《现代语言学大题》word版 23页

第一章一. Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic(可靠的，真实的)languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.二.Whatarethebranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?(语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingbranches:1)Generallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy2)Phonetics,whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunication3)Phonology,whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication4)Morphology,whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords5)Syntax,whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences6)Semantics,whichisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.7)Pragmatics,whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butinthecontextofuse8)Sociolinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety9)Psycholinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.10)Appliedlinguistics,whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticfindingsinlinguisticstudies;inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.11)Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学),neurologicallinguistics（神经语言学）,mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）,andcomputationallinguistics（计算机语言学）.三.whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?(现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别?答:Traditionalgrammarprescriptive（规定性）;itisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive（描述性）;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis"correct"ornot.四 Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic（共时性）ordiachronic（历时性）?Why?答:Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.)Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.五 Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?答Mordernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:First,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.Third,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.六.Saussure是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的答：(Thedistinctionbetweenlangueand\nparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.)Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.七.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？答(AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.)Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc…Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard(偶然的).八HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Andwhatistheirdifference?答BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.   TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.九. Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage？答Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorulesSecond,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitrefersto.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages. Theterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-specific.十.WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyCharlesHocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？答：1. Arbitrariness（任意性）:(课本答案：asignofsophisticationonlyhumansarecapableof)Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthetotalnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2.Productivity（创造性）:（课本答案：creativity:animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend）Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingthosetheyhaveneversaidor\nheardbefore.3.Duality（二重性）:（课本答案：afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication）Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）:（课本答案：noanimalcan“talk”aboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituation）Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5.Culturaltransmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication）Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.十一：Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?答：Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.第二章Phonology（1）一．Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？答Speechandwritingarethemajormediaofcommunication.Speechisconsideredprimaryoverwriting.Thereasonsare:speechispriortowritinginlanguageevolution,speechplaysagreaterroleindailycommunications,andspeechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnativelanguage.二whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?语音学的三个分支是什么。它们是如何研究语言学的？(可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易理解)答1)Articulatoryphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.2)Auditoryphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,andreachesimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.3)Acousticphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;itdealswiththesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph（声谱仪）.四Wherearethearticulatoryapparatusofhumanbeingcontained?    Pharyngealcavity,oralcavityandnasalcavity.五Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？答：Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchawayarevoiceless.Whenvocalcordsareheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthem,thesoundsproducedinthiswayarevoiced.六Whatisthefunctionofnasalcavity?Howdoesitperformthisfunction?答Thefunctionofnasalcavityistonasalizethesoundsthatareproduced.Itdoesthisbyclosingtheairpassage\nconnectingtheoralandnasalcavitiessothattheairstreamcanonlygothroughthenasalcavity.七Describethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?答：Thevariouspatsofthetongue:thetip,thefront,theblade,andtheback;theuvula;thesoftpalate;thehardpalate;theteethridge(alveolar);theupperandlowerteeth;thelips.八.Howbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？(P22)答：Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingonelettertorepresentonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithdiacritics（变音符号）toshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]inusedforthesound[l]inwordslikeleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Thesound[l]inallthesewordsisdifferslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringbeforeanotherconsonant,iscalleddark[l],indicatedinnarrowtranscriptionas[l].Thenin[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbythedentalsound[θ],itisthuscalledadental[l],andtranscribedas[helθ]（注：l下有一个向下的框，无法打印）innarrowtranscription.十：WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?英语的元音是如何分类的？答：1)Accordingtothepositionofthetongue,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontcentrlbebindvowels2)Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowelssuchas[i:][i][u:][ʊ],semi-closevowelssuchas[e][ɜ:],semi-openvowelssuchas[ə][ɔ:],andopenvowelssuchas[æ][a][ʌ][ɔ]and[ɑ:].3)Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.InEnglishallthefrontandcentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,allthebackvowels,withexceptionof[ɑ:],arerounded4)Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,theEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][ɜ:][ɔ:][u:][ɑ:]，whiletherestareshortvowels.十一：Whatisthedifferencebetweenamonophthongandadiphthong?答：Amonophthongisoneforwhichtheorgansofspeechremaininagivenpositionforaperiodoftime.Adiphthongisavowelsoundconsistingofadeliberateglide.Theorgansofspeechstartinginthepositionofonevowelandimmediatelymovinginthedirectionofanothervowel,forexample:[i:],[i]aremonophthongs,and[aɪ],[eɪ]arediphthongs.十二：Howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween[l]and[l],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?答：Phonetics:descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinedifferences.Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonology:descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Itisrealizedascertainphoneanditdistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencesbecausesuchdifferenceswillnotcausedifferencesinmeaning,butcanmakefinerdistinctionsofthesounds.十三Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?答：Phone:aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.（Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning）Phoneme:acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.(realizedascertainphone,distinguishmeaning)Allophones:actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.\n十四：Whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?答：Minimalpair:twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.Minimalset:agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.  Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphonologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.十五Whatarephonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair?什么叫音位对立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？(p34)答：Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.  [p],[b]Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephonemeandtheyoccurindifferentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.[p],[ph].Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample,killandbill.十六Explainwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.(P36,每条规则记一个例子)答：Sequentialrule:rulegoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Assimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundsimilartothefollowingonebycopyingoneofitsphoneticfeatures. Deletionrule:rulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.十七：Whataresupresegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？(p40)答：Suprasegmentalfeaturesarephonologicalfeaturesabovethesoundsegmentlevel. ThemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglisharewordstress,sentencestressandintonation.1) ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`importandim`port.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.2)Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns,arepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent3)Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.十八：Whatdoessentencestressmean?答：Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Somewordsaremoreimportantthanothers,Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Forexample:Heisdrivingmycar.Mymaybestressedtoemphasizethefactthatthecarismine.Chapter3:Morphology一Whatdoesmorphologystudy?答：Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Theaimofmorphologyistofindouttherulesaccordingtowhichwordsareformed.二．Whatisamorpheme?DescribewithexamplesthevarioustypesofmorphemesusedinEnglish.\n答：Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.//Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.//Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.三．WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?    Despitethevariousformations,allcompoundssharethefollowingfeatures:1)Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords,e.g.,armchair,follow-up,thunderbird.2)Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement,e.g.,head-strongadj.greenhousen.3)Semantically,themeaningofcompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents.Forexample,ablacklegisnotalegthatisblack,agreenhouseisnotahousethatisgreen,ahotdogisnotadogatall.4) Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.Forexample,“,running’dog.”Thuspronounced,theformmeans“adogthatisrunning,”theotherwayistoputtheprimarystressonthefirstelement“running”,inthiscase,“runningdog”isactuallyacompoundnounandmetaphoricallyitreferstoapersonwhofollowsanotherpersonobedientlyinhiswrongdoings.Chapter4:Syntax一．Typesofsentences（句子的基本类型）:Traditionally,threemajortypesofsentencesaredistinguished.Theyaresimplesentence,coordinateorcompoundsentenceandcomplexsentence.1) Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.2) Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”,“but”,“or”.Thetwoclausesinacoordinatesentencearestructurallyequalpartsofthesentence;neitherissubordinatetotheother.3)Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencehaveunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinate,clauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixsentence.Forexample,⑤MarytoldJane[thatJohnlikedlinguistics].Chapter5:SemanticsWhatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning(语义研究的主要流派有哪些)?答：1) Thenamingtheory: ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbolsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2)Theconceptualistview: Itholdsthatthere\nisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.Intheinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3)Contextualism: Itisbasedonthepresumption（假定）thatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized:thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.Forexample,themeaningoftheword"seal"inthesentence"Thesealcouldnotbefound"canonlybedeterminedaccordingtothecontextinwhichthesentenceoccurs:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.(sealmeaninganaquaticmammal)Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thekingbecameworried.(sealmeaningtheking'sstamp)4)Behaviorism:ThecontextualistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield.Hedrewonbehavioristpsychologywhenhetriedtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformas"thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer".(Bloomfield,1933)  Thisbehavioristtheoryissomewhatclosetocontextualism.Itislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.三．Whatissenseandwhatisreference?Howaretheyrelated?所指与意义有什么关系？答：Senseandreferencearetwotermsinthestudyofmeaning.(1)Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningthatdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.(2)Obviously,linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.Ontheotherhand,therearelessfrequentoccasionswhenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.“morningstar”and“eveningstar”.四．Howmanymajorsenserelationsbetweenwords.答：1.synonymy,2.polysemy,3.homonymy,4.hyponymyand5.antonymy.五．WhatarethemajortypesofsynonymsinEnglish?(同义词的分类)答：1)Dialectalsynonyms:DialectalsynonymsarewordswhichhavemoreorlessthesamemeaningandareusedindifferentregionaldialectssuchaspetroleuminBritishEnglishandgasolineinAmericanEnglish.  DialectalsynonymscanalsobefoundwithinBritish,orAmericanEnglishitself.Forexample,"girl"iscalled"lass"or"lassie"inScottishdialect.2)Stylisticsynonyms:Stylisticsynonymsarewordswhichhavethesamemeaningbutdifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.Someofthestylisticsynonymstendtobemoreformal,otherstendtobecasual,andstillothersareneutralinstyle.Forexample:oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent.3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning:Theyarewordsthathavethesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser.Theemotionsoftheuserindicatetheattitudeorbias（偏爱）oftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout,suchasthriftyandmiser.4)Collocationalsynonyms:Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.Thatis,theygotogetherwithdifferentwords,forexample:accuse...of,charge...with,rebuke...for.5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms:Theyrefertothesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean.Forexample,"amaze"and"astound"areverycloseinmeaningtotheword"surprise,"buttheyhaveverysubtledifferencesinmeaning.Whileamazesuggestsconfusionandbewilderment,"astound"suggestsdifficultyinbelieving.六．Explainwithexamples“homonymy,”“polysemy,”and“hyponymy.”答：Homonymy:differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth,butdifferentinmeaning.e.g.night—knight,\ntearv.—tearn.,fasta.—fastv.Polysemy:thesameonewordhasmorethanonemeaning.e.g.earth–ourplanet,orthesoilonitssurface.Hyponymy:referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.(Thegeneralwordiscalledthesuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponymstoeachother.)e.g.furniture—table,bed.第7张历史语言学大题一Whatisthepurposeorsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage?答：1)Researchesinhistoricallinguisticsshedlightonprehistoricdevelopmentsintheevolutionoflanguageandtheconnectionsofearlierandlatervariantsofthesamelanguageandprovidevaluableinsightsintothekinshippatternsofdifferentlanguages.2)Theidentificationofthechangesthataparticularlanguagehasundergoneenablesustoreconstructthelinguistichistoryofthatlanguage,andtherebyhypothesizesitsearlierformsfromwhichcurrentspeechandwritinghaveevolved.3)Thehistoricalstudyoflanguagealsoenablesthemtodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassocial,culturalandpsychologicalfactors,interactovertimetocauselinguisticchange.二.Whatarethecharacteristicsofthenatureoflanguagechange?语言变化的本质有什么特征答：Alllivinglanguageschangewithtimeandlanguagechangeisinevitable.Asageneralrule,languagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic.Languagechangeisextensive,takingplaceinvirtuallyallaspectsofthegrammar.Althoughlanguagechangeisuniversal,inevitable,andinsomecases,vigorous,itisneveranovernightoccurrence,butagradualandconstantprocess,oftenindiscernibletospeakersofthesamegeneration.三．WhatarethemajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish?Namemajorhistoricaleventthatledtothetransitionfromoneperiodtothenext.英语语言发展可分为哪2个主要阶段？答：ThemajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglishareOldEnglishperiod(roughlyfrom449to1100),MiddleEnglishperiod(roughlyfrom1100to1500),andModernEnglishperiod(roughlyfrom1500tothepresent).HistoricalEvents:THEOldEnglishperiodbeganwiththeinvasionoftheBritishIslesbyEnglish-speakingAnglo-SaxonsfromEurope,andendedwiththearrivalofNormanFrenchinvadershistoricallyknownastheNormanConquest.TheMiddleEnglishperiodastheresultoftheculturalinfluenceoftheEuropeanrenaissancemovement.四．EplainwhythewordorderofOldEnglishismorevariesthanthatofMordernEnglish?为什么古英语的词序比现代英语灵活？答：OldEnglishhasanelaboratecasemarkingsystemtoshowifaconstituentisthesubject,object,andsoon,ofasentence,whileMordernEnglishhasamuchweakersystemforcasemarkingandthereforehastorelyheavilyonmorerigidwordordertoindicategrammaticalrelations.五．Aslanguagechangesovertime,themeaningofawordmaydeviatefromitsoriginaldenotation.Discussthemajortypesofsemanticchanges.语义变化的主要类型答：1）Semanticbroadeningreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.2）Semanticnarrowingisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomeslessgeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearliermeaning.3）Semanticshiftisaprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelated,meaning.\n六．Explainthepurposeofreconstructioninhistoricallinguisticsandthemethodemployedbyhistoricallinguists.历史语言学重新构建语言历史的目的和方法各是什么？答：Historicallinguistsaimatestablishing,throughthemethodofcomparativereconstruction,thegeneticrelationshipbetweenandamongvariouslanguagesbasedontheevidenceofsystematicform-meaningresemblanceincognateitems,andtherebytoreconstructtheprotolanguageofalanguagefamily.七。Whatarethemostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish?答：Themostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglisharethelossandadditionofaffixes.AnumberofmorphologicalrulesinOldEnglisharenowlostinModernEnglish.Someoftheserulesareaboutderivationalaffixes,suchassuffixes“-baere”and“-bora”.InOldEnglishanadjectivewouldderiveif“-baere”wasaddedtoanoun,suchas:lust(“pleasure”)+baerelustbaere(“agreeable”)ButthisrulehasbeenlostinmodernEnglish.Themostdramaticmorphologicallossconcernsthelossofgenderandcasemarking.八。什么是Grimm法则？答：JacobGrimm,AGermanscholar,foundaseriesofconsonantshiftsthatoccurredinthehistoryoftheGermaniclanguagesincludingEnglish,Dutch,German,SwedishandDanish.ThefollowingarethethreesetsofconsonantshiftsthatGrimmdiscovered:（a）.Voicedstopsbecomevoiceless.b→p  d→t  g→k（b）.Voicelessstopsbecomefricatives.p→f  t→θ  k→x（c）.Voicedaspiratesbecomedeaspirated.bh→b  dh→d  gh→gBecausethesesoundchangesweresostrikinglyregularandlaw-like,theybecameknownasGrimm’sLaw.Accordingtothislaw,theGermaniclanguagesweresubjecttoarulethatchangedallvoicelessstopsintofricativesaftertheysplitofffromotherIndo-Europeanlanguages.九。Thecausesoflanguagechange.语言变化的主要原因是什么？答1)Soundassimilationisthephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Itmaycauselossofvowelsorconsonants,vowelnasalizationandmorphologicalandlexicalchanges.2) Rulesimplificationandregularizationareatypeofspontaneousmorphologicalrulechangeinvolvingexceptionalpluralformsofnouns.3)Internalborrowingcausedbytheneedtolessentheburdenonmemory.4)Elaborationismotivatedbytheneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.5）Sociologicaltriggersrefertothoseradicalsocio-politicalchangesthatleadtovigorouslanguagechanges.6)Thecontinualprocessofculturaltransmissionacrossgenerationsisanothercauseoflanguagechange.7)Children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammarconstitutesanotherbasiccauseforlanguagechange.Childrentendtoacquirethesimplifiedandregularizedexpressions,thusgivingrisetolanguagechangeinthelongrun.Chapter6:Pragmatics\n一：Whatdoespragmaticsstudy?Howdoesitdifferfromtraditionalsemantics?语用学和传统语义学有什么区别？答：Pragmaticsstudieshowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.(orhowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.)Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaninginthecontextofuse,whiletraditionalsemanticstreatsmeaningassomethingintrinsic,abstractandde-contextualized.（展开：＊Traditionalsemanticsstudiedmeaning,butthemeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintrinsic,andinherent,i.e.apropertyattachedtolanguageitself.Therefore,meaningsofwords,meaningsofsentenceswereallstudiedinanisolatedmanner,detachedfromthecontextinwhichtheywereused.＊Pragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotinisolation,butincontext.＊Theessentialdistinctionbetweensemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherthecontextofuseisconsideredinthestudyofmeaning.Ifitisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.）二：Howisthenotionofcontextinterpreted?(Whyisthenotionofcontextessentialtopragmatics?)答：＊Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstituted(n.结构)bytheknowledgeofthespeakerandhearer.＊Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse;andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.＊Withoutthissharedknowledge,linguisticcommunicationwouldbeimpossible,andwithoutconsideringthisknowledge,linguisticcommunicationcannotbesatisfactorilyaccountedforinapragmaticsense.三：Howaresentencemeaningandutterancemeaningrelated,andhowdotheydiffer?句子的语义与话语语义有什么联系和区别？答：Utterance-meaningisbasedonsentence-meaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Theformerisconcreteandcontext-dependentandthelatterisabstractandde-contextualized.（展开：＊Asentencemeaningisoftenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.＊Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.＊Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.＊Forexample,“Thereisadogatthedoor”.Thespeakercouldutteritasamatter-of-factstatement,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningof“Thereisadogatthedoor”dependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.）四Howdoesasentencerelateanddifferfromanutterance?（Howasentencebecomesanutterance?）答：＊Asentenceisagrammaticalunit.Itsmeaningisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.＊Utteranceiswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication.Ifweregardasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanutterance,anditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyutteredorused.＊Soitisimpossibletotellwhether“Thedogisbarking”isasentenceoranutterance.Itcanbeeither.Italldependsonhowwelookatitandhowwearegoingtoanalyzeit.Ifweregarditasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolationthenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.＊Mostutterances\ntaketheformofsentences,i.e.mostutterancesarecompletesentencesintermsofsyntax;however,someutterancesarenot,andsomecannotevenberestoredtocompletesentences.五AccordingtoJohnAustin,whatarethethreeactsapersonispossiblyperformingwhilemakinganutterance.Giveanexample.答：Locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andprelocutionaryact.(＊Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.＊Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.＊Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.)Forexample:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.＊Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewords"you,'"have,""door,""left,""open,"etc.andexpressedwhatthewordliterallymean.＊Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterance,hehasexpressedhisintentionofaskingthehearertoclosethedoor.＊Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearerunderstandsthatthespeakerintendshimtoclosethedoorandclosesthedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutioharyactissuccessfullyperformed.六．Whyarelinguistsmostinterestedintheillocutionaryact?答：Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Ofthethreespeechacts,linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutionaryactbecausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeaker’sintention,andintheirstudyoflanguagecommunication,linguistsaremostinterestedinhowaspeakerexpresseshisintentionandalsohowhisintentionisrecognizedbythehearer.七；WhatarethefivetypesofillocutionaryspeechactsSearlehasspecified?Whatistheillocutionarypointofeachtype?JohnSearle是如何对言外行为进行分类的？它们各自的言外指的是什么？答：1)Representatives（讲述类）:statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2)Directives（指令类）:tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3)Commissives（承诺类）:committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.4)Expressives（表达类）:expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5)Declarations（宣告类）:bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.1)Representatives:Representativesareusedtostate,todescribe,toreport,etc.Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomething’sbeingthecase,tothetruthofwhathasbeensaid.2)Directives:Directivesareattemptsbythespeakertogetthehearertodosomething.Inviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning,threatening,orderingareallspecificinstancesofthisclass.3)Commissives:Commissivesarethoseillocutionaryactswhosepointistocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofaction.Whenthespeakerisspeaking,heputshimselfunderobligation4)Expressives:Theillocutionarypointofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstatespecifiedintheutterance.Thespeakerisexpressinghisfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs,e.g.apologizing,thanking,congratulating.5)Declarations:Declarationshavethecharacteristicthatthesuccessfulperformanceofsuchanactbringsaboutthecorrespondencebetweenwhatissaidandreality.\n八：WhatarethefourmaximsoftheCP?Howdoestheviolationofthesemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures（会话暗示）?答：合作原则的四个准则是什么？违反合作原则的四个准则是如何产生会话含义的？答：1) Themaximofquantity（数量准则）a) Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange).（使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。）b)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.（不能使自己所说的话比所要求的更详尽。）2)Themaximofquality（质量准则）a) Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.（不要说自己认为不真实的话。）b)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.（不要说自己缺乏足够证据的话。）3)Themaximofrelation（关联准则）：Berelevant.（说话要贴切。）4) Themaximofmanner（方式准则）a)Avoidobscurityofexpression.（避免晦涩的词语。）b)Avoidambiguity.（避免歧义。）c)Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity)（说话要简短，避免累赘。）d)Beorderly.（说话要有条理。）A.DoyouknowwhereMr.Smithlives?B.Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.    ThisissaidwhenbothAandBknowthatBdoesknowMr.Smith'saddress.ThusBdoesnotgiveenoughinformationthatisrequired,andhehasfloutedthemaximofquantity.Therefore,suchconversationalimplicatureas"IdonotwishtotellyouwhereMr.Smithlives"isproduced.第八章社会语言学一．Whatarethedistinctionsbetweenbilingualismanddiglossia?答Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedinaspeechcommunity;whereasinadiglossiccommunity,twovarietiesoflanguageareusedfordifferentsituations,onebeingmorestandardandhigher,andusedformoreformalmatters,andtheotherlessprestigious,andusedforcolloquialsituations.二．DescribethreefeaturesofBlackEnglish,includingatleastonephonologicalandonesyntacticcharacteristics.答1) OneofthephonologicalfeaturesofBlackEnglishisthesimplificationofaconsonantclusterattheendofawordbydroppingtheword-finalphoneme.Asaresult,forexample,“pass,”“past”and“passed,”areallpronouncedthewayas“pass”is.2) OneofthesyntacticfeaturesofBlackEnglishistheconstantabsenceofthecopula,suchasin“Thatmine”and“Thecoffeecold.”3) AnothersyntacticfeatureofBlackEnglishisthesystematicuseoftheexpression“itis“whereStandardEnglishuses“thereis“inthesenseof“thereexists”:“IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?”4) AnothersyntacticfeaturethatcharacterizesBlackEnglishisthedoublenegationconstructionwithsentenceslike“Idon’tknownobody”,and“Hedon’tgonowhere.”三。Listseveralwaysinwhichthespeechofwomenandthespeechofmendifferfromeachother.答：Womentendtousemoreprestigiousforms,morepoliteandindirectlanguage,andmorespecificcolortermsthantheirmalecounterparts.Femalesarefoundtousemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsincomparisonwithmales.展开：1)Innormalsituations,femalespeakerstendtousemoreprestigiousformsthantheirmalecounterpartswiththesamegeneralsocialbackground.2)Anotherfeatureoftenassociatedwithso-calledwomen’slanguageispoliteness.Usually,toughandroughspeecheshaveconnotationsofmasculinityandarenotconsideredtobedesirable\nfemininequalities.3)Thisphenomenonofsex-preferentialdifferentiationisalsoreflectedintherelativefrequencywithwhichmalesandfemalesusethesamelexicalitems.4)Femaleshavealsobeenshowntopossessagreatervarietyofspecificcolortermsthanmales,inspiteofthefactthatmendonotnecessarilypossesslessacutecolorperceptionthanwomen.Ontheotherhand,maleshavethereputationofpossessingalargervocabularyintraditionallymale-dominateddomainssuchassports,huntingandthemilitary.5)Sex-preferentialdifferentiationisalsoseeninthespeechactsofmalesandfemales.ArequestinEnglishsuchas“Closethedoorwhenyouleave”canbephrasedinanumberofwaysrangingfromaharshcommandtoaverypoliterequest:Althoughtheaboveoptionsareallavailabletobothmenandwomen,itisusuallythemorepoliteformsthatareselectedbyfemalespeakers.Ingeneral,femalesarefoundtousemorequestionsthandeclarativestatementsincomparisonwithmales.四．DiscusswithexamplessomeofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandBlackEnglish.答：OneofthemostprominentphonologicalcharacteristicsofBlackEnglishisthefrequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofwordswhenoneofthetwoconsonantsisanalveolar/t/,/d/,/s/,or/z/.Theapplicationofthissimplificationrulemaydeletethepast-tensemorpheme,so“past“and“passed“arebothpronouncedlike“pass.”AnothersalientcharacteristicofBlackEnglishphonologicalsystemconcernsthedeletionofsomeword-finalstopconsonantsinwordslike“side”and“borrowed.”SpeakersofBlackEnglishfrequentlydeletetheseword-finalstops,pronouncing“side”like“sigh”and“borrowed”like“borrow.”Oneprominentsyntacticfeatureisthefrequentabsenceofvariousformsofthecopula“be”inBlackEnglish,whicharerequiredofStandardEnglish.ComparethefollowingexpressionsinBlackEnglishandStandardEnglish:    (1)    BlackEnglish     StandardEnglish          Theymine.      They’remine.          Youcrazy.       Yourecrazy.AnotherdistinctivesyntacticfeatureofBlackEnglishisthesystematicuseofdieexpression“itis”whereStandardEnglishuses“thereis“inthesenseof“thereexists”:IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?AnotheraspectofBlackEnglishistheuseofdoublenegationconstructions.Whenevertheverbisnegated,theindefinitepronouns“something”,“somebody”,and“some”becomethenegativeindefinites“nothing”,“nobody”,and“none”,forexample:Hedon’tknownothing.(Hedoesn’tknowanything.)五．Changethefollowinginformalstatementsforformalsituations:答：1)Thedelegatesweresavvy（知道，了解）ofthefactthatthedocumenttheyweresigningwasn’tperfect.Thedelegatesunderstoodthatthedocumenttheyweresigningwasnotperfect.2)Thecandidateslammed（猛力抨击）heropponentforoftenchanginghistuneontheissues.Thecandidatecriticizedheropponentforoftenchanginghisviewsontheissues.3) Stickleyfurnituremaynotberealsmooth,butit’spricey（昂贵的）andfresh（新颖的）.Stickleyfurnituremaynotbeverycomfortable,butitisexpensiveandfashionable\n六：Whatisalinguistictaboo?Whateffectdoesithaveonouruseoflanguage?答1)aAlinguistictabooreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite”societyfromgeneraluse.Obscene,profane,andswearwordsarealltaboowordsthataretobeavoidedentirely,oratleastavoidedinmixedcompany.bInsociolinguistics,alinguistictaboo,denotesanyprohibitionontheuseofparticularlexicalitemstorefertoobjectsoracts.2)aAslanguageuseiscontextualizedinparticularsocialsettings,linguistictaboooriginatesfromsocialtaboo.Whenanactistaboo,referencetothisactmayalsobecometaboo.Taboowordsandexpressionsreflecttheparticularsocialcustomsandviewsofaparticularculture.Aslinguistictabooreflectssocialtaboo,certainwordsaremorelikelytobeavoided,forexamples,thewordsrelatedtosex,sexorgansandexcrement排泄物inmanycultures.Theavoidanceofusingtaboolanguagemirrorssocialattitudes,emotionsandvaluejudgments,andhasnolinguisticbias.bTheavoidanceofusingtaboolanguagehasledtothecreationofeuphemisms.Aeuphemismisamild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensive.Forexample,wesay“portly”insteadof“fat”.Inmanycultures,peopleavoidusingdirectwordsthatpertaintodeathordying.3)Althoughtheuseofeuphemismshastheeffectofremovingderogatory贬损overtones暗示,thedisassociativeeffectisneverlong-lasting.Oftenwhenthenegativeconnotationofawordisrecognizedinitseuphemisticform,aneweuphemismwillhavetobesoughtfor.However,anexcessiveuseofeuphemismmayhavenegativeeffects.aAsamatteroffact,manyeuphemismshavebecomecliches陈腔滥调thataretobeavoidedinformalspeechandwriting.bTheyalsotendtobewordyandtogivewritingatimidquality.cInaddition,euphemismcanbeevasiveorevendeceitful.Becausetheyareoftenimproperlyusedtoobscuretheintendedmeaning,manypeoplefindthemoffensiveandpreferplainlanguage.注：以上第3）条可用于回答：Statethatexcessiveuseofeuphemismmayhavenegativeeffects七：Excessiveuseofeuphemismmayhavenegativeeffects.Rewriteeachofthefollowingsentencestoeliminateeuphemisticexpressions答:1)Theemployeeswhohadbeennotifiedofaninterruptionintheiremploymentwerereferredtotheiroutplacementmanager.Thelaid-off（被解雇的）employeesweretoldtospeaktothepersonwhowouldtrytohelpthemfindnewjobs.2)Theofficialacknowledgedthathehadmisspokenwhenhesaidthetroopshadnotengagedinanyprotective-reactionmissions.Theofficialadmittedthathehadliedwhenheclaimedthetroopshadnotengagedinanyoffensive（攻击性）missions.3)Theprisoner’slifewillbeterminatedatdawn.Theprisonerwillbeexecuted（处死，执行）atdawn.4)Thenon-essentialpersonnelinthisdivisionwillbevacationed\nbynextweek.Theunnecessarypeopleinthisdivisionwillbelaidoffbynextweek.5)Reachingthetopoftheladderofsuccessmustbeamovingexperience.Beingsuccessfulmustbeapleasantexperience.6)Iwastoldthathedidawaywithhimself.Iwastoldthathehadcommittedsuicide.7)He’llbeaccountabledespitehisdiabolical（恶魔的）skill.He’llbeaccountabledespitehisimpressiveskill.8)Itisawidespreadbutunprovenhypothesisthattheparametersofsignificantpersonalchangeforpersonsinmid-lifeareextremelynarrow.Itisawidelyheldmyththatmiddle-agedpeoplecan’tchange.9)Ipurchasedaresidentialpropertythatwasinneedofsubstantialupgrading.Iboughtahouseinneedofrepair.第九章心理语言学一．Whatarethebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage?答：Ofallorganisms,humanbeingsaretheonlyspontaneouscreatorsandusersofhighlysophisticatedlanguagesthatpermitthecommunicationofawiderangeofknowledgeandideas.Evidently,ourlinguisticabilitydoesnotdependprimarilyonthestructureofourvocalcords,forothermammalsalsohavevocalcords.Humanlinguisticabilitylargelydepends,instead,onthestructureanddynamicsofthehumanbrain.Asfarasiscurrentlyknown,humanbeingsaretheonlyorganismsinwhichoneparticularpartofthelefthalfofthebrainislargerthanthecorrespondingpartoftherighthalf.Thishasledtothebeliefthathumanlanguageisbiologically,ormoreexactly,neurologically,based.二．Whatarethemajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachhemisphere?答：Psychologicalresearchsuggeststhatbothhemispheresperformimportantmentalfunctionsandtheydifferonlyinthemannerinwhichtheytreatincomingstimuli.Forexample,therighthemisphereprocessesstimulimoreholistically全面地andthelefthemispheremoreanalytically分析地.Brainlateralizationformajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachhemisphereisgivenasfollows:    (1)   Lefthemisphere    Righthemisphere        languageandspeechperceptionofnonlinguisticsounds        analyticreasoning  holisticreasoning        temporalordering  visualandspatialskills        readingandwritingrecognitionofpatterns\n        calculation    recognitionofmusicalmelodiesassociativethoughtBecauseeachcerebralhemispherehasuniquefunctionalsuperiority,itisaccuratetothinkofthehemispheresascomplementarilyspecialized.三。Inwhatcorticalregionsarespeechandlanguagethoughttolocalized?答：InwhathavecometoknownasBroca’sarea,Wernicke’sareaandangulargyrus,alllocatedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.四：Describeoneresearchtechniquethathasprovidedlinguistswithinformationaboutthelocalizationofspeechandlanguageinthebrain.答：Aresearchtechniqueknownasthe“dichoticlistening”hasbeenusedtostudyhowthebraincontrolshearingandlanguage.Whenperformingadichoticlisteningtask,subjectswearearphonesandsimultaneouslyreceivedifferentsoundsintherightandleftear,andareaskedtorepeatwhattheyhear.Dichoticlisteningresearchmakesuseofthegenerallyestablishedfactthatanythingexperiencedontheright-handsideofthebodyisprocessedinthelefthemisphereofthebrain,andviceversa.Duringdichoticlisteningexperiments,subjectsreportedhearingthelanguagespokentotheirrightearspriortothelanguagespokentotheirleftears.Theresultsprovideempiricalsupportforthebeliefthatthelefthemisphereofthebrainisdominantforlanguageandspeech.五。Manyleft-handedpeoplehavetheirlanguagecentersintherighthemisphereofthebrain.Whattypeofresultwouldweexpecttoobtainfromsuchpeopleonadichoticlisteningtask?答：Sincetheleft-handedsubjectshavelanguagecentersresidentintheirrighthemisphereofthebrain,theywouldheartheauditorysignalgiventotheleftearfirst.Thisisbecauseittakesashortertimeforthesignaltogodirectlyfromthelefteartotherightsideofthebrainthanitdoesforthesignalspokentotherighteartotravelfirsttothelefthemisphereandthenontotherighthemisphereforprocessing.Describetheprocessesoflanguageperception,comprehensionandproduction.Fromtheperspectiveofpsycholinguisticanalysis,languageuseintermsofperception,comprehensionandproductionfollowsacertainpatternwhichinvolvesthecoordinationofvariouslanguagecenters.Forexample,whenwespeak,wordsaredrawnfromWernicke’sareaandtransferredtoBroca’sarea,whichdeterminesthedetailsoftheirformandpronunciation.Theappropriateinstructionsarethensenttothemotorareawhichcontrolsthevocaltract(声道)tophysicallyarticulatethewords.Whenwehearsomethingandtrytocomprehendit,thestimulusfromtheauditorycortexistransmittedtoWernicke’sarea,whereitistheninterpreted.Whenweperceiveavisualimage,amessageissenttotheangulargyrus,whereitisconvertedintoavisualpattern.\n六．WhatisthesafeconclusionfromGenie’scase?答：AsafeconclusionfromGenie’scaseisthatthelanguagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodandconsequently,mostlinguisticskillscannotdevelop.七．Provideevidencefortheviewthatthereisacriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition.答：Thecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisitioncoincideswiththetimeduringwhichthebrain’shemisphericlateralizationforlanguageandothercognitiveskillstakesplace.Itisbelievedthattheendofthecriticalperiodcorrespondstothecompletionofthislateralizationprocess.Evidenceinsupportofthecriticalperiodhypothesiscomesfromthefactthatchildrenacquiringtheirfirstlanguagebeyondthecriticalagearehardlysuccessful,suchasthecaseof“Genie.”Aphasicstudiesalsoseemtosupportthecriticalperiodhypothesis:itisreportedthatpreadolescentchildrensufferingdamagetothelefthemisphereareabletotransfertheirlanguagecenterstotherighthemisphereandreacquirethelostlinguisticskills.Furthersupportingevidencecomesfromstudiesinthefieldofsecondlanguageacquisition:adultsexperiencemuchgreaterdifficultyinlearningasecondorforeignlanguage,incontrasttoyoungchildren,whoareknowntobeexcellentsecondlanguagelearners.七：AccordingtothestrongversionoftheSapir-Whorfhypothesis,languagedeterminesspeakers’perceptionsandpatternstheirwayoflife.Howinyourviewdoeslanguagerelatetothoughtandculture?答：Languagedoesnotsomuchdeterminethewaythespeakerperceivestheworldasitfunctionsasameansbywhichinformationcanbestoredandretrieved,bywhichaculturetransmitsitsbelief,valuesandnorms,andbywhichthespeakerinteractswithothermembersoftheculture.八：Howarelanguageandthoughtrelatedtoeachother?答：Languageandthoughtmaybeviewedastwoindependentcirclesoverlappinginsomeparts,wherelanguageandthoughtareconsistentwitheachotherandoneneveroccurswithouttheother.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtas“subvocalspeech”,andspeechas“overtthought.Insuchacase,speakingandthinkingtakeplacesimultaneously.Chapter10：LanguageAcquisition一．Discussthebiologicalbasisofchildlanguageacquisition.答：1．Languageacquisitionisahumanspecies-specificcapacity.Allchildrenare\nbiologicallyequippedwiththiscapacityatbirth.Thatis,childrenarebornwiththeneuralprerequisites（先决条件）forlanguagedevelopmentandlanguageuse.2Becauselanguageacquisitionisbiologicallybased,allnormalchildren,exceptthosewithmentalorphysicalimpairments,arecapableofacquiringatleastonelanguageduringtheearlyperiodoflife,aperiodcorrespondingtotheperiodofneuralmaturationofthebrain.3Becauselanguageacquisitionisanaturalendowment,children,regardlessoftheirculturaltradition,intelligence,andopportunitiestoreceiveformalinstructionandcorrection,followthesamenaturalrouteoflanguagedevelopmentandacquiretheirnativelanguagewithequalsuccess.二．Providesupportingevidencefortheargumentthatchildrenacquiringlanguagedonotsimplymemorizewordsandsentences.答：Children’sacquisitionoflanguageisarule-governedbehavior.Whattheyacquireisasetofrulesforgeneratinganinfinitenumberofsentences.Iflanguagewaslearnedthroughimitationandmemorizationofindividualwordsandexpression,childrenwouldonlyspeakthekindoflanguagethattheywereexposedto.However,itiswidelyrecognizedthatchildrencancomprehendsentencesthattheyhaveneverheardbefore,andtheyareheardproducingutterancesthatconnotbepossiblyutteredbyadults.Manyerrorsinthespeechofchildrenarenottheresultofimitationandmemorizationbuttheresultofovergeneralizationofrules.Forexample,thewayachildlearnstonegatesentencesandformquestionscanbeconsideredexamplesofovergeneralizationinsyntaxacquisition.三．Whydowesaylanguageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthegrammaticalsystemoflanguage?答：Inprinciple,nohumanbraincanstoreallthewordsandexpressionsofalanguage.1）Whathappensisthatwhenprocessingthelanguagetheyhear,childrenconstructthegrammarandmakesenseoftheexpressionsaccordingtothegrammar.2）Whenproducingutterances,theyfollowtheinternalizedgrammaticalrules.3）Withouttheknowledgeoftheproductiverules,itwouldbeimpossibleforlanguageuserstoproduceandunderstandanunlimitednumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.四．Differenttheoriesofchildlanguageacquisitionhavebeenadvanced.Discusstwocontrastingviewswithreferencetothebehavioristlearningmodelandthenativist（先天论者）biologicalmodel.答：Thebehavioristview:Languageacquisitionisaprocessofhabitformation.Languageislearnedthroughstimulusandresponse.Reinforcementofselectedresponsesisthekeytounderstandinglanguagedevelopment.Childrenlearntoproducecorrectsentencesbecausetheyarepositivelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingrightandnegativelyreinforcedwhentheysaysomethingwrong.Thenativistview:Languageacquisition\nisthespecies-specificpropertyofhumanbeings.Childrenarebornwithaninnateabilitytoacquirelanguage.Theyarepredisposedtodeveloptheirnativelanguagealongauniversal,predeterminedroutethroughsimilarstages.Theygoaboutacquiringthegrammaroftheirnativelanguageusingprinciplesuniquetolanguageacquisition.五．Whatistheroleofcorrectionandreinforcementinfirstlanguageacquisition?答：1）AccordingtoBehavioristlearningtheory,childrenarebelievedtograduallyassumecorrectformsofthelanguageoftheircommunitywhentheir“bad”speechgetscorrectedandwhentheirgoodspeechgetspositivelyreinforced.2）Researchershavefoundthatcorrectionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopmentastheywereclaimedtobe.3）Whenadultsdoattempttocorrectchildren’sgrammaticalerrorsandthecorrectformisrepeated,theireffortsseemtohavelittleeffect,orsimplydoomtofailurebecausechildrenoftendonotknowwhattheproblemisandcontinuetouseapersonallyconstructedform.Children’sreinforcementhasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren’spronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthaninthegrammaticalityofsentences六.Whatistheroleofimitationinfirstlanguageacquisition?答：1）Atonetime,itwaswidelybelievedthatchildrenlearnedlanguagebysimplyimitatingthespeechofthosearoundthem.Wenowknowthatthiscannotbetrue,sincemanyutterancetypesproducedbychildrendonotcloselyresemblestructuresfoundinadultspeech.2）Ifchildrenlearntheirnativetonguebyimitatingtheirparents,Itisimpossiblethatchildrenimitatethesestructuresfromadultsbecausetheyareneverheardinadultconversations.3）Inaddition,Childrenwithspeechimpairmentforneurological（神经学上的）orphysiological（生理学上的）reasonslearnthelanguagespokentothemandunderstandwhatissaid.4）Amorereasonableexplanationisthatchildrenareattemptingtoconstructandgeneralizetheirowngrammaticalrules.5）Someyounglanguagelearnersdoseemtomakeselectiveuseofimitation,buttheydonotblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploititinveryrestrictedwaystoimprovetheirlinguisticskills.Thepointisthatimitationplaysatbestaveryminorroleinthechild’smasteryoflanguage.七．Whatarethemajorstagesthatachildhastofollowinfirstlanguagedevelopment?Whatarethefeaturesofthelinguisticformsateachstage?答：1)Theprelinguisticstage:Atthebabblingstage,thesoundsandsyllablesthatchildrenutteraremeaningless.Babbling,especiallyearlybabbling,islargelyindependentoftheparticularlanguagetowhichchildrenareexposed.Thesoundsproducedinthisperiodseemtoinclude\nalargevarietyofsounds.2)Theone-wordstage:Thisstageusuallyoccursinthelatepartofthefirstyearortheearlypartofthesecondyear.Atthisstagechildrenlearnthatsoundsarerelatedtomeanings.Theybegintousethesamestringofsoundsofthenativelanguageto“mean”thesamething.3)Thetwo-wordstage:Duringthesecondyearoflife,child’sutterancesgraduallybecomelonger.Childrenareheardutteringtwo-wordexpressionsinavarietyofcombinations.4)Themultiwordstage:Itoccursbetweentwoandthreeyearsold.Thesalient(突出的)featureoftheutterancesatthisstageceasestobethenumberofwords,butthevariationinstringsoflexicalmorphemes。八．Accountforthephenomenonofyoungchildren’sapparentretrogression（退步）fromsaying,forexample,“went”and“came“to“goes”and“comed.”(P262thedevelopmentofmorphology)答：1）Childrenfirstlearnirregularformsofverbslike“went”and“cameasindividualwordsinregularform.2）Laterwhentheyencountermoreinstancesofregularverbsdenotingpasteventswithinflectional“-ed”morphemes,theyrealizethattheadditionof“-ed”toaverbisarulethatchangesthepresenttimetothepasttime.Atthisstage,childrentendtogeneralizethisruleandapplyittoallverbs,andconsequentlyareheardproducingthe“ill”formssuchas“goed”and“comed.”3）Itmustbepointedoutthaterrorsfromovergeneralizationshouldnotbeviewedasnegative,butasevidenceofnormalprogressinlanguageacquisition.Atalatertime,whentheyrealizethatthereareexceptionstotherule,theybegintomakedistinctionsbetweenregularandirregularforms.九．DiscussonemajorfactorwhichcontributestothedifficultiesmostL2learnersencounter.答：1）AprimarydifficultymostL2learnerscanbecapturedintermsofadistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearning.Acquisition……;learning……(参见11题)2）IthasbeensuggestedbysomeSLAscholarsthatlearningdifficultiesconfrontingadultL2learnersarisefromthefactthatformostpeopleasecondlanguageisleanedinaformalsetting,ratherthanacquiredinanaturalenvironment3）Languageacquisitioniscontrastedwithlanguageleaningonthegroundthatacquisitionissubconscious,focusingonmeaning,whilelearningisconscious,focusingonform.Itisarguedthatconsciousknowledgeoflinguisticformsdoesnotensureacquisitionoftherules,thatis,doesnotensureanimmediateguidanceforactualperformance.十：What’sthedifferencebetweenacquisitionandlearning,accordingtoKrashen?答：1）AccordingtoKrashen,acquisitionreferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.2）Learning,however,isdefinedasaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofasecondlanguageusuallyobtainedinschoolsettings.3）Asecondlanguage,\nKrashenargues,ismorecommonlylearnedbuttosomedegreemayalsobeacquired,dependingontheenvironmentalsettingandtheinputreceivedbytheL2learner.Arulecanbelearnedbeforeitisinternalized(i.e.,acquired),buthavinglearnedaruledoesnotnecessarilypreclude（成为…的预兆）havingtoacquireitlater.十一Discussthecontrastiveanalysisindetail.答：1）ContrastiveAnalysiswasdevelopedinordertoidentifyandpredicttheareasoflearningdifficulty.Giventhisapproach,itwashypothesizedthatL2errorswerepredominantlytheresultofnegativetransfer,ormothertongueinterferenceandsecondlanguagelearningwasbelievedtobeamatterofovercomingthedifferencesbetweenLIandL2systems.2）Accordingtothisview,themajortaskofsecondlanguageteachingshouldpredominantlybe:first,contrastthenativeandthetargetlanguagesystemsandmakepredictionsaboutthelanguageitemsthatwouldcausedifficultyandtheerrorsthatlearnerswerelikelytomake;thenusethesepredictionsindecidingonthetypeoflanguageitemsthatneededspecialtreatmentinteachingandinmaterialdevelopmentandthetypeofintensivetechniquesthatwouldbeemployedtoovercomelearningdifficultiescreatedbytheinterference.3）Inpractice,theContrastiveAnalysisisnoteffectivebecausealargeproportionofgrammaticalerrorscouldnotbeexplainedbymothertongueinterference.Errorspredictedbycontrastiveanalysishaveoftennotoccurred,whereasmanyactualerrors,suchas“goed”and“foots”,comefromovergeneralizationinsteadofnegativetransfer.Errors,accordingtothecontrastiveanalysisapproach,arenegativeandhadtobeovercomeorgivenup.十二Howdoyouunderstandinterlanguage?答：1）Interlanguageconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsin-betweenandyetdistinctfromthelearner’snativeandtargetlanguages.2）Itrepresentsthelearner’stransitionalcompetencemovingalongalearningcontinuumstretchingfromone’sLIcompetencetothetargetlanguagecompetence.3）Asatypeoflinguisticsysteminitsownright,interlanguageisaproductofL2training,mothertongueinterference,overgeneralizationofthetargetlanguagerules,andcommunicativestrategiesofthelearner.十三Enumerate（列举）somecausesthatleadtothesystematicoccurrenceoferrorsinSLA.答：Themajorcausesincludeinterferencefromthemothertongue,interlingualinterferencewithinthetargetlanguageandovergeneralization:1)Mothertongueinterferenceisfoundatthelevelofpronunciation,morphology,syntax,vocabularyandmeaning,andcanbe\npredictedbycontrastingthegrammaticalorothersystemsofthenativeandtargetlanguages.2)Interlingualinterference,orcross-association,occurswhenthelearnermixesrulesandpatternsofthetargetlanguageandproducehybrid（混合的）structures.3) Overgeneralization:theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituation,i.e.theapplicationofaparticularpatternorruleofthetargetlanguageinmanyotherlinguisticsituations.十四WhatistheroleofinputforSLA?答1）ItisevidentthatSLAtakesplaceonlywhenthelearnerhasaccesstoL2inputandtheopportunitytointeractwiththeinput.2）ItappearsthatwhatlearnersneedisnotmereexposuretoL2data,butthekindofinputdatathatarespeciallysuitedtotheircurrentstageofdevelopment.Thereis,however,noagreementastopreciselywhatconstitutesoptimuminput.Somescholarsadvisethataccesstocomprehensibleinputisanecessaryconditionforacquisitiontotakeplace.Itissuggestedthatinputcanbemadecomprehensiblebytheuseoflearnedstructuresandvocabulary,ItisalsosuggestedthatinteractionandintakearemoreimportantforSLAthaninput.十五DiscusstheeffectsofformalinstructiononSLA.    Althoughformalinstructiongenerallyfocusesontheexplicitteachingoflinguisticforms,itaidsadultL2learners,particularlyadultbeginners,byprovidingopportunitiesforlearnerstoreceivemodifiedcomprehensibleinputthatarespeciallysuitedtotheircurrentstageofL2development.Moreover,inthe“intake-type”ofclassroomenvironment,teachingmaterialsandmethodsareallfinelytunedinordertomeettheneedsofthelearnerandprovidethemwithampleopportunitiestointeractwiththeinput.十六Howdothelearnerfactorspotentiallyinfluencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired?1)Theoptimumageforsecondlanguageacquisition:Firstlanguageacquisitionismostsuccessfulwhenitoccursduringtheearlyyearsofone’slifebeforepuberty,buttheoptimumageforSLAdoesnotalwaysaccordwiththemaximof“theyoungerthebetter”.TheoptimumageforSLAisearlyteenage.2)Motivation:Motivationinlanguagelearningcanbedefinedintermsofthelearner’soverallgoalororientation.3)Acculturation:TheacculturationhypothesisfocusesonthesocialandpsychologicalconditionsunderwhichL2processingismostlikelytotakeplacesuccessfully.4)Personality:Intuitively,anoutgoingpersonalitymaycontributetolanguageacquisition.Researchresults,however,onlypartiallysupportthishypothesis.Insum,Agoodsecond\nlanguagelearneris,amongotherthings,anadolescentwhohasastrongandwell-definedmotivationtolearn.