofthiscategoryare,likerelationalverbs,characteristicallyintransitive,inthattheydonottakeanobject—wecan'tlaughsomething—andconsequentlydon'tformthepassive.Thegirllaughedloudlycannotbeturnedinto*Loudlywaslaughedthegirl.在(22),predicator陷入一种类型的动词如咳嗽、打哈欠韩礼德的课,微笑,行为。行为动词有一些相似的动词材料,他们描述某种体育行为,但是他们是不同的,这种行为是在没有执行任何事情—*女孩笑了一个男孩是没有意义的,而一个女孩踢过一个男孩是有意义的。此外,行为动词需要一个课程以生命的或是生活。人类和动物的微笑,打哈欠、咳嗽,但不是树或岩石(除形象地)。资料动词,另一方面,能够有树或岩石的科目,比如,这棵树动摇在风里。在这方面,行为动词是金属制的,像也需要激活主题。因此他们是一个不同的组、语义与管。我们可以看到这这样一个事实,即他们只要求一个participant-the人们做笑、咳嗽、或打哈欠。韩礼德而言,这的利益相关者,行为。这类药物的动词,比如关系动词,特征为不及物,不参加一object-we也不会笑something-and因此不要养成被动句式。这个女孩大声笑了出来不能变成*大声被笑声的女孩。In(23),theprocessbelongstoalargecategorycalledverbal.Thisincludesverbssuchassay,report,claim,questionandexplain.Hereagainthereissomesimilaritywithmaterialprocessesbutalsosignificantdifferences.Aswithmentalandbehavioralprocesses,theparticipantperformingtheactivityhastobeanimate.Butonespecialfeatureofverbsinthiscategoryisthattheparticipantscanbeswappedroundwithoutanychangeinmeaning:"Hello",saidthevisitor,hasthesamepropositionalmeaningasThevisitorsaid"hello"(althoughitdiffersinforce).Theycanalsousuallyformthepassive—"Hello"wassaidbythevisitor.Hallidaytermsthefirstparticipant"thevisitor"thesayer,andthesecond"hello"thetarget,theobjectofthesaying.\n在(23),这个过程是一个大范畴称为措辞。这包括动词如说,报告、索赔、问题和解释。这里又存在与材料工艺,但一些相似也显著性差异。与心理和行为过程中,参加者表演活动已被激活。但动词的特点是在这个范畴的参与者可以进行圆在不改变的意义:“你好”,访客说,有相同的命题的意思,好像客人说“你好”(尽管它与力量)。他们也可以通常是消极的——“你好”所说的来访者。韩礼德条款第一次参加“游客”,归根到底是说话人的第二次“你好”目标的时候,它的说。In(24),thecategoryofprocessesisafairlysmallone.Itconsistsofclausesinwhichthereactsasgrammaticalsubject,forexampleTherewasalittlecatandThereseemedtobeaproblem,andsoon.Inthesecaseswhatweessentiallyappeartobedoingisaffirmingtheexistenceofsomethingorsomeone,thatis,"acat/problemexisted".Hallidaytermsthisprocessexistential.Whenwelookattheparticipants,however,wecanseethattheredoesn'treallyrepresentanythingexcepttheneedforasubject.Infunctionalterms,thereforeithasnoimportanceoutsideitsgrammaticalrole.Theonlysignificantparticipanthereisthethingorpersonbeingaffirmedasexisting.InthiscaseawomanisreferredtobyHallidayastheexistent.在(24岁),类的过程是一个相当小的。它由条款,充当主语,例如有一只小猫,而且似乎是一个问题,等等。在这种情况下我们基本上是肯定似乎做某人或某物的存在,即“猫/存在的问题”。韩礼德而言,这过程存在的。当我们望着参与者,然而,我们可以看到,没有真正代表着任何东西,除了需要一门课程。在功能上来讲,因此它的语法外是无足轻重的作用。唯一有效的参与者是这里的人或物被认定为存在。在这种情况下一个女人韩礼德牵涉到的存在。(ii)Interpersonalfunction人际功能(2)Languageservestosetupandmaintainsocialandpersonalrelations,includingcommunicationrolessuchasquestionerandrespondent,andtoexpressthelanguageuser'sownattitudesandcommentsonthecontentofanutterance.Thisfunctionoflanguageiscalledinterpersonalfunction.语言服务,建立并维护社会及个人关系,包括通讯的角色,像是问和被申请人的语言,和表达的用户自己的态度和对内容的口才说起别国的话来。这个函数的语言被称为人际功能。Verbalcommunicationinvolvesaninteractiveeventbetweentwoormorepeopleinwhichwetakeoncertainroles—themostfundamentalbeingspeaker/writervs.hearer/readeror,putmoresimply,addresservs.addressee—andattempttoinfluenceorunderstandothers.Traditionally,sentencesareclassifiedasdeclarative,interrogativeandimperative.Declarativesareusedtogiveinformation,andperformthefunctionofstatements;interrogativesareusedtorequestsomething,andperformthefunctionofquestions;imperativesareusedtogiveinstructionsandperformthefunctionofcommands.However,exactcorrelationbetweenformandfunctiononlyoccursinidealizedsentences.Wefrequentlyusedeclarativestoaskquestions,andonoccasions,toissueInstructions.ThedeclarativeutteranceYou'regoingout,couldfunctionasaquestionoranorderdependingontheintonationpatterns.言语交际互动活动包括两个或更多人之间主要是以在某些策略角色最基本vs.听者被扬声器/作家/读卡机或者,简言之,addresservs.收件人,试图影响或了解别人。传统上,句子分为声明,迷惑和势在必行。Declaratives是用来提供信息,履行的语句interrogatives功能;用于要求什么,履行义务的问题,功能用于提供指导和执行功能的命令。然而,确切关系仅发生在结构和功能理想化的句子。我们经常使用declaratives问问题,并在此基础上的场合,颁发的指示。陈述性话语20400002,可以作为一个问题或订单根据语调模式。Whatweareessentiallytalkingabouthereisthesubjectofmoodinlanguagestructure.OneobviouswayinwhichmoodischaracteristicallysignaledinEnglishisbytheinclusionof\nspecificwordssuchasplease,possibly,kindlyandfrankly.Butmoodisalsosignaledthroughthesyntaxofsentences.Hallidayidentifiestwosortsofexchangeswhichhearguesallutterancescanbedividedinto.Thefirstconsistsofdemandsfor,andoffersof,goodsandservicesofsomekind,forexample,GivemeacookieandWouldyoulikeacookie?Inthosecaseswhatisatissueisaliteral,oractualexchange.Thesecondconsistsofdemandsfor,andoffersof,linguisticinformation,forexample,Whatishegivingher?andHe'sgivingheracookie,wheretheissueisaverbal,ratherthanaliteral,exchange.我们基本上是在这里所说的语气的主题是语言结构。一个明显的方式特点的心情是用英语是包含特定的词如“请”,可能、心地善良、坦率地说。但心情还表示通过语法的句子。韩礼德指出了两种类型的交流,他认为所有的话语可以分为。第一个由提供的要求,商品和服务的一些实物,例如,给我一个饼干和你想要吃饼乾啊?在这些情况下什么是事件的起因是,一项字面值,或实际交流。第二个由要求提供、语言的信息,例如:,他给她吗?他教她一块饼干,那里的问题是口头的,而不是文字量,交流。Hallidayarguesthatwhatchildrenfirstlearntospeakareexchangesofthegoodsandservices.Inotherwords,theyuselanguageprimarilyasawayofindicatingtheirneedsandgettingwhattheywant.Theuseoflanguagefortheexchangeofinformationcomeslater.Tobeginwith,then,languageinitsinterpersonalfunction,isprincipallyameanstoanend.韩礼德认为孩子们第一次学习说话是商品和服务的交流。换句话说,他们使用语言,主要是作为一种显示其需求和得到他们想要的东西。语言的使用的信息交流出现比较晚。首先,然后,语言在其人际功能,主要达到目的的一种手段。Examiningtheinterpersonaldimensionofsyntaxmeanslookingcloselyattherelationbetweentheformandfunctionofutterances.Aswehaveseen,sentencesmighthavetheformofdeclaratives,interrogativesorimperatives,buttheyfunctionquitedifferently.Thereisamuchdiscussedexampleinlinguisticliteratureconcerningtherangeofwaysinwhichthedemandforsaltcanbeencoded,whichillustratesthis:检验人际交流方面的语法手段紧盯着关系话语的结构和功能。正如我们所见,句子可以在形式的declaratives,interrogatives或定理,但他们功能不同。有一种被广泛讨论的例子,在语言学的范围文献的需求的方法为盐,可以写成,说明这个:(27)a.Passthesalt.(27岁)。把盐。b.Pleasepassthesalt.b。请把盐。c.Canyoupassthesalt?c。你能把盐好吗?d.Couldyoupossiblypassthesalt?d。你能把盐好吗?e.Youcouldn'tpossiblypassthesalt,couldyou?e。你不可能把盐,你能做到吗?Whatwecanobservehereistheelementofpolitenessanddeferenceincreasingwitheachpermutationofpassthesalt.(27a)hastheformandfunctionofanimperative/commandofthegoodsandservices;(27b)lexicalizesadegreeofpolitenessbyaddingplease,while(27c)grammaticalizesitbyturningitintoaninterrogative,seekinginformation;(27d)increasesthepolitenessbychangingthetensetothepast,andbyincludingpossibly—alexicalmarkeroftentativeness;andfinally(27e)usesadeclarative/statementfollowedbyatagquestion.Wecan\nsee,asageneralrule,thatthemoreindirectthedemand,themorepoliteitisfelttobe.我们能观察到这是礼貌和尊重的元素的增加把盐递给每个排列。(27a)具有形式和功能,有必要/命令的货物和服务;(27b)lexicalizes一定程度的礼貌通过增加请,同时,27c)grammaticalizes它把它变成一个变成一般疑问句,寻求宝贵的资料;()会礼貌通过改变时过去,而且,包括possibly-a词汇的标志;最后间首次宽衣解带(27e)使用声明性/语句后面跟一个标签的问题。我们可以看到,作为一种普遍的法则,更间接的需求,这就是它的感觉更有礼貌。(iii)Textualfunction(3)篇章功能Languagealsomakeslinkswithitselfandwithfeaturesofthesituationinwhichitisused.Thisiswhatenablesthespeakerorwritertoconstructatext,andenablesthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromarandomsetofsentences.Thisfunctionoflanguageiscalledtextualfunction.Whenwespeakorwrite,weconstructourclausessoastopresenttheinformationinacertainway.Inotherwords,theclausefunctionsasamessage.Becauseofthis,wehavetodecidehowtoorderthepartsofthemessagesoas(a)tomakeitcleartoouraudience,and(b)toemphasize,ormakeprominent,theessentialelementsofit.联系在一起的语言也使本身具有的状况在使用它。这是让演讲者或作家构建一个文本,并能使听众或读者区别文本,从一个随机的句子。这个函数的语言被称为文本功能。当我们说或写时,我们构建我方条款将信息从某种程度上来说。换句话说,这一条款功能是一个信息。因此,我们必须决定如何订购方面的信息,(1)给广大听众弄清楚,(b)强调,或使突出,必不可少的要素。Anytextisnecessarilydeliveredinalinearmanner,andasaconsequence,weareforcedtoprocessitinasimilarfashion.Becauseofthis,itiseasierforustoprocessalexicalstringinwhichtheburdenofnewinformationcomestowardstheendoftheclause.Weexpectthestartingpointoftheclause,thesubject,topresentuswithinformationwhichislargelygiven,thatis,assumedtobeknown;thisgivesustimetoprepareourselvesforthenewtocomelater.If,forexample,youwerelookingoutoftheclassroomandnoticedabirdonthetree,youwouldbefarmorelikelytosayThere'sabirdonthetreethanAbirdisonthetree.Inthiscase,theexistentialsentence,withthereasanemptysubject,preparesusforreceivingtheinformation.AnotherwayofputtingthisistosaythatinanEnglishclausetheusualfocusofinformationistowardstheend.Warningsandorders,forexample,usuallyleaveoutthesubject—lookoutorgetoutoftheway.Thenewinformationispromotedtothefrontoftheclause;thesubjectyouistakenasgivenandthereforenotstrictlynecessary.Thewaylinguisticshandlestheseconstructionsistodistinguishbetweenmarkedandunmarkeduses.Thedistinctionofmarked/unmarkedisausefulonetogetholdof.Anythingthatisunmarkedlinguisticallyisnormativeorunremarkable,initsstructure,whereasanelementwhichismarkedissignificantlydifferent,deviantoranomalous.Markingaconstituentbymovingitsyntacticallyisonewayofincreasingitsprominence.Wecansay,then,thatordersandwarningsaremarkedutterances.\n任何文本一定是传达线性的方式,因此,我们被迫过程,它以同样的方式。正因为如此,能更从容地为我们过程的字符串在词汇的新信息来负担的末尾条款。我们希望条款的起点,问题,我们提出了信息,在很大程度上给予的假设,被知道的;这给了我们时间去适应新的迟些才来。例如,如果你在出教室,发现一只鸟在树上,你会更有可能说这是一只鸟在树上比只小鸟在树上。在这种情况下,摘要存现句,空虚的主题,准备我们收到的信息。换言之地说,在英语条款通常的焦点在比赛临近结束时的信息。警告和订单,例如,通常是离开了subject-look或让路。新信息被提升到前面的条款,这个问题你被给予的,因此没有严格的必要。语言学的方式处理那些建筑是区分无标记和有标记的用途。没有明显的区别是一个有用的和把握。没有任何语言规范或貌不惊人,从结构、但是元素显著标志是不同,不合格或异常。在通过移动它管组成的一种手段提高它的崛起。我们可以说,那么,是命令并警告标志的用法。Informationapproachestotheclauseareveryrichinexplainingavarietyofsyntacticoperationswhichwecharacteristicallyperform.Processesinvolvingellipsis,forexample,inwhichweleaveoutconstituentsoftheclause,enableustoabbreviateandsimplifyourutteranceswhilekeepingthemessagerecoverable.Forexample,(28a)isclearlylesscumbersomethan(28b):信息方法非常富有的条款在解释各种各样的句法的作业,我们的特点是表演。包括省略过程,例如,在我们省去应具备的条款,以使我们缩写,简化我们的用法,同时保持产品的信息可收回。例如,(一个)显然比少笨重28b):(28)a.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohn.(28岁)。詹姆斯喜欢网球,不是约翰。b.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohnenjoystennis.b。詹姆斯喜欢网球超过约翰喜欢网球。Similarlytherequirementtomakeourmessagesclearmeansthatwenormally,thatis,inunmarkedclauses,trytoensurethatitemswhicharesemanticallyclose(thosewhicharedependentoneachotherinmeaning)aresyntacticallyclose.Thus,(29a)ismoremarkedinstructurethan(29b)becauseoftheseparationoftheclausewhenwewereduetoleavefromthenounphrase,theday,whichitpost-modifies.同样的需求,使我们的信息清楚意味着我们通常,也就是说,在没有标示的条款,尽量确保项目关上(那些语意又是相互依存管在意思)关闭。因此,(29a)结构更为显著(因为29b条款的分离的时候,从即将离开的名词,这一天,它post-modifies。(29)a.Thedaycameatlastwhenwewereduetoleave,(29)。终于有一天当我们应该离开的时间,b.Thedaywhenwewereduetoleavecameatlast.b。那天,当我们应该离开的时间终于到了。Whatwehavereallybeenconsideringherearethethematicrelationsoftheclause.Theconceptofthemeisanimportantoneinfunctionalapproachestosyntax.Thethemeisthefirstconstituent,anditdenotesthestartingpointoftheclause—whatitisgoingtobeabout.Therestoftheclauseiscalledrheme,theinformationthatisnew.Considerthedifferencesbetweenthefollowingpairs:我们真的有考虑这是条款的主题关系。主题的概念是一个重要功能的方法的语法。主题是第一个组成部分,以及它表示clause-what的起点将是什么。其余的条款,主的信息被称为是新的。考虑以下双之间的差别。(30)a.Gasexplosionkilledthousands.(30)。数千人丧生瓦斯爆炸。b.Thousandswerekilledbygasexplosion.b。成千上万的人死于瓦斯爆炸。(31)a.Theraincamedown.(31)。雨下来了。b.Downcametherain.b。下雨了下来。\nItisnotdifficultforustonoticethatineachcasesentence(b)rearrangessentence(a)byswappingoverthefirstandlastelements—in(30b)thisinvolvesputtingtheverbintothepassive.Despitethechanges,however,thereisnoalternationintheessentialorprepositionalmeaningoftheinitialsentences.Thesameinformationisgiventous,itissimplypresentedinadifferentorder.Thedifferencesarethematic.WhatcomesfirstinanEnglishsentenceisofcrucialimportanceintellinguswhatthesentenceisgoingtobeabout.In(30a),forexample,gasexplosionoccupiestheplaceoftheme,andininformationtermsthesentenceissaying"I'mgoingtotellyouaboutagasexplosion".In(30b),however,thousandsisthetheme,andthesentenceissaying"I'mgoingtotellyousomethingaboutthousandsofpeople".Inthecaseof(31a),thethematicsequenceisunmarked:Therainoccupiestheplaceoftheme.Itisalsothegivenpartoftheclause—thedeterminertheidentifiesitassomethingalreadyexisting—whiletheremainderistherheme,thenewinformation.In(30b),however,partofthatnewinformationisputatthefrontoftheclauseandgivenprominence.Downisthusamarkedtheme.我们就不难发现在每种情况下的句子(b)该句(a)藉由交换在第一个和最后一个elements-in(30b)这是将动词到被动语态。尽管这样的改变,但是,没有攻防的根本或介词意义的初始的句子。同样的信息是上帝所赋予的,它只是展示在不同的秩序。他们之间的差别是主旋律。先做什么事在英语句子中起着至关重要的这句话告诉我们将是什么。在课文中),例如,瓦斯爆炸占据的地方信息的主题,并且那句话的条款说“我要告诉你关于煤气爆炸”。(30b),不过,数以千计的那句话的主题,并且说“我要告诉你一些关于成千上万的人”。如十一条),主题序列:雨占其内之处的主题。也正是所书写的clause-the识别它的一些已existing-while剩下的是主的,新的信息。(30b),然而,一部分新信息被放在前面,给予条款的崛起。因此下显著的主题。Thereareseveraltypesofthemesinsentences,fromthosewhichexpressmood"Frankly,Idon'tgiveadamn",tothosewhicharemorecontentladen"Yourideaisnonsense",butallwehaveattemptedtodohereisgiveyouaflavorofwhatisaveryrichfield.有几种类型的主题,句子表达情绪“坦白的说,我一点也不关心”,那些更多的内容拉登”你的想法是无稽之谈”,但我们试图做的只是给你的味道是一个非常富有的领域。Summary摘要Syntaxthestudyofsentencestructures,and"grammar"referstosyntaxplusthepartofmorphologythatdealswithinflections.Syntacticrulesgovernthreekindsofrelationsbetweenwordsandwordgroups.Theyaresyntagmaticrelation,paradigmaticrelationandhierarchicalrelation.Syntagmaticrelationreferstothetraditionalterm"wordorder".Itisconcernedwiththerulesofhowwordsareputtogetherincertainlinearordertoformdifferentsentences.Word(lasses,traditionally"partsofspeech",aresetsofwordswhichhavethesamegrammaticalfeaturesandarelikelytooccurinthesamepositioninasentence语法研究的句子结构,“语法”是指语法加上形态部分处理变化。语法规则管理三类词和关系的词。他们是组合关系,聚合关系和层次关系。组合关系指的是传统的学期”字秩序”。它所关心的词的规则一起被放在一定的线性以形成不同的句子。字(少女,传统的"词类的单词的集合”,都是有相同的语法特征,并且有可能发生在同一位置,在一个句子里。andmutuallysubstitutableinaparticulargrammaticalcontext.Thesyntactic-relationofsubstitutionbetweenwordsofthesameclassisalsoreferredtoastheparadigmaticrelation.Thereisalsoahierarchicalrelationbetweenallthepossiblewordgroupsinasentence.Inany\ngivensentencessomewordsaremorecloselyrelatedthanothers,andasentenceismadeupoftwo-partconstructionsonaseriesoflevelsorlayers.Thebigwordgroupscontainsomesmalleronesandthesmalleronesmayinturncontainsomestillsmallerones,1CAnalysisisthetechniqueofbreakingupsentencesintowordgroupsbymakingsuccessivebinarycuttingsuntilthelevelofsinglewordsisreached.相互替代在一个特定的语法上下文。之间的替代syntactic-relation的同一类的词也被称之为聚合关系。也有可能之间的层次结构关系词,在一个句子里。)在任何给定的句子有的话是比其他人更加密切相关,一个句子的结构分为两部分,在一系列的水平或层。大词含有一些较小的公司和较小的可能会包含一些仍然较小的任务,风云1C技术分析是分手的句子变成词进行连续二进制扦插直到水平的单个词就达到了。"Grammaticalcategory"isgenerallyusedtorefertocertaindefiningpropertiesofwordclasseswithcorrespondinginflectionalaffixesastheirformalindications.Therearenumber,caseandgenderfornounsandadjectives,andtense,aspect,voiceandmoodforverbs.“语法范畴”一般是指某些特性的字与班级相应的屈折贴上作为他们的正式的迹象。还有不少,案例和性别的名词和形容词、时态、语态和语气方面,对动词。Thegrammaticalstructureofasentenceistraditionallyanalyzedintermsofthefunctionalcategoriesofitsconstituents.Asentenceisseenascomposedbyasubjectandapredicate.Thepredicatemaycontain,apartfromthemainverb,objects,complementsandadverbials.Thegrammaticalstructureoftencorrespondstothesemanticstructureofsentences,whichisanalyzedintermsofthesemanticrolesplayedbytheconstituents.Subjectusuallyhasaroleofanagentandcomplementsareattributes.Indirectobjecthasaroleofabeneficiaryanddirectobjectisapatient.Adverbialsmaybeinstrumental,locativeortemporary.Thegrammaticalstructurealsocorrespondstothethematicstructure,whichisdescribedintermsoftheinformationvalueoftheconstituents.Theinitialconstituentofasentenceiscalledthemeandtherestofthesentencerheme.一个句子的语法结构等方面分析了传统的功能类别的成分。一个句子是看作是由主语和谓语。谓词的可能含有,除了主要动词、对象、补充和状语。语法结构经常与句子的语义结构等方面分析了,这是基于本体论的语义作用的选民。通常会有问题的角色的赞美是代理商和属性。间接宾语的的作用,由受益人直接宾语是个很有耐心的。状语,可能是起作用locative或暂时的。语法结构也符合主题结构方面的描述信息价值的成分。最初的组成部分,一个句子是称为主题和主对这句话的其余部分。AccordingtoChomsky'sStandardTheory,thesyntacticalcomponentinTGconsistsoftwoparts:thePSrulesandtheT-rules.ThePSrulesandtheLexicontogethermakeupwhatiscalledtheBase.TheLexiconisafulllistofwordswithinformationabouttheircategories,subcategories,andsemanticproperties.AsentencegeneratedfromtheBaseiscalledtheDeepStructureofthesentence.Itisastructuredstringofwords,whichcontainsthesemanticinformationfortheinterpretationofthesentence.T-rulesaretobeappliedbeforewecangettheSurfaceStructureofthesentence.根据乔姆斯基的标准理论、句法成分TG由两部分组成:PS的规则和T-rules。PS的规则和词汇构成了所谓的基地。字典是一个完整的列表,单词的分类信息,个子范畴,语义和性能。一个句子里产生的基地被称为深层结构的句子。这是一款结构完整的串字眼而已,里面包含有语义信息的句子来解释。T-rules之前的申请,我们能表面的句子结构。InGBTheory,somenewrulesareintroduced.TheX-barTheoryisgeneralizedfromthePSrulerstheyhaveasimilarformulation.Likewise,(Moveaisageneralrulecoveringallthe\ntransformationrules,inwhichastandsforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromonepositiontoanotherinthedeepstructure.Trace,symbolizedbyt,indicatestheoriginalpositionanyconstituentformallyoccupiedbeforethemovement.COMPandINFLaregiventhestatusoftheheadofaComplementizerPhraseandtheheadofanInflectionphrase,sothatthetoplevelsofsentencesconformtotheX-barrequirementsfortheotherlevels国标理论,有些新规则的介绍。在x标杆理论的是可以从PS统治者他们有类似的制定。同样地,(移动是一个一般规则收录了所有变换规则,在这样的展示中,每种代表任何元素,它可以从一个位置移动到另一个在深层结构。痕迹,象征着原来的位置,表明不正式成为任何成分在运动。给出了赔偿金和影响的地位Complementizer的头词组和领导的内容,这样拐点最高水平的句子符合x标杆要求,另一层的层面Chapter5SEMANTICS第五章语义5.1Whatissemantics?什么是语义5.1吗?Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.Thisdefinitionnaturallyleadstothequestion:whatismeaning?Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication,butthequestionofwhatmeaningreallyisisdifficulttoanswer.Evenlinguistsdonotagreeamongthemselvesastowhatmeaningis.Andwhatmakesthematterevenmorecomplicatedisthatphilosophers,psychologists,andsociologistsallclaimadeepinterestinthestudyofmeaning,althoughtheydifferintheirfocusofinterest.Thephilosophersareinterestedinunderstandingtherelationsbetweenlinguisticexpressionsandwhattheyrefertointherealworld,andinevaluatingthetruthvalueoflinguisticexpressions.Thepsychologistsfocustheirinterestonunderstandingtheworkingsofthehumanmindthroughlanguage.Thisiswhyitisnotsurprisingtofindtenbooksallbearingthetitle"Semantics"buttalkingaboutdifferentthings.Inourdiscussion,wewilllimitourselvestothestudyofmeaningfromalinguisticpointofview.语义学可定义为研究意义。这个定义就可以发现的问题的意思吗?的意思是重要的研究的沟通,但问题是什么意思真的是很难回答。甚至语言学家不同意,他们之间是什么意思。什么使问题更复杂的是,哲学家、学校心理学家、学校和社会学家声称所有的浓厚兴趣研究意义,尽管他们不同的重点的兴趣。哲学家有兴趣了解语言表达之间的关系以及他们的是指在现实世界中,和在评价语言表达的真值。心理学家关注自己的兴趣在理解人类思维的运作通过语言。这就是为什么看到以下事实也就不足为奇十本书所有轴承的名称为“语义学”但是谈到不同的事情。在我们的讨论中,我们将限制自己的意义研究从语言学的观点。5.2Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning一些观点5.2这部奇书研究意义的5.2.1Thenamingtheory5.2.1命名理论Oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsothemostprimitiveone,wasthenamingtheoryproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.最古老的有关概念意义,也是最原始的一种,是命名理论提出的柏拉图古希腊学者。根据这一理论,语言形式或符号,换句话说,话只不过是一种语言中使用标签中他们所代表的对象。所以词语仅仅是名称或标签的东西。Thelimitationsofthistheoryareobvious.Firstofall,thistheoryseemsapplicabletonouns\nonly,butverbs,adjectives,andadverbssuchas"think","hard","slowly"aredefinitelynotlabelsofobjects.Besides,withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworldatallsuchas"ghost","dragon",and"unicorn",andalsonounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects,butabstractnotionssuchas"joy","impulse".这一理论的局限性是显而易见的。首先,这理论似乎适用于名词,只是,但动词、形容词和副词如“思考”、“硬”、“慢慢“绝对不标签的物品。此外,类的名词,指名词的事在存在于真实世界里的所有“鬼”,“龙”、“独角兽的名词”,也不适用于实物等,但抽象的“开心”,“冲动”。5.2.2Theconceptualistview意念论的22Amoresophisticatedandseeminglymoreplausibleviewthannamingisonethatrelateswordsandthingsthroughthemediationofconceptsofthemind.Thisconceptualistviewhasbeenheldbysomephilosophersandlinguistsfromancienttimes.Thisviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.,betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.ThisisbestillustratedbytheclassicsemantictriangleortriangleofsignificancesuggestedbyOgdenandRichards:更加复杂和看起来更似是而非的观点是比命名与单词和东西通过调解的概念头脑观念。这意念论已经举行了一些哲学家来自远古时代和语言学家。这种观点认为,没有直接的关联语言形式及其所(也就是指的是,从语言与现实世界中),确切地说,在意义的解释他们之间通过调解的概念在我们的心中。这是经典的最好的说明语义三角或三角形具有十分重要的意义,提出鲍勃·奥格登·理查兹: THOUGHT/REFERENCE思想/参考  SYMBOL/FORM…………………………………REFERENT象征…………/填写表格……………………可资借鉴的… Inthediagram,theSYMBOLorFORMreferstothelinguisticelements(words,phrases),theREFERENTreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience,andTHOUGHTorREFERENCEreferstoconcept.Forexample,Theword"dog"isdirectlyassociatedwithacertainconceptinourmind,i.e.,whata"dog"islike,butitisnotdirectlylinkedtothatparticulardogmentionedinthesentence"Thedogovertherelooksunfriendly",i.e.,thereferentinthisparticularcase.Thus,thesymbolorawordsignifies"things"byvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeakerofthelanguage;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.图表显示:是指符号或形式语言元素(单词、短语),参考的对象是世界上的体验,而思想或参照指的概念。例如,“狗”这个词直接与某种概念,即我们的思想,“狗”就像,但它不是直接联系中所提到的那特别的狗判决是“狗在那里看起来不友好”,那就是,在这个特殊的病例中参考。因此,符号或一个词意味着“东西”由于相关概念单词的形式演讲者在每个人的心灵,与该语言的。从这点上看,概念的看法是这个词的含义。Thistheoryavoidsmanyoftheproblemsthenamingtheoryhasencountered,butitalsoraisesacompletelynewproblemofitsown.Forwhatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandthe\nconceptremainsunclarified.Somescholarshavesuggestedthatthelinkissimplyapsychologicalone—whenwethinkofaname,wethinkofaconcept.Butthisdoesnotanswerthequestionsatisfactorily,foritisnotclearwhatexactlyismeantby"thinkingofaconcept."Peopledonotactuallytrytoseetheimageofsomethingintheirmind'seyeeverytimetheycomeacrossalinguisticsymbol.这个理论避免命名的许多问题,但它遇到了理论也提出了一个全新的问题的。因为这正是之间的联系是象征和概念倾心。一些学者建议简单连结—当我们有心理上的想个名字,我们想到的是一种概念。但这并不回答这个问题令人满意,因为它还不清楚究竟是“考虑一种概念。“人们并不真正的形象去看看东西在他们的脑海里每次遇到一种语言的象征。 5.2.3Contextualism欧陆5.2.3 Duringtheperiodroughlyfrom1930to1960,linguistsgavepreeminencetotheempiricalorobservableaspectinsteadofthetheoreticalaspectintheirscientificinvestigationofmeaning.Thistendencymanifesteditselfinanattempttobasemeaningoncontext.Ithasattractedthoselinguistswhohavebeenworkingtowardtheidealofscientificobjectivity.Theyholdthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.ArepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.Firth,theleadingBritishlinguistoftheperiod.Heheldtheviewthat'Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps,'andthat'Byregardingwordsasacts,events,habits,welimitourinquirytowhatisobjectiveinthegrouplifeofourfellows."FirthhadbeeninfluencedbytheworksofMalinowski,aPolishanthropologistandofWittgenstein,aGermanphilosopher.Theybelievedrespectivelythat"languageshouldbetreatedasamodeofaction,notaninstrumentofreflection"andthat"Foralargeclassofcases...themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage."这一时期大致从1930年到1960年,语言学家给卓越的经验的或可观察方面的理论方面,而不是在他们的科学调查的意思。这种趋势主要体现在,企图基地意义上下文。它已经吸引那些语言学家对工作的科学客观性的理想。他们坚持认为,意义必须来考察情况、使用、语境-元素与语言紧密地联系在一起的行为。这种方法的代表是英国领先何兆熊,并没有变法防守语言学家第一节。他认为“我们的公司所认识一个字的时候,它就会保持’,这样的“以人为本”的言语行为,事件,习惯,我们限制我们的调查目标是什么自己的同伴群居生活。”何兆熊了马林诺斯基的作品,波兰一名人类学家及德国维特根斯坦的哲学家。他们相信分别“语言应该得到作为一种行动,而不是一种手段的反思”,“为一个大班级的情况下…一个词的意思是中的应用;在他们的语言。”Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.contextualist观点的基础上,意义的假设的含义中引申出来,你可以从或者减少可观察的意义的关系。两种语境的情景语境和确认:语境。Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatiotemporalsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,apartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterance,thespeakerandthehearer,theactionstheyareperformingatthetime,thevariousobjectsandeventsexistentinthesituation.Thelinguisticcontext,sometimesknownasco-text,isconcernedwiththeprobabilityofaword'sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe"meaning"oftheword,\nandalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.每个话语在某一特定时空情况发生,主要元件包括,除了话语的地点和时间,说话者和听话者他们正在进行,行动的时候,各对象和事件针对这种情况。语境、有时也称为co-text,涉及的概率字的共生或搭配构成一词,“意义”这个词,同时还具备了部分之前的文章并依循一特定的口才说起别国的话来。Forexample,themeaningoftheword"black"differsinthetwocollocationsof"blackhair"and"blackcoffee".Andthemeaningoftheword"seal"inthesentence"Thesealcouldnotbefound"cannotbedeterminedunlessthecontextinwhichthesentenceoccursisrestored.例如,这个词的意思与“黑”这两个搭配的“黑发”和“黑咖啡。”和这个词的含义“公章”在句子密封不能被发现“不能确定,除非上下文中,这个句子的出现恢复。5.2.4Behaviorism5.2.4行为主义ThecontextualistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield,whodrewonbehavioristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe"situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer."(Bloomfield,1933)Thistheory,somewhatclosetocontextualism,islinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.ThisviewofmeaningproposedbyBloomfieldisillustratedbyhisstoryaboutJackandJill,representedbythefigurebelow.Bloomfieldarguedthatmeaningconsistsintherelationbetweenspeechindicatedbythesmalllettersr??????sandthepracticaleventsrepresentedbythecapitalizedlettersSandRthatprecedeandfollowthemrespectively:contextualist观点的进一步加强了由·布卢姆菲尔德,试图心理学行为语言形式认为语言的意义。行为学家试图定义语言形式的意义为“情况,发出的人的反应在放出增长。”(布龙菲尔德看来,1933年这一理论,有点接近语义联系在一起,心理的兴趣。这一观点的意思了被他的故事说明·布卢姆菲尔德对杰克和吉尔,表现为下面的图表。·布卢姆菲尔德认为意义在于关系表明演讲小写字母r??????s和实践活动所代表的大写字母s和r电码存储分别并且遵循这些规则。JillJack吉尔杰克S__________________r……s__________________RS__________________……__________________r是rWhenJillseesanappleandwantstohaveit,shehasaphysicalstimulus,(representedbythecapitalletterS),whichgivesrisetoaverbalresponse(r)toJill.Forinstance,shemightsaytoJack"I'mthirsty".WhatshesaysresultsinaverbalstimulustoJack(representedbythesmallletters).Thisstimulus,initsturn,leadstoanon-verbalresponsefromJack,suchaspickingtheappleforher.当吉儿看见一个苹果和想要拥有它,她有一个物理刺激,(即资本字母S),这导致了言语反应(r),吉儿。举例来说,她可能会说给杰克“我渴了。”她说结果用言语刺激杰克(即小字母s)。这一刺激,在其转,引出了非语言反应,从杰克,像是摘苹果。5.3Lexicalmeaning5.3词义5.3.1Senseandreference5.3.1意义和参考Senseandreferencearetwotermsoftenencounteredinthestudyofwordmeaning.Theyare\ntworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.两届任期的意义和文献研究中经常出现的词义。他们两个相关但不同方面的意义。Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Forexample,theword"dog"isgiventhedefinition"adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform".(CollinsDictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,1979)Thisdoesnotrefertoanyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimalthatmeetsthefeaturesdescribedinthedefinition.Sothisisthesenseoftheword"dog".感觉关心的是内在涵义的语言形式。它是集的语言形式的特点;它是抽象和非语境化的。它是意义的方面词典编译器感兴趣的内容。例如,“狗”这个词给出了被定义的“狗哺乳动物,发生于很多品种显示大量各种各样的大小和形态"下施放。(柯林斯英语词典》,1997年)这并没有提及任何特定的狗,存在于现实世界中,但适用于任何动物中描述的特性符合定义里就可以了。这就是人的话说,“狗”。Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.Ifwesay"Thedogisbarking",wemustbetalkingaboutacertaindogexistentinthesituation;theword"dog"referstoadogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearer.Thisisthereferenceoftheword"dog"inthisparticularsituation.参考意味着什么一个语言形式是指真正的、物理世界,它负责处理语言元素之间的关系和非语言世界的经验。如果我们说“狗是吠叫“,我们必须谈论某些狗针对情况,单词“狗狗”指的是一个已知的所有发言者和增长。这是一个参考这个词就是“狗”在这种特殊情况下。Obviously,linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.Averygoodexampleisthetwoexpressions"morningstar"and"eveningstar".Thesetwodifferinsensebutasamatteroffact,whattheyrefertoisthesame:theverysamestarthatweseeinthesky.很明显,语言形式具有相同的感觉可能会有不同的参考资料,在不同状态下自身的情况。另一方面,也有场合,当语言形式具有相同的参考可能有所不同的感觉。一个很好的例子就是两个表达式“启明星”和“长庚星”。这两个有不同的意义,而是作为一个事实,他们指是一样的:非常相同的恒星,我们看到天空。5.3.2Majorsenserelations5.3.2主要意义关系5.3.2.1Synonymy5.3.2.1同义Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近的意思。Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.近的单词意思叫同义词。Englishisrichinsynonymsforhistoricalreasons.IntheEnglishvocabularytherearetwocategoriesofwords:nativewordsandborrowed(loan)words.ThenativewordsarethosethatwereoriginallyusedinthespeechofthenativeinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles,i.e.,theAnglo-Saxons,althoughtheywereactuallymigrantsfromthenorthernpartofEurope.Theninitslonghistoryofdevelopment,theEnglishlanguagehastakeninalargenumberofwords\nfromotherlanguages,mostlyEuropeanlanguages,suchasFrench,Latin,Greek,Italian,andGerman.Mostoftheborrowedwordshavebeennaturalized.Therefore,weoftenfindinEnglishpairs,ortripletsofwordsbearingmoreorlessthesamemeaning.Butbecauseoftheirdifferentorigins,thereareoftensubtledifferencesbetweenthesesynonyms.Completesynonyms,i.e.synonymsthataremutuallysubstitutableunderallcircumstances,arerare.Accordingtothewaytheydiffer,synonymscanbedividedintothefollowinggroups:英语是由于历史的原因,丰富的同义词。英语在词汇方面有两类的话:土著的话并且借了(贷款)的话。当地的话,在他的演讲中最初是用当地的居民,不列颠群岛,即盎格鲁撒克逊人,虽然其实他们是北方移民欧洲的一部分。然后在其漫长的发展史了英语有大量的词汇,大部分是欧洲语言,如法国、拉丁语、希腊语、意大利语、和德语。大部分的借来的言语归化。因此,我们经常发现英语里对,或三胞胎的话轴承或多或少了同样的意思。但是由于他们的不同经常是很微妙的起源,还有这些同义词来之间的差异。完整的同义词,即同义词,是相互替代在任何情况下,但这种情况非常罕见。根据他们的方式不同,同义词大致可以分为以下组:Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects方言同义词-同义词用于不同的方言Thesearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningusedindifferentregionaldialects.BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajorgeographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.Itisnotdifficulttofindexamplesofsayingthesamethingbyusingdifferentwordsinthetwodialects:这些单词含义相同或多或少的用于不同的方言。英国英语和美国英语之分两个主要地理品种的英语。不难找到将一件事情重复地说的例子利用不同的词在两个主要部分:ThendialectalsynonymscanalsobefoundwithinBritishEnglish,orAmericanEnglishitself.Forexample,"girl"iscalled"lass"or"lassie"inScottishdialect,and"liquor"iscalled"whiskey"inIrishdialect.然后方言同义词也可以发现,在英国英语、美国英语本身。例如,“女孩”被称为“小姑娘”或“小姑娘”在苏格兰的方言,“酒"被称为“威士忌”在爱尔兰的方言。ii.Stylisticsynonyms—synonymsdifferinginstyleii。文体同义词-同义词不同风格Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Inotherwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,otherscasual,andstillothersneutralinstyle.Herearesomeexamples:单词有相同的意思也许有不同的风格,或的礼节。换句话说,某些文字更倾向于正式的,其他的随意的,还有一些人中立的风格上。这里是一些例子:oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent老人,爸爸,爸爸,爸爸,男父母start,begin,commence开始,开始开始,kid,child,offspring孩子,孩子,后代kickthebucket,popoff,die,passaway,decease蹬腿的时候,流行了,死,过去,得病iii.Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning三。同义词,不同在他们的感情或评价的意义\nThesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout.Forexample,thetwowords"collaborator"and"accomplice"aresynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningof“apersonwhohelpsanother",buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsomethinggood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherinacriminalact.Sowhichwordyouwouldusedependsonyourevaluationofthenatureoftheactivitythepersonconcernedhelpsin.熊一些词,但表达的含义相同、用户的不同情绪表示的偏见的态度用户对他说什么。例如,这两个字“合作者”和“帮凶”是同义词,他们分享的意思“一个人帮助他人",但是他们的区别在于一个合作者帮助他人做点什么好,而对于从犯,帮助他人在犯罪行为。你使用哪个单词取决于你的评价活动的性质有关人士才这样的帮助。iv.Collocationalsynonyms在横线上。字词搭配同义词Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.Forexample,whenwewanttosaythatsomeonehasdonesomethingwrongorevencriminal,wecanuse"accuse","charge","rebuke",buttheyarefollowedbydifferentprepositions—accuse...of,charge...with,rebuke...for.Anotherexampleisthewordweusetodescribefoodthathasgonebadandisnotfitforeating.Differentadjectivesareusedfordifferentkindsoffood,e.g.rottentomatoes,addledeggs,rancidbaconorbutter,sourmilk.一些同义词,特别是在其搭配。的话,他们一起去。这是一个关系的用法。例如,当我们想说某人犯了错误,甚至是违法的,我们可以用“指责”、“充电”,“责备”,但其次是不同的介词-谴责,费用…和,责备……。另一个例子是我们用来描述这个词已经坏了的食物,不适合吃。不同的形容词用于不同种类的食品,如腐烂的西红柿,到鸡蛋,身上的咸肉和黄油,酸奶。v.Semanticallydifferentsynonyms五、语义不同的同义词,Thesearesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.Forexample,thetwowords"amaze"and"astound"areverycloseinmeaningtotheword"surprise",buthaveverysubtledifferences.While"amaze"suggestsconfusionandbewilderment,"astound"suggestsdifficultyinbelieving.这些是同义词,稍有不同在他们是什麽意思。例如,这两个字“感到惊喜”和“行奇妙的事,“很近的含义与“惊喜”这个词,但非常微妙的差异。而“感到惊喜”提议的疑惑和迷茫,“困难”提议行奇妙的事,信的。5.3.2.2Polysemy5.3.2.2一词多义现象Whiledifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.Thisiswhatwecallpolysemy,andsuchawordiscalledapolysemicword.TherearemanypolysemicwordsinEnglish.Thefactisthemorecommonlyusedawordis,themorelikelyithasacquiredmorethanonemeaning.Taketheword"table"forexample.ItisaverycommonwordinEnglish.Ifwelookitupinanydictionary,wewillfindthatithasatleastthefollowingsevenmeanings:同时,各的话,可能有相同或相似的意思,同样的一个词可能已经超过了一个意义。这就是我们所说的一词多义现象,而这样一个字叫做和义的话。有许多英语单词中和义位。事实是较常用的一个单词,越有可能已经取得了丰富的含义。把单词“桌子”为例。这是一个很常见的词用英语。如果我们查一下词典里,我们就会发现它至少有以下七条含义:(1)apieceoffurniture\n(1)一件家具(2)allthepeopleseatedatatable(2)所有的人坐在一张桌子(3)thefoodthatisputonatable(3)的食品,放在桌上(4)athinflatpieceofstone,metal,wood,etc.(4)一层很薄的平的一块石头、金属、木材、等。(5)orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.(5)的有序排列事实、数据等。(6)partofamachine-toolonwhichtheworkisputtobeoperatedon(六)在-tool机器的某一工作就有了做手术(7)alevelarea,aplateau(7)水平区、高原Historicallyspeaking,polysemycanbeunderstoodasthegrowthanddevelopmentoforchangeinthemeaningofwords.Weassumethatatfirsttheform"table"hadonlyonemeaning;verylikelyitreferredtoathinpieceofstone,orwood.Thisiscalleditsprimarymeaning.Lateronitgraduallycametoacquiretheothermeaningsitnowrepresents.从历史的角度讲,一词多义现象可以理解为增长和发展的或改变单词的意思。我们假设首先形成“桌子”只有一个意义,很有可能这指的是一块薄的石头,或木头。这叫做它的主要意义。后来对逐渐取得现在其他含义的代表。5.3.2.3Homonymy5.3.2.3同形异义Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.这一现象,同形异义是指具有不同的意义的话,那就是相同的语言形式,不同的单词是同一样的声音或拼写,或两者兼而有之。Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones.Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.Belowareexamplesofeachkind:两个单词在相同的声音,叫同音异义词。两个单词在拼写是相同的,叫同形异义词。两个单词在发音和拼写上都相同时,叫完全同形异义词。以下是每一种例子:Homophones:rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peaceleak/leek同音:雨/统治晚上/骑士件/泄漏/韭葱和平Homographs:bowv./bown.tearv./tearn.leadv./leadn弓v/弓词:::眼泪v/撕过(铅nCompletehomonyms:fastadj./fastv.scalen./scalev.叫完全同形异义词:快速的v/快速的规模n。/规模v。Atthisstageaquestionthatreadilycomestomindisthatwhentwoformsareidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,howcanwetellwhethertheyaretwomeaningsofthesamepolysemicword,ortwocompletehomonyms?Thisisaninterestingquestionbutdifficulttoanswer.Whatwecandependonistheetymologyofthewordsinquestion.Apolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword.Thevariousmeaningsofthewordarerelatedtosomedegree,aswehaveseeninthecaseof"table"above.Completehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.Forinstance,"ball"meaning"aroundobjectusedingames"\nand"ball"meaning"alargeformalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance"arecompletehomonyms.Theword"ball"bearingthefirstmeaningisanativeEnglishword.Itoriginallyexistedinthelanguage.ItsohappenedthatinFrenchthereexistedawordspeltinthesameway,bearingthesecondmeaning.AndthiswordsomehowfounditswayintotheEnglishlanguage.TheresultisthatinEnglishtodaywehavethetwocompletehomonyms"ball"and"ball."在这一阶段一个问题,可以很轻易地联想到是,当两种形式都是相同的,无论是在发音和拼写,我们该如何辨别他们是两层含义相同的词和义词语,或者两个完整异物同名吗?这是一个有趣的问题,但很难回答的。我们能依靠的是词源单词的问题。一个单词是和义演化的结果的主要词语的意思。各种各样的意义与这个字的某种程度,正如我们所了解的,如“桌子”以上。叫完全同形异义词经常带进被巧合。例如,“球”,意即“一个圆形物体用于游戏”和“球”,意即“一个正式的社交活动大上舞”叫完全同形异义词。“球”这个词着第一个意思是一位土生土长的英文字。原来存在的语言特色。事情是这样的在法国存在字怎麽拼在同样的方式、轴承第二个意义。;这话在某种程度上自个儿飞到英语。结果是,今天要用英语我们拥有了两个叫完全同形异义词“球”和“球。”5.3.2.4Hyponymy5.3.2.4HyponymyHyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother,e.g.是指Hyponymy的感觉更一般的关系更具包容性的单词和一个更具体的字。词,在意思更一般称为超常的,更具体的字被称为它的hyponyms。同样的Hyponymsco-hyponyms超常的是对方,例句。Superordinate:flower花超常的:Hyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily,morningglory...Hyponyms:柔丝,郁金香、康乃馨,莉莉,牵牛花…Superordinate:animal动物超常的:Hyponyms:dog,cat,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear.jHyponyms:狗,猫,老虎、狮子、狼、大象、狐狸、熊.Superordinate:furniture家具超常的:Hyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,settee...Hyponyms:床、桌子、写字台、梳妆台、大衣柜椅…Hyponymyisarelationofinclusion;intermsofmeaning,thesuperordinateincludesallitshyponyms.Hyponymy夹杂物的有关;在语义上,超常的包括所有的hyponyms。5.3.2.5Antonymy5.3.2.5反义关系Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.Weshouldnotbemisledintothinkingthatwordscontrasteachotheronlyonasingledimension;infact,oppositenesscanbefoundondifferentdimensionsanddifferentkindsofantonymshavebeenrecognized.\n反义关系用以指意义上相反的词叫;语言意义在意思对面反义词。我们不应该误导到思维,文字对比对方,不过是在单维度的oppositeness;事实上,可以发现在不同的维度上,各种不同的反义词已被认可。i.Gradableantonyms我。Gradable反义词Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.Soitisamatterofdegree.Forexample,"old"and"young"areimmediatelyrecognizedasantonyms,buttheystandfortwoextremes,betweenwhichthereexistintermediateformsrepresentingdifferingdegreesofbeingoldoryoung,suchas"middle-aged,mature,elderly".^Similarlybetween"hot"and"cold"thereexistvaryingqualities一些反义词是级别上的,因为有反义词中间常有的两名成员之间的一对。因此它是程度上的问题。例如,“老”和“年轻”是立即确认为反义词,但它们的代表之间的两个极端,但存在不同程度的反义词中间代表被年老还是年轻,如“中年、成熟、老年”。^同样之间的“热”和“冷”存在不同的品质beingneither"hot"nor"cold",suchas"cool","warm"and"lukewarm".不“热”和“冷”,如“酷”、“暖”和“温”。ii.Complementaryantonymsii。互补反义词Apairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Inotherwords,itisnotamatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitheroneortheother.Forexample,apersoncanbeeither"alive"or"dead",either"male"or"female";thereisnothirdpossibility.Therefore,"alive"and"dead"areapairofcomplementaryantonyms,andsoare"male"and"female".一双互补反义词具有这样的特征,否定其中的一名成员的断言,蕴含着对。换句话说,它不是一种程度,但在两个极端的问题或冷或热。例如,一个人可以“活着”或“死”,或者“男性”或“女”,没有第三种可能性。因此,“活着”和“死”是一对互补反义词,“男性”和“女”。iii.Relationalopposites三。关系对立Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,ifAisthehusbandofB,thenBisthewifeofA.So"husband"and"wife"areapairofrelationalopposites.Similarrelationisfoundbetween"father"and"son","teacher"and"pupil","doctor"and"patient","buy"and"sell","let"and"rent","above"and"below".组单词,具有之间的关系逆转这两项被称为关系相反。例如,如果一个是丈夫B,则B是妻子的答:“老公”和“妻子”的关系是一对反义词。相似关系表明“父亲”和“子”,“老师”和“学生”、“医生”和“病人”、“买”和“出售”,“让”和“租”,“上”、“下”。5.4Senserelationsbetweensentences关系54意义的句子Astherearecertainrelationsbetweenlexicalitems,soaretherecertainrelationsbetweensentencesandalsobetweenconstituentsofthesamesentence.Belowarethemajoronesofsuchrelations,andtheyareanalyzedintermsoftruthconditions.有一定的关系,因此词项之间的关系确定句子成分,又在相同的句子。下面是主要的,这样的关系等方面分析了真理的条件。i.XissynonymouswithY.\n我。X是等同于Y。e.g.X:Hewasabachelorallhislife.大肠g。谢:他是个单身汉了一辈子。Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.杨:他没有结过婚了一辈子。X:Theboykilledthedog.谢:这个男孩杀死了那条狗。Y:Thedogwaskilledbytheboy.杨:狗被这个男孩。Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,YistrueandifXisfalse,Yisfalse.从真理条件下,如X是真的,Y是真实的,是假的X,Y是假的。ii.XisinconsistentwithY.ii。X是不符合Y。e.g.X:Johnismarried.例句。谢:约翰结婚了。Y:Johnisabachelor.杨:约翰是个单身汉。X:Thisismyfirstvisittoyourcountry.谢:这是我第一次到你的国家。Y:Ihavebeentoyourcountrybefore.杨:我去过你的国家之前。Intermsoftruthcondition,ifXistrue,Yisfalse,andifXisfalse,Yistrue.iii.XentailsY.(YisanentailmentofX.)从真理条件下,如X是真的,Y是假的,如果X是假的,Y为true.三。X需要Y。(Y是一个entailment的x。)e.g.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.例句。谢:约翰娶了一个金发女继承人。Y:Johnmarriedablond.杨:约翰娶了一个金发碧眼的女人。X:HehasbeentoFrance.谢:他一直到法国去。Y:HehasbeentoEurope.杨:他去过欧洲。Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.有关Entailment包涵。包括Y,然后X的含义包括X是Y。Analyzingtherelationofentailmentintermsoftruthcondition,wecometothefollowingconclusions:entailment分析等方面的关系的真理的条件下,我们来以下结论:IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue,e.g.IfhehasbeentoFrance,hemusthavebeentoEurope.如果X是真的,Y是真的,即克。如果他去过法国,他一定去过欧洲。IfXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse,e.g.IfhehasnotbeentoFrance,hemayhavebeentoEuropeorhehasnotbeentoEurope.是假的X,Y可能是正确的还是错误的,例句。如果他没有去过法国,他可能已经去过欧洲或他没有去过欧洲。\niv.XpresupposesY.(YisaprerequisiteofX.)e.g.在横线上。X预示着Y。(Y是一个先决条件的x。e.g。X:John'sbikeneedsrepairing.谢:约翰的自行车需要修理。Y:Johnhasabike.杨:约翰有一辆自行车。X:ThequeenofEnglandisold.谢:英国女王也老了。Y:Englandhasaqueen.杨:英国有王后。Analyzingtherelationofpresuppositionintermsoftruthcondition,wecanconclude:分析等方面的关系真理的前提条件下,我们可以得出结论:IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue,e.g.IfJohn'sbikeneedsrepairing,Johnmusthaveabike.如果X是真的,Y必须真实、例句。如果约翰的自行车需要修理,约翰必须有一辆自行车。IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue,e.g.IfJohn'sbikedoesnotneedrepairing,Johnstillhasabike.是假的X,Y,还是对的,即克。如果约翰的自行车不需要修理,约翰仍有一辆自行车。v.Xisacontradiction.五、X就是个矛盾。WhenXisacontradiction,itisinvariablyfalse,e.g.Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.当X的悖论,它是总是错误的,例句。我的未嫁人的姐妹嫁给一个单身汉。vi.Xissemanticallyanomalous六世。X是语意有关异常的e.g.Thetablehasbadintentions.例句。桌子上有坏的意图。WhenXissemanticallyanomalous,itisabsurdinthesensethatitpresupposesacontradiction.Thesentenceabovepresupposes“Atablecanhaveintentions",whichisobviouslyabsurd.当X是语义异常,这是荒谬的,从这个意义来说,其前提是矛盾。上面这句话“一张桌子可以先意图”,这显然是荒谬的。5.5Analysisofmeaning5.5分析的意义5.5.1Componentialanalysiswaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning方法5.5.1源语词汇的义素拆分分析词义Componentialanalysisisawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalleddistinctivefeatures.Plusandminussignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsentinthemeaningofaword,andthesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Forexample,theword"man"isanalyzedascomprisingthefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.\n源语词汇的义素拆分的一种方法是结构的含义,分析词义。该方法基于信仰一个单词的意义可以意义成分分析为被称作语义特征。这是平行的音素进行了分析成一些小的模块叫做突出的特征。正负标志是用来表示某一语义特征是目前就是缺少在某个字的意思,而这些特征符号通常用大写字母。例如,“男人”这个词的特点进行了分析,包括+人类,+大人,+激活,+男性。OneadvantageofComponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.Forexample,thetwowords"man"and"woman"sharethefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,and+ANIMATE,butdifferinthefeatureofMALE.Andthewords"man"and"boy"sharethefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ANIMATE,and+MALE,butdifferinthefeatureofADULT.成分分析的一个好处是,通过列出某些单词的语义特征,它将可能显示这些单词在意义上有什么联系。例如,这两个字“人”,“女人分享人类的特点,++成人,但+激活,但不同的特征的男性。并加上"人”及“男孩分享人类的特点,+++激活,男性,但不同的成人的特点。Componentialanalysisprovidesaninsightintothemeaningofwordsandawaytostudytherelationshipsbetweenwordsthatarerelatedinmeaning.成分分析提供了洞察单词的意思,之间的关系研究的话,在意义上有什么联系。5.5.2Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaninganalysis-a方法5.5.2预测分析句子意义Beforelookingattheanalysisofsentencemeaning,twopointsaboutsentencemeaningneedtobeclarified.看着眼前句子意义的分析,两个点句子意义需要被澄清。First,themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents,thatis,themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitsconstituentwords.Forexample,thetwosentences:"Thedogbittheman"and"Themanbitthedog",thoughconsistingofexactlythesamewords,differwidelyinwhattheymean.Inthisrespect,asentenceisdifferentfromaword,themeaningofwhichisthesumtotalofallitscomponents,i.e.,itssemanticfeatures.首先,句子的意义是不的总和包括所有元件的意义,也就是说,句子的意义是不确定的所有含义增加其组成的话。例如,这两句话:“狗咬人”和“人咬狗”,但组成一模一样的大相径庭的话,它们的含义。在这方面,一个句子是不同的含义,一个字的总和,包括所有元件,例如,其语义特征。Thesecondthingaboutsentencemeaningisthattherearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.第二件关于句子意义是有两个方面对句子意义:语法意义和语义的意义。Thegrammaticalmeaningofasentencereferstoitsgrammaticality,i.e.,itsgrammaticalwell-formedness.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.WithourknowledgeofEnglishgrammar,wecaneasilytellthatthefollowingsentencesarenotgrammaticallywell-formed:语法了整句话的意思是指三大类,即它的语法well-formedness。一个句子的语法是由语法规则的语言。英语语法著我们的知识,我们就可以很容易地知道下面的句子不是语法规范的:*Thedogarechasingthecat.*狗追逐猫。*Hegavethebookme.*他将那本书我。*WewillwenttoBeijingtomorrow.*我们将去北京的明天。Acertaingrammarruleisviolatedineachofthesentences.\n一定的语法规则是违反了在每一个句子。Thenwhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.,constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.Somesentencesmaybegrammaticallywell-formed,i.e.,theycomplyperfectlywiththegrammarrulesofthelanguage,yettheymaynotbesemanticallymeaningful.Thereasonisthattheycontainwordswhicharenotsupposedtogotogether,thusviolatingtheselectionalrestrictions,e.g.然后是否一个句子是语义有意义的受规则限制,即被称为液约束可以用什么词项别人。一些句子可能是语法规范,即能达到完美的语法规则的语言,但他们可能不是语义有意义。原因是它们所含有的言语应该一起去,从而违反液,例如限制。*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*绿色云是睡得甚猛。*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.*真诚握手与黑色的苹果。Thetwosentencesare,grammaticallyspeaking,perfect.Theyhaveallthenecessarygrammaticalcomponentsofasentence,andthereisnomistakeinagreementortense.Buttheproblemwiththefirstsentenceisthatnoonehaseverseenanygreenclouds,andcloudsneversleep,stillless,sleepfuriously.Theproblemwiththesecondsentenceisthatsincerity,beinganabstractnotion,cannotperformtheactionofshakinghands,andnooneevershakeshandswithanapple,stillless,ablackapple.Soinbothsentencessomeselectionalrestrictionshavebeenviolated.Thishasledtosemanticill-formednessofthesentences.这两个句子,从文法上来说,完美。他们有了所有必要的一个句子的语法成分,并没有协议或错误很紧张。但是问题的第一句还没人见过的任何绿色驾云降临,云从来没有睡觉,更不用说,睡得甚猛。第二句话的问题是,真诚,做一个空想,不能握手的动作,而且没有人曾从握手,更不用说和苹果,这是黑色的苹果。所以在两个句子限制一些液被侵犯了。这导致了语义ill-formedness的句子。Linguistshaveproposeddifferentwaystoanalyzethemeaningofsentences.Theymightdifferintheirframeworkofanalysis,buttheysharetheaimtoabstractthemeaningofsentences.WhatwearegoingtointroducebrieflyisthepredicationanalysisproposedbytheBritishlinguistG.Leech.Inhisframeworkofanalysis,thebasicunitiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Thisappliestoallformsofsentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogativeforms.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.Forexample,thepredicationofthesentence"Tomsmokes"issaidtoconsistoftheargument"TOM"andthepredicate"SMOKE",andthepredicationcanbewrittenasTOM(SMOKE).Asthegrammaticalformofthesentencedoesnotaffectthesemanticpredicationofthesentence,allthefollowingsentencesaresaidtohavethesamepredication:Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke!DoesTomsmoke?Tomdoesnotsmoke.Theycanallberegardedasthevariousgrammaticalrealizationsofthesamesemanticpredication:TOM(SMOKE).语言学家们提出了不同的分析句子意义的方法。他们的分析基准体系可能有所不同,但是他们共享旨在句子意义抽象化。我们所要介绍的是预测分析了英国语言学家g\n.寄生虫。在他的分析架构,基本单位称为述谓,这是抽象句子的意义。这一点也同样适用于各种形式的句子,包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句形式。一个预测由参数(s)和谓语。一个参数是一个逻辑参与者在预测,这在很大程度上是相同的名词性成分(s)中,在一个句子里。一个谓词是关于争论或指出了连接参数逻辑关系中,在一个句子里。例如,还对这句话”,是说汤姆吸烟将由争论”汤姆”和谓语“空穴来风”,并预测可以写成汤姆(烟)。作为句子的语法形式不影响句子的语义预测,所有的句子都说有相同的预测:汤姆抽烟了。汤姆就是抽烟。汤姆一直与吸烟有关的疾病。汤姆,烟!Tom抽烟吗?汤姆不抽烟。他们就都可以被视为不同的语法的实现相同语义预测:汤姆(烟)。Thensomesentencescontainmorethanoneargument.Forexample,thesentence"Kidslikeapples"hastwonominalelements"kids"and"apples",soitspredicationcanbewrittenasKID,APPLE(LIKE).Andtheninsomesentencesthereisnoargumentatall,suchasthoseEnglishsentencescontainingtheimpersonal"it",e.g."Itishot"."It"inthissentencecannotbeconsideredasanargument,and(BEHOT)isthepredicateofthepredication.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(containingtwoarguments),one-placepredication(containingoneargument),andno-placepredication(containingnoargument).然后一些句子包含更多的争论。例如,句子“孩子们喜欢苹果”有两个名义元素“孩子”和“果”,所以它的预测可以写成孩子,苹果(像)。然后在一些句子没有参数,如含有非英语句子,例如“它”。“这是热”。“它”在这个句子中,可以不被认为是辩论,(是热的)是谓词的预测。根据数目的参数包含在预测,我们将在讨论two-place预测(含两种观点),one-place预测(含一个论据),no-place预测(不含参数)。Althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsofthecomponentialmake-upofasentence,theyhavedifferentrolesinthepredication.Thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modality,etc.anditmayalsobesaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberandnatureofthearguments.forher虽然谓语和论据是同一类的单位从一个句子成分组成,他们有角色在预测。可视为谓词的的主要元素,因为它包括时态、形态,等等,也可以这样说治理赞成它会arguments.的数量和性质Revisionexercises:修改练习:1.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?1。有什么主要的意见研究意义吗?2.WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?2。有什么主要的类型的同义词在英语吗?3.Explainwithexamples"homonymy","polysemy",and"hy-ponymy".3。举例说明“同形异义”、“一词多义”、“hy-ponymy”。4.Howcanwordsoppositeinmeaningbeclassified?Towhichcategorydoeseachofthefollowingpairsofantonymsbelong?north/southvacant/occupiedliterate/illiterateabove/blowdoctor/patientwide/narrowpoor/richfather/daughter4。什么话也无法相反的意思是分类?每一个范畴的下列对反义词属于彼此吗?北/南空/占领识字的/文盲的上面/医生/病人广泛地打击窄穷/父亲/daugh丰富内涵5.Identifytherelationsbetweenthefollowingpairsofsentences:'5。确认下列之间的关系对句子:“Tom'swifeispregnant.Tomhasawife.汤姆的妻子怀孕了。汤姆有妻子。Mysisterwillsoonbedivorced.Mysisterisamarriedwoman.\n我妹妹会很快就离婚了。我的妹妹是一个结了婚的女人。Theyaregoingtohaveanotherbaby.Theyhaveachild.他们又要孩子。他们有一个孩子。Helikesseafood.Helikescrabs.他喜欢海鲜。他喜欢螃蟹。6.Inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?6。如何与源语词汇的义素拆分分析音素到特色?7.Whatisgrammatically?Whatmightmakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?7。在语法上是什么?可能使语法上有意义的句子语义意义。8.Trytoanalyzethefollowingsentencesintermsofpredicationanalysis;8。尝试分析下面的句子从预测分析;Themansellsice-cream.卖冰淇淋的人。Isthebabysleeping?这婴儿睡着了吗?Itissnowing.我有一顶饰。Thetreegrowswell.那棵树长得很好。Chapter6PRAGMATICS第六章语用学6.1Somebasicnotions6.1一些基本概念6.1.1Definition6.1.1定义Pragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.Ageneraldefinitionisthatitisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Astheprocessofcommunicationisessentiallyaprocessofconveyingandunderstandingmeaninginacertaincontext,pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Pragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics;itsdevelopmentandestablishmentinthe1960sand1970sresultedmainlyfromtheexpansionofthestudyoflinguistics,especiallythatofsemantics.语用学以各种不同的方式定义。作一般定义是,它是一门研究一种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。由于交际的过程进程中的本质上就是一个输送和理解意思在一定范围内,因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。语用学是一个比较新的分公司的面积的研究,发展和建立语言学在20世纪的60年代和70年代的扩张主要是语言学的研究,尤其是它的语义。Inourdiscussionofsemantics,wemadementionofseveralviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning.Oneofthemistheconceptualistview,whichplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.Thisviewproposedinthefirsthalfofthe20thcenturyisoftenconsideredtobeaninitialefforttostudymeaninginapragmaticsense.\n在我们讨论语义,我们提到过几个意见这部奇书研究意义的。其中之一是把意念论研究意义在上下文中,语言使用。这一观点的基础上,提出了对20世纪前半期常常被认为是一个原始积累的工作来研究意义务实的感觉。Pragmaticsstudiessuchtopicsasrelatedtolanguagecommunication,includingdeixis,speechacts,indirectlanguage,conversation,politeness,cross-culturalcommunication,andpresupposition.Inthischapterwewilltakeabrieflookatsomeofthem.语用学等问题的研究与语言沟通,包括指示、言语行为、间接语言、对话、礼貌、跨文化交流,预设。我们在本章简要地看一看他们中的一些人。6.1.2Pragmaticsvs.semantics6.1.2vs.语义语Aspragmaticsandsemanticsarebothlinguisticstudiesofmeaning,thenhowaretheyrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?作为语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究,然后他们是如何相关,而且他们如何的不同之处吗?ThepublicationofSaussure'sworkCourseinGeneralLinguisticsintheearly20thcenturymarkedthebeginningofmodernlinguisticsandatthesametimelaiddownthekeynoteformodernlinguisticstudies,i.e.languageshouldbestudiedasaself-contained,intrinsicsystem;anyseriousstudyoflanguagecannotaffordtoinvestigatetheuseoflanguageandextra-linguisticfactorswerenottobeconsidered.摘要索绪尔的工作的出版普通语言学课程在20世纪初,标志着现代语言学开始,同时奠定每个键的音,即为现代语言学研究语言应该学习自我,内在系统;任何严重的学习语言的方法不能研究利用语言和extra-linguistic因素不被考虑。Formorethanhalfacenturythishasbeenthedominanttraditionoflinguisticstudy.Thisisthespiritinwhichtraditionalphonologystudiedthesoundsoflanguage,traditionalsyntaxstudiedthestructureofsentences,andtraditionalsemanticsstudiedmeaning.Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.,apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinisolationfromlanguageuse.半个多世纪以来这是占统治地位的传统的语言学习。这是传统的精神,在这研究语音的声音,传统的语法研究语言句子结构,研究和语义学意义。被认为是语言意义的东西,即内在,和固有的。,物业连接到语言本身。因此,词语义项的意义的句子都的独立研究从语言使用。Butgraduallylinguistsfoundthatitwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageusewasleftunconsidered.Butoncethenotionofcontextwastakenintoconsideration,semanticsspilledoverintopragmatics.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.但慢慢地语言学家发现,就不可能作出满意的描述意义语言使用的语境中只剩下几。但是一旦概念的背景,从各方面考虑,语义蔓延到了门新兴学科。它们的本质区别在于是否语用学是研究意义是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑,学习是局限于语义学的面积;如果它被认为,该研究正在进行语用学的面积。6.1.3Context6.1.3语境Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledgehavebeenidentified,e.g.knowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,knowledgeof\nwhathasbeensaidbefore,knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral,knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace,andknowledgeabouteachother.Contextdeterminesthespeaker'suseoflanguageandalsothehearer'sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.Withoutsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationwouldnotbepossible,andwithoutconsideringsuchknowledge,linguisticcommunicationcannotbesatisfactorilyaccountedforinapragmaticsense.Lookatthefollowingsentences:语境是语篇语言教学法的概念的语用研究中不可缺少的语言。它一般被理解为所共有的知识说话者和听话者。各组分共享知识已被证实的知识,如他们所使用的语言的相关知识以前所说,关于这个世界的知识,熟悉一般具体情况正在进行的语言交际的地方,并且了解对方。背景决定了语言使用的演讲和听者的解释什么是对他所说的话。没有这样的知识,语言交际,就不可能考虑和不考虑这样的熟悉,语言交际占无法得到满足以务实的感觉。看看下面的句子:(6-1)Howdiditgo?j(6-2)Itiscoldinhere.打得怎样?j(6胜2)在这里很冷。(6-3)ItwasahotChristmasdaysowewentdowntothebeachintheafternoonandhadagoodtimeswimmingandsurfing.(3)那是炎热的圣诞节,所以我们就下到沙滩上下午和度过了一个好时光游泳和冲浪。Sentence(1)mightbeusedinaconversationbetweentwostudentstalkingaboutanexamination,ortwosurgeonstalkingaboutanoperation,orinsomeothercontexts;(2)mightbesaidbythespeakertoaskthehearertoturnontheheater,orleavetheplace,ortoputonmoreclothes,ortoapologizeforthepoorconditionoftheroom,dependingonthesituationofcontext;(3)makessenseonlyifthehearerhastheknowledgethatChristmasfallsinsummerinthesouthernhemisphere.句(1)可能被用来在一段对话,两个学生在谈论一个考试,或两个外科医生在谈论一个操作,或者在其他一些脉络;(2)说话者应该说向听者把加热器,或离开这地方,或者多穿些衣服,或需要道歉的较差的工作条件的房间,根据实际情况对环境;(3)如果听者才有意义的圣诞节有学识,在夏天在南半球。116.1.4Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning6.1.4句子意义vs.话语的意义Ashasbeensaidbefore,asentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.Butifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered(orused).Soitisimpossibletotellif"Thedogisbarking"isasentenceoranutterance.Itcanbeeither.Italldependsonhowwelookatitandhowwearegoingtoanalyzeit.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolationfromcontext,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenweare\n正如以前所说,一个句子是由一个语法概念,句子的意义是经常学习抽象的,句子本身的固有属性从预测。但是如果我们认为一个句子当做人们真正的沟通过程出来时,它就成为口才、它应被视为在当时的情况下,它实际上是说出或采用)。因此,也无法知道叫着“狗”是一个句子或读解。它可以。这一切都取决于我们如何看它,我们如何去分析。如果我们把它当作一种语法单位和思考,从上下文中在封闭的独立的单位,那么我们将它作为一个句子里。如果我们把它当作一些发言人在某个特定情况下发出一种特定的目的,那我们treatingitasanutterance.作为治疗的看法。Therefore,whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualizd,thatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Now,takethesentence"Mybagisheavy"asanexample.Semanticanalysisofthemeaningofthesentenceresultsintheone-placepredicationBAG(BEINGHEAVY).Thenapragmaticanalysisoftheutterancewillrevealwhatthespeakerintendstodowithit.Theutterancemeaningofthesentencevarieswiththecontextinwhichitisuttered.Forexample,itcouldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthehearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Anotherpossibilityisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeone'srequestforhelp.Allthesearepossibleinterpretationsofthesameutterance"Mybagisheavy".Howitistobeunderstooddependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.Whilemostutterancestaketheformofgrammaticallycompletesentences,someutterancesdonot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.Forexample,"Goodmorning!""Hi!"and"Ouch!"areallutterances,whichhavemeaningincommunication.If"Goodmorning!"canberestoredto"Iwishyouagoodmorning",wedonotknowfromwhichcompletesentences"Hi!"and"Ouch!"havebeenderived.因此,当句子的意义是抽象的,decontextualizd,即思维是具体的,受语境。的意思话语意义基于句子意义;它是的抽象意义的句子的沟通在真实的情景,或简单地,在一个语境中的具体化。现在,吃这句话我的袋子重“作为一个例子。语义分析句子的意义one-place预测结果的袋子(又重)。然后话语的语用分析将揭示发言人的打算如何使用它。句子的话语的意义的随上下文中存在物的。例如,这可能是一名发言人很少被使用直接声明,告诉听者,他的袋子很重。这也可能是达到发言人作为一种间接的、有礼貌的请求,要求听者帮他把袋子里。另一种可能是,演讲者正在减少某人的请求援助。所有这些都能解释相同的话语的“我的袋子很重。”它是如何被理解取决于上下文中存在物的并为之演讲者吐出它。大多数以不同的形式表达语法完整的句子,一些用法不,有些甚至不能恢复完整的句子。例如:“早上好!”“嗨!”和“哎呀!”是一个完整的用法,哪有意义的交流。如果“早上好!”就可以恢复到“我希望你早上好”,我们不知道从哪完整的句子“嗨!”和“啊唷!”导出了。6.2Speechacttheory6.2%的言语行为理论6.2.1Austin'smodelofspeechacts奥斯丁6.2.1言语行为模式Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50'softhe20thcentury.Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion"Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?"言语行为理论是一种重要的理论在语用学研究的语言。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰。奥斯丁最迟在50的20世纪。这是一个哲学的解释语言交际的本质。它目的是回答这样的问题,“我们做什么时,使用的语言吗?Traditionallyphilosopherswereinterestedinthetruth-valueofsentences,i.e.,howtojudge\nwhetherasentenceistrueorfalse;theybelievedthatastatementwasusedeithertostateafactortodescribeastateofaffairs.Althoughaphilosopherhimself,Austinexpresseddoubtaboutthisassumptionbecausehefoundsomestatementswerenotusedtostateortodescribe,theycouldnotbejudgedastrueorfalse;rathertheywereusedbythespeakertodosomething.Thushemadeadistinctionbetweenwhathecalled"constatives"and"performatives".Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable;performatives,ontheotherhand,weresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.ThefourexamplesAustinusedtoillustratethepointhavebecomeclassicalandarefrequentlyquotedintheliterature:(6-4)"Ido."传统的哲学家很感兴趣的句子,即应着重于。,怎么去判断是否一个句子是真还是假;他们认为国家也可用的声明是某一事实或描述一个状态。虽然哲学家自己,奥斯丁表示怀疑这个假设,因为他发现了一些语句是不习惯状态或来描述、他们不能被评价为真或假的;更不用说它们被扬声器来做点什么。因此他他所称的“区别constatives”和“performatives”。constatives被声明,或描述任一状态,而可以证实的;performatives,另一方面,假如句子没有国家事实上还是描述状态,就不可以被证实的。奥斯丁的四个范例用来说明这一点已经成为经典,人们常常引用文献:(6胜4败)"我愿意。"(6-5)"InamethisshipElizabeth."'(6-6)"Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother."(6~7)"Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.""Ido"isusedinthecourseofamarriageceremonyforthespeakertogetmarried."Inamethisship..."isusedbyanauthorizedpersontoperformtheactofnamingaship.Similarly,theutterance"Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother",occurringinawill,isusedtoperformtheactofbequeathing.Andwhenaspeakersays"Ibetyou..."heisdoingnothingelsebutbetting.(6-5)“我的名字这艘船伊丽莎白。“(盘)“我给和把我的手表给我的兄弟。”(6~7)他说:“我敢打赌你六便士明天会下雨。”“我愿意”是在课程中使用的婚礼的说话人结婚。“我的名字这艘船……”使用的授权批准人的行为进行命名一艘轮船。同样,话语的“我给和把我的手表给我的兄弟”的,发生于遗嘱,实现了参数化的遗产留给的行为。当一名发言人说:“我敢打赌你…“他是什么都不做,除了赌局。Soinsteadofstatingsomething,thespeaker,whenutteringthesesentences,isactuallydoingsomething,i.e.performingcertainacts.ThefourexamplesAustincitedareallconventionalizedcases.Buttheideaofdoingsomethingwhilespeakingcancertainlybebroadenedtoincludenon-conventionalactssuchasstating,promising,requesting,andsuggesting.Hencethetheorycametobeknownasthespeechacttheory,accordingtowhichweareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.所以说明某事,演讲者,当发出这些句子,其实是做某一件事,即执行某些行为。四个范例的引用都是社群里约定俗成的奥斯汀病例。但是这种做一些说话的时候当然可以扩充到了非传统的行为如的声明时,很有前景的,请求,并且提出。因此这个理论就成为众所周知的“言语行为理论,根据我们正在表演行动我们在说话的时候。Lateron,foravarietyofreasons,Austingaveuphisinitialdistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformatives.Hesetupanothermodeltoexplainthewayactswereperformedbymeansoflanguage.Accordingtohisnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.后来,由于种种原因,奥斯汀放弃了他的最初的区别,constativesperformatives。他设立了一个模式解释的方式进行行为通过语言。根据他的新模式,在说话时可能同时实施三种行为说:言内行为,言外行为和言后行为。\nAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.Let'slookatanexample:一个言内行为的行为发出单词、短语、子句。的行为通过输送字面意义的语法、词汇和音系学。一个言外行为的行为表示说话人的意图,它是进行的行为说明了问题。一个言后行为》因进行说些;它的结果是,或改变所带来的话语;它是进行的行为说明了问题。让我们来看一个例子:(6~8)Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.(6~8)你有把门敞开的。Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakerishisutteranceofallthewords"you","have","door","open",etc.thusexpressingwhatthewordsliterallymean.由言内行为的演讲者是他的话语的一切话是“你”,“有”,“门”,“开放”等因此表达从字面上去理解所讲的话的意思。Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,i.e.askingsomeonetoclosethedoor,ormakingacomplaint,dependingonthecontext.言外行为进行的演讲者,使这样的读解他已表示有意来说,即请求某人关门,或投诉,视上下文。Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeaker'smessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstotellhimtoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullyIbroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.言后行为是指的话语的效果。如果听者会讲员的信息,看见演讲者方式告诉他关上门,演讲者成功我带来的改变在现实世界里他意愿,然后言后行为是成功地完成。Ofthethreespeechacts,linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutionaryactbecausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeaker'sintention,andintheirstudyoflanguagecommunication,linguistsaremostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.三种言语行为,语言学家最感兴趣的是行为的言外之意,因为这种言语行为等同于说话人的意图,在他们的学习语言的沟通,语言学家最感兴趣的一名发言人表示他的意图,以及他的意图,被公认为增长。6.2.2Searle'sclassificationofspeechacts6.2.2塞尔言语行为划分的Thespeechacttheoryprovidedgreatphilosophicalinsightintotin-natureoflinguisticcommunication.InthelightofthisIhcoiy,whenwearespeakingalanguage,wearedoingsomething,orinotherwordsperformingacts;andtheprocessoflinguisticcommunicationconsistsofasequenceofacts.Thetheoryarousedgreatinterestamongscholarsinthe1960'sand1970's.OneofthosewhomadenotablecontributionstoitistheAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearle.\n提供了更大的言语行为理论的tin-nature哲学的洞察力的语言沟通。针对这一Ihcoiy,当我们说一门语言,我们做某一件事,换句话说表演行动;语言交际的过程由一系列的行为。这个理论中引起极大的兴趣的学者在1960年到1970年的。作出显著的一个人贡献,这就是美国philosopher-linguist约翰瑟尔。OneofthecontributionsSearlehasmadeishisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.ThisissomethingAustinhimselfhadtriedtodobutdidnotdoverysuccessfully.AccordingtoSearle,speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories,i.e.,therearefivegeneraltypesofthingswedowithlanguage.Specificactsthatfallintoeachtype瑟的贡献之一是他的分类了施事行为。这是一件奥斯汀自己也试图这么做,但不做得很成功。根据瑟尔、言语行为区分为五个大类,那就是,有5个一般类型的我们所做的事情和语言。具体的行为,落在各类型sharethesameillocutionarypoint,butdifferintheirstrength,i有相同的言外之意的观点,但持有不同的力量,我sayingwhatthe说什么2.2。3.3。representatives:statingordescribing代表陈述或描述。speakerbelievestobetrue演讲者相信是真的directives:tryingtogetthehearertodosomethingcommissives:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuture指示:试图使听者去做某件事commissives:实施演讲者自己一些未来courseofaction行动4.expressives:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate4.表示expressives感情或者态度现有的状态5.declarations:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysaying5.声明:带来立即改变的说something一些Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Inotherwords,whenperforminganillocutionaryactofrepresentative,thespeakerismakingastatementorgivingadescriptionwhichhehimselfbelievestobetrue.Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizingareamongthemosttypicaloftherepresentatives,e.g.点的代表的言外之意就是提交说话人有什么东西是实情的话,真理的所说过的事联系起来。换句话说,当表演一言外行为的代表,说话的人是在作叙述还是给人们提供了一种描述自己相信是真的。说明,相信,宣誓就职,假想要是自己是属于最典型的代表的例句。(6-9)(Iswear)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.(研究6~9)发现(我发誓我从来没见过放到男人面前。(6-10)(Istate)Theearthisaglobe.(6-10)(我州),地球是一个全球。\nDirectivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass,e.g.尝试指示说话者获得听者去做某件事。诱人,提出、要求通知、警告、威胁、订购都是具体的情况下,例如对这门课。(6-11)Openthewindow!(6)把窗户打开!(6-12)You'dbettergototheclinic.(6-12)你最好去诊所。(6-13)Yourmoneyoryourlife!(6-13)你的钱或你的生活!(6-14)Wouldyouliketogotothepicnicwithus?(6-14)你想去野餐的和我们在一起吗?CommissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocomCommissives那些施事行为的一点是光临惠顾mitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction,i.e.whenspeakingthespeakerputshimselfunderacertainobligation.Promising,undertaking,vowingarethemosttypicalcases,e.g.(6-15)Ipromisetocome.(6-16)Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating,e.g.麻省理工学院扬声器来一些未来行动的方向,即当说演讲者把自己在一定义务。希望,事业上,并宣称是最典型案例,例句。(6)我答应要来。(395)我必带你们明天把书,不被淘汰。expressives点的言外之意是为了表达中规定的心理状态的看法。该发言人表达自己的感情或者态度现有的事务的状态,例如道歉,感谢,祝贺,例如。(6-17)I'msorryforthemessIhavemade.(6-18)It'sreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.Thelastclass"declarations"hasthecharacteristicthatthesuccessfulperformanceofanactofthistypebringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.ThisremindsoneofAustin'sfamousclassicalexamples.Otherexamplesare:(6-19)Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.(6-20)Iappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.(6-21)Ifireyou!(6-17)对不起,我弄得乱七八糟的东西。(6-18)你真好有想到我吧。最后一堂课”声明”的成功执行的特征,这种类型的行为之间的关系带来的:与现实。这让人想起·奥斯汀的著名的古典的例子。其他的例子(6-19)现在我宣布会议开始。(6-20)我指定你们为委员会主席。(6-21)我解雇了你!Ashasbeensaidpreviously,alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce.Forinstance,therearevariouswaystoletothersknowwhatyoubelievein.Youcansay"Iswearheisthekiller",or"Iguessheisthekiller",or"Ibelieve/thinkheisthekiller".Thenalltheutterancesthatcanbemadetoperformthesameactmayvaryintheirsyntacticform.Forexample,inordertogetsomeonetodosomething,wecanusetheimperativeform"Closethedoor";wecanalsochooseonefromavarietyofotherforms.-\n就像我已经说的行为之前,所有属于同一类有相同的目的而持有不同的力量和力量。例如,有不同的方法来让别人知道你认为正确的事。你可以说“我发誓他是杀手”,或“我猜他是杀手”,或“我相信/认为他是杀手”。这时,所有的表达了要做同样的行为可能会有所变动,在他们的句法形式。举一个例子,为了让某人做某事,我们可以用的必要形成“关门”;我们也可以选择一个其他多种forms.-(6-22)Willyouclosethedoor!(6-22)你会关门!(6-23)Canyouclosethedoor!(6-23)能关门!(6-24)Doyoumindclosingthedoor?(6~24)你把门关起来呢?(6-25)Iwouldbeverygratefulifyoucouldclosethedoor!(6-25),我将非常感激如果你能关门!(6-26)Thedoorisopen!(6-26)门是开的!(6-27)Thedoorplease!(6-27)门吧!6.3Principleofconversation63原理的谈话^^..ffff位置。Astheobjectiveofpragmaticstudyistoexplainhowlanguageisusedtoeffectsuccessfulcommunication,conversation,asthemostcommonandnaturalformofcommunication,hasdrawntheattentionofmanyscholars.为研究目标语用研究是阐述如何语言是用来实现成功的交际、对话、为最常见和自然交流的形式,已引起了许多学者。Aphilosopherandlogician,PaulGricemadeanattempttoexplainthecourseofnaturalconversation,inwhichimpliedmessagesarefrequentlyinvolved.Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,;itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple,abbreviatedasCP.Itgoesasfollows.-哲学家,宽严兼济,保罗格赖斯试图解释自然的谈话的过程中,在这样的展示中,隐含的信息是常侵犯的。他的意见是使交谈中,参赛者必须首先愿意合作;否则,;它不可能他们进行谈话。这一般原则是,称为合作原则缩窄性心包炎,缩写。它可以follows.-Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.让你的会话的贡献作等阶段,在这个阶段,它往往通过认可的沟通目的或方向的话题交换你订婚了。Tobemorespecific,therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:更确切地说,有四条准则在这种一般原则:ThemaximofquantityI数的校训啊1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange)1。直译:要求(那样有为当前的目的的交换)2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofquality?;2。不要把你的资讯较多的贡献超过所要求的。这句话的品质?。\n1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.1。不要说你所相信的事物是假的。2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.2。不要说你缺乏足够的证据。Themaximofrelation这句话的关系Berelevant.:?.。:?有关。Themaximofmanner这句话的态度1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.1。避免隐藏的表情。2.Avoidambiguity.,:2。避免含糊不清,:。3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).3。长话短说(避免不必要的冗长罗嗦)。4.Beorderly.4。是井然有序。ItisinterestingandimportanttonotethatwhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,theydonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons,butonlywhentheyare"flouted",touseGrice'sterm,does"conversationalimplicature"occur.Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.Whenwefloutamaxim,ourlanguagebecomesindirect.Thefollowingfourconversationexchangesillustratetheviolationofthefourmaximsandtheresultantimplicaturesrespectively:很有趣,值得注意的是,而话题参与者几乎总是遵守虫草多糖、他们并不总是遵守这些格言严格。这些准则可以违反了由于种种原因,但只有当他们“毁灭”,使用的术语,会话做“会话含义”的情形。蔑视一个启示,即它公然违反手段都说话者和听话者所知道的侵害。当我们轻视一个启示,我们的语言成为间接的。以下四个对话交流违反了四条准则,这一结果分别:(6-28)A:WhenisSusan'sfarewellparty?B:Sometimenextmonth.(6-28)什么时候苏珊的欢送会吗?B:下个月的某个时候。ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBknowsexactlywhenSusanisgoingtogiveherfarewellparty.ThusBiswithholdingsomeoftheinformationrequiredatthisstageofconversationandisthusfloutingthemaximofquantity.Theimplicaturethatresultsis"Idonotwishtotellyouwhenthepartyisgoingtobeheld."这是说,这是众所周知的两者都在那B都能苏珊打算给她的告别晚会。因此B扣留所需信息的一些谈话,这个阶段,因此这句格言蔑视的数量。含意,其结果是“我不愿意告诉你什么时候该将举行聚会。“(6-29)A:WouldyouliketojoinusforthepicniconSunday?(6-29)你想和我们一起去野餐在星期天干什么?B:I'mafraidIhavegotaclassonSunday.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBisnothavinganyclassthatwillpreventhimfromgoingforthepicnic.ThusBissayingsomethingthathehimselfknowstobefalseandisfloutingthemaximofquality.Hisimpliedmessageis"IdonotwanttojoinyouforthepicniconSunday."\n恐怕我有一个类星期天的比赛。这是说,这是众所周知的两者都在是乙没有课堂上,这样可以有效的防止他去野餐。因此B是说些,他知道是假的,”这句格言蔑视的品质。他的隐含的信息是“我不愿意和你们一起参加野餐星期天的比赛。“(6-30)A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?(6-30)怎么走到今天,数学考试不及格Jonnie吗?B:WehadabasketballmatchwiththeotherclassB:我们有一场篮球比赛和其他班andwebeatthem.我们打败了他们。ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatitisentirelypossibleforBtotellAhowwellorhowpoorlyhedidinthemathexam.B'sresponseisthustotallyirrelevanttoA'squestion.Thereforeheisfloutingthemaximofrelation.Theimplicatureis"Idon'twishtotalkaboutthemathexam."这是说,众所周知,两者都在B完全有可能告诉如何、他所做的很烂了数学考试。B的反应是这样一个完全不相干的问题。所以他是蔑视的校训啊关系。含意是“我不希望谈论了数学考试。“(6-31)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.ThisissaidwhenitisknowntobothAandBthatBhasnodifficultyinpronouncingtheword"ice-cream".ThusBhasfloutedthemaximofmanner.B'utterancehastheimplicaturethat"Idon'twantthekidstoknowwearetalkingaboutgettingthemsomeicecream."(6-31):我们要一点的孩子吗?是的。但我否决I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M。这是说,这是众所周知的两者都在那B没有发音有困难单词“冰淇淋”。所以B所轻视的态度的格言。B'utterance有含义,“我可不想孩子们知道我们正在谈论让他们些冰激凌。“ThesignificanceofGrice'sCPliesinthatitexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterallysaid.Aspragmaticsfocusesontheconveyanceofmeaninginthecourseofcommunication,CPisundoubtedlyanimportanttheoryinthearea.CP会话的意义在于,它是可能的解释如何扬声器来传达超过就说。作为语用意义的交通工具上是交流的过程中,戏剧的无疑是一种重要的理论在该地区。Revisionexercises:修改练习:1.Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?1。语用学研究什么?有什么不同语义学吗?2.Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialinthepragmaticstudyof;linguisticcommunication?2。为什么语境的概念的语用研究的要点;语言沟通?3.Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?3。句子意义是如何和话语的意义相关,而且他们如何的不同之处吗?4.Trytothinkofcontextsinwhichthefollowingsentencescanbeusedforotherpurposesthanjuststatingfacts:4。试着想想范畴下列句子可以用于其他目的只是陈述的事实:a)Theroomismessy.?',一)房间凌乱。?”,b)Oh,itisraining!'b)哦,下雨了!的c)Themusicofthemovieisgood.'\n三)音乐,电影会好看。的d)Youhavebeenkeepingmynotesforawholeweeknow.;d)你一直在我的笔记整整一个星期了。。5.AccordingtoAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.5。根据奥斯汀,什么是三种行为表现一个人可能是在做一个圆满的结束。举个例子吧。6.WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?6。五个类型的言外之意尔记载言语行为?什么是言外之意各种类型的点吗?7.WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Trytogiveyourownexamplestoshowhowfloutingthesemaximsgivesrisetoconversationalimplicature?7。四个格言的CP的吗?试着给你自己的例子来说明这些准则蔑视产生会话含义吗?