自考语言学复习大纲整理 11页

自考英语语言学复习大纲Chapter1Introduction绪论1.Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学1.1Definition:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasscientificstudyoflanguage.语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。a.Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.普通语言学。b.Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.语音学c.Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.音位学d.Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.形态学语言学内部的主要分支e.Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.句法学1.2Thescopeoflinguisticsf.Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.语义学语言学的研究范畴g.Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.语用学h.Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics.社会语言学i.Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.心理语言学跨学科分支j.Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgeneralknownasappliedlinguistics.应用语言学h.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,(人类语言学)neurologicallinguistics(神经语言学),mathematicallinguistics(数字语言学)andcomputationallinguistics(计算机语言学).1Prescriptivevs.Descriptive规定性与描写性1.3Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics2Synchronicvs.Diachronic共时性与历时性(Saussure)语言学研究中的一些重要的区分3SpeechandWriting口头语和书面语4LangueandParole(bothfromFrenchwords)语言（抽象）和言语（具体）(Saussure)5CompetenceandPerformance语言能力与语言运用(Chomsky)2.Whatislanguage?什么是语言？2.1Definitions:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是用于人类交流的一个任意的语音符号系统。(1)languageisasystem(2)languageisarbitrary(3)languageisvocal(4)languageishumanspecific2.2Designfeaturesa.语言的任意性（武断性）Arbitrariness语言的甄别性特征b.语言的能产性Productivity人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的一些特征Hockettc.语言的双重性Dualityd.语言的移位性Displacemente.语言的文化传递性CulturaltransmissionChapter2Phonology音位学1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage语言的语音媒介2.Phonetics语音学\n2.1Definition:phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.(1)articulatoryphonetics发音语音学→研究语言的产生语音学关注的是语言世界中的所有声音↘threepointsofview(2)auditoryphonetics听觉语音学→研究语言怎样被感知2.2OrgansofspeechThepharyngealcavity咽腔(thethroat)→喉咙从三个角度审视(3)acousticphonetics声学语音学→研究语音的物理属性语言的发音器官Theoralcavity口腔(themouth)→嘴巴Thenasalcavity鼻腔(thenose)→鼻子2.3Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptionsIPA-InternationalPhoneticAlphabet国际音标语音的正字表征—宽式标音和严式标音Therearetwowaystotranscribespeechsounds:Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlycalledbroadtranscription.两种标音方法Theotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticscallednarrowtranscription.2.4ClassificationofEnglishspeechsoundsConsonantsintermsofmannerofarticulationstops闭塞音/p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/英语语音的分类辅音按照发音方式fricatives摩擦音/f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/θ/,/ð/,/h/affricates塞擦音/tʃ/,/dʒ/liquids流音/l/,/r/nasals鼻音/m/,/n/,/ŋ/glides滑音/w/,/j/intermsofplaceofarticulationbilabial双唇音/p/,/b/,/m/,/w/按照发音部位labiodental唇齿音/f/,/v/dental齿音/θ/,/ð/alveolar齿龈音/t/,/s/,/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/palatal鄂音/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/,/dʒ/,/j/velar软腭音/k/,/g/,/ŋ/glottal喉音/h/VowelsFront前元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/thepositionofthetongueinthemouth元音Central中元音/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/按照舌在口腔的位置back后元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/,/a:/closevowels闭元音/i:/,/i/,/ɜ:/,/u/theopennessofthemouthsemi-closevowels半闭元音/e/,/ɜ:/monophthong按照嘴的张合度semi-openvowels半开元音/ə/,/ɔ:/单元音openvowels开元音/æ/,/a/,/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/a:/theshapeofthelipsroundedvowels圆唇元音/u:/,/u/,/ɔ:/,/ɔ/按照嘴唇形状unroundedvowels不圆唇元音/i:/,/i/,/e/,/æ/,/a/,/ɜ:/,/ə/,/ʌ/thelengthofthevowelslongvowels长元音/a:/,/ɔ:/,/ə:/,/i:/,/u:/按照音的长度shortvowels短元音/ʌ/,/ɔ/,/ə/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/æ/\n在元音中还有一些双元音(diphthong),包括：/ei/,/ai/,/au/,/əu/,/ɔi/,/iə/,/εə/,/uə/3.Phonology音位学3.1phonologyandphonetics音位学和语音学3.2phone,phoneme,allophone音素、音位和音位变体3.3Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体Sequentialrules序列规则3.4SomerulesinphonologyAssimilationrules同化规则Deletionrule省略规则Stress重音3.5SuprasegmentalfeaturesTone声调Intonation语调Chapter3Morphology形态学1.Definition:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。2.Morpheme词素2.1Definition:Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.正如音位是音位学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。freemorphemes2.2Typesofmorphemes自由词素roots词根词素的分类boundmorphemesinflectionalaffixes曲折词缀黏着词素affixes词缀prefix前缀derivationalaffixes派生词缀suffix后缀2.2.3Morphologicalrules:Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypesofstemtoformanewword.形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。3.Compounding复合法3.1Typesofcompoundwords1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.在拼写上，复合词既可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如armchair,follow-up,thunderbird2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.在语法上，复合词的词性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如icy-cold是形容词，head-strong也是形容词，greenhouse是名词。而例外的情况有：3.2Featuresofcompoundsfollow-up,crackdown,kickoff都是名词而不是副词，而toothpick,snowfall,facelift都是名词而不是动词。3)Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponents.在语意上，复合词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如hotdog,greenhouse等。4)Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.在语音上，复合词的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如runningdog重\nChapter4Syntax句法学WhatisSyntax?Definition:Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.句法学研究语言的句子结构。1.Syntaxasasystemofrules句法是规则系统Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。2.Sentencestructure2.1Thebasiccomponentsofasentence句子的构成Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject（主语）anditspredicate（谓语）whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。1)Thesimplesentence简单句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。2)Thecoordinatesentence并列句Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.并列句包含两个子句，2.2.Typesofsentence由and,but,or等并列连词连接。句子的类型3)Thecomplexsentence复合句Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。1)Thelinearwordorderofasentence句子的线性词序Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.我们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有2.3Thelinearandhierarchical次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。structuresofsentences2)Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence句子的层次结构句子的线性和层次结构Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature.组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。3)Treediagramsofsentencestructure句子结构树形图Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67－70页。Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。\nNoun(N)名词：studentVerb(V)动词：likeMajorlexicalcategoriesAdjective(Adj)形容词：tall1)Lexicalcategories主要词类：Adverb(Adv)副词：loudly词类Determiner(Det)限定词：the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助动词：can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介词：in,at,over3.SyntacticcategoriesMinorlexicalcategoriesPronoun(Pron)代词：he,she,us,mine句法类型次要词类：Conjunction(Conj)连词：and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感叹词：oh,ah,ehnounphrase(NP)名词词组2)Phrasalcategoriesverbphrase(VP)动词词组词组类型prepositionalphrase(PP)介词词组adjectivephrase(AP)形容词词组Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.重要提示：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。4.Grammaticalrelations:Ourlinguisticknowledgeincludesanawarenessofadistinctionbetweenthestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituents.语法关系:我们的语言知识包括对组成成分的结构和逻辑功能关系的认识。1)phrasestructurerulesorrewriterule短语结构规则5.Combinationalrules2)therecursive-nessofphrasestructurerules短语结构规则的循环性组合规则3)X-bartheoryX-标杆理论1)NP-movementandWH-movement名词词组位移与WH位移2)Othertypesofmovement其他类型的位移6.Syntacticmovementandmovementrules句法位移和位移规则3)D-structureandS-structure深层结构与表层结构4)Moveα—ageneralmovementrule移动α一条普遍规则CaseCondition格条件GeneralprinciplesofUniversalGramma7.TowardatheoryofUniversalGrammar(UG)AdjacencyCondition毗邻条件rTheparametersofUniversalGrammar普遍语法参数\nChapter5Semantics语义学1.whatissemantics?什么是语义学Definition:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.语义学对语言意义的研究。1)thenametheory命名论2.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning2)theconceptualistview意念论语义研究的几种主要理论3)contextualism语境论4)behaviorism行为主义论3.Lexicalmeaning词汇意义3.1Senseandreference意义和所指Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.意义，是词汇内在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇所有特征的集合。这个意义正是词典编纂者感兴趣的。Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.所指，是词汇所指称的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。1)Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects2)Stylisticsynonyms文体同义词-synonymsdifferinginstyle1)Synonymy同义关系3)Stylisticthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感意义或评价意义不同的同义词3.2Majorsenserelations4)Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词主要意义关系5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms语义上有一定差别的同义词2)polysemy多义关系同音异义词homophones3)homonymy同音/同形异义关系同形异义词homographs完全同音同形异义词completehomonymyssuperordinate上义词4)hyponymy上下义关系hyponyms下义词co-hyponyms并列下义词，具有同一个上义词的下义词叫做并列下义词gradableantonyms可分等级的反义词5)antonymy反义关系complementaryantonyms互补性反义词relationalantonyms关系反义词4.Senserelationsbetweensentences句子间的语义关系Componentialanalysis—awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning语义成分分析法——一种词义分析法5.Analysisofmeaning意义分析Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning述谓结构分析——一种句义分析法Chapter6Pragmatics语用学1.whatispragmatics?什么是语用学1.1Definition:Pragmatics,itisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.语用学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际\n的。1.2Pragmaticsvs.semantics语用学和语义学Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.语用学和语义学的根本区别在于是否考虑语境。不考虑语境，语义研究属于传统的语义学范围；考虑语境，语义研究就成了语用学的研究范围。1.3Context语境Context,itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.语境，一般认为它是由说话者和听者所共有的知识构成的。1.4Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义Themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofaprediction.句子意义是抽象的，是不依赖语境的；而话语意义是具体的，是依赖与语境的。Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualized,thatofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextdependent.话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情境或者语境中的具体体现。locutionaryact言内行为（表达字面意义的行为）representatives阐述类2.Speechacttheorydirectives指令类语言行为理论illocutionaryact言外行为（表达说话人意图）commissives承诺类expressives表达类declarations宣告类perlocutionaryact言后行为（由话语所带来的结果或变化）themaximofquantity数量准则themaximofquality质量准则3.Principleofconversationthemaximofrelation关联准则会话原则themaximofmanner方式准则Chapter7HistoricalLinguistics历史语言学Diachronic历时1.Thepurposeandsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage对语言进行历史研究的目的和意义Synchronic共时2.Thenatureoflanguagechange语言变化的本质3.ThehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish英语的历史发展OldEnglish古英语3.1MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish英语历史发展的主要阶段MiddleEnglish中古英语ModernEnglish现代英语\nvowelsoundchange元音的变化soundloss语音的丧失1)soundchange语音系统的变化soundaddition语音的增加soundmovement语音的位移3.2LinguisticchangeofEnglishaffixloss词缀的丧失2)morphologicalchange形态的变化英语语言系统的变化affixaddition词缀的添加ruleloss规则的丧失3)syntacticchange句法的变化ruleaddition规则的添加rulechange规则方面的变化lexicalloss词汇的丧失4)lexicalchange词汇的变化lexicaladdition词汇的添加semanticbroadening语义的广义化5)semanticchange语义的变化semanticnarrowing语义的狭义化semanticshift语义的演变4.Languagefamily语系1)theIndo-EuropeanFamily印欧语系2)theSino-TibetanFamily汉藏语系4.1Classifyinggeneticallyrelatedlanguages语系的划分3)theAnstronesianFamily南岛语系4)theAfroasiaticFamily亚欧语系4.2TheIndo-EuropeanFamily1)Soundassimilation语音的同化2)Rulesimplificationandregularization规则的简化与统一3)Internalborrowing内部借用5.Thecausesoflanguagechange4)Elaboration规则的细化语言变化的原因5)Sociologicaltriggers社会因素6)Culturaltransmission文化传播7)Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar儿童对成人语法的习得Chapter8Sociolinguistics社会语言学1)Speechcommunity言语社区2)Speechvariety言语变体1.Languagevariation3)Regionalvariation地域变异语言变异4)Socialvariation社会变异5)Stylisticvariation文体变异6)Idiolectalvariation个人言语变异\n1)standardandnonstandardlanguage标准语与非标准语2)linguafrancas通用语2.Standardandnonstandardlanguage3)pidgins洋泾滨语标准语与非标准语4)creoles克里奥尔语3.Diglossiaandbilingualism1)diglossia双言现象双言与双语现象2)bilingualism双语现象4.Ethnicdialect1)blackEnglish,acasestudyofethnicdialect黑人英语，少数民族方言的个案研究少数民族方言2)thesocialenvironmentofblackEnglish黑人英语的社会环境1)educationvarieties教育变体2)agevarieties年龄变体3)gendervarieties性别变体5.Socialdialect4)registervarieties语域变体社会方言5)addressterms称谓语6)slang俚语7)linguistictaboo禁忌语8)euphemism委婉语Chapter9Psycholinguistics心理语言学1)thecaseofPhineasGage盖奇案例1.Thebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage语言的生理基础2)thehumanbrain人的大脑3)brainlateralization大脑左右半球的侧化1)lefthemisphericdominanceforlanguage左半球的语言优势2.Linguisticlateralization语言侧化2)dichoticlisteningresearch两耳分听实验1)Broca’sarea布罗卡区3.Thelanguagecenters语言中枢2)Wernicke’sarea韦尼克区3)theangulargyrus角形脑回4)languageperception,comprehensionandproduction语言的感知、理解与表达1)thecriticalperiodhypothesis关键期建设4.Thecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition2)thecaseofGenieandthedegenerationoflanguagefacultywithage吉尼案例与语言机制退化语言习得关键期\n1)earlyviewsonlanguageandthought有关语言与思维的一些早期观点2)theSapirWhorfhypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设1)wordsandmeaning词与意义2)grammaticalstructure语法结构5.Languageandthought3)argumentsagainsttheSapirWhorfhypothesis3)translation翻译语言与思维对萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设的批判4)secondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得5)languageandworldviews语言与世界观1)majorfunctionsoflanguage语言的主要功能2)thedevelopmentandblendingoflanguageandthought语言与思维的发展和融合4)understandingtherelationoflanguageandthought3)thinkingwithoutlanguage无言而思对语言与思维关系的再认识4)languageasaconventionalcodingsystemtoexpressthought语言—表达思维之约定俗称的编码系统5)thewaysinwhichlanguageaffectsthought语言影响思维的方式Chapter10LanguageAcquisition语言习得1)thebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisition语言习得的生物基础2)languageacquisitionastheacquisitionofgrammaticalrules语言习得即语法规则的习得3)theroleofinputandinteraction语言输入与交流的作用1.Firstlanguageacquisition第一语言习得4)theroleofinstruction语言教学的作用5)theroleofcorrectionandreinforcement纠错与强化的作用6)theroleofimitation模仿的作用1)theprelinguisticstage前语言阶段2)theone-wordstage独词句阶段2.Stagesoffirstlanguageacquisition3)thetwo-wordstage双词句阶段第一语言习得的发展阶段4)themultiwordstage多词句阶段1)thedevelopmentofphonology语音的发展2)thedevelopmentofsyntax句法的发展3.Thedevelopmentofthegrammaticalsystem3)thedevelopmentofmorphology词形的发展语法体系的发展4)thedevelopmentofvocabularyandsemantics词汇与语义的发展\n1)acquisitionvs.learning习得与学习2)transferandinterference转移与干扰3)errorAnalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopment错误分析与第二语言的自然发展轨道4.Secondlanguageacquisition4)inter-languageandfossilization语际语与语言僵化现象5)theroleofinput语言输入的作用6)theroleofformalinstruction正规教学的作用1)theoptimumageforsecondlanguageacquisition第二语言习得的最佳年龄7)individuallearnerfactors2)motivation学习第二语言的动机学习者的个人因素3)acculturation语言文化深入4)personality学习者的个性