现代语言学Chapter4 8页

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  • 2022-08-23 发布

现代语言学Chapter4

  • 8页
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.Chapter4Syntax句法学1.WhatisSyntax?Syntaxstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.ThetermsyntaxcameoriginallyfromGreek.Itliterallymeantarrangement.Itmeansthatsentencesarestructuredaccordingtoaparticulararrangementofwords.Well-arrangedsentencesareconsideredgrammaticalsentences.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语,字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。2.Syntaxasasystemofrules句法是规则系统Syntaxconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.Asentenceisconsideredgrammaticalwhenitisinagreementwiththegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsfallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,andyetthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统,句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统(称为语言能力)。任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的,但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。3.Thebasiccomponentsofasentence句子的构成Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubject(主语)anditspredicate(谓语)whichcontainsafiniteverboraverbphrase.句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位,这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语,而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。Thereferringexpression(被指称的对象),suchasaperson,aplace,athing,anidea,oranevent,isgrammaticallycalledsubject.Asubjectisusuallyanounoranounphrase.Thepartofsentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.Afiniteverb,informallycalledthemainverbofasentence,expressesexistence,actionoroccurrencewhichislimitedbyperson,number,tenseandmood....\n.主语是指句子中被指称的对象,如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词,表述存在、动作或出现,限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。4.Typesofsentence句子的类型a)Thesimplesentence简单句Asimplesentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.简单句由一个子句构成,该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语,且独立构成句子。b)Thecoordinatesentence并列句Acoordinatesentencecontainstwoclausejoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunction,suchas“and”but””or”.并列句包含两个子句,由and,but,or等并列连词连接。c)Thecomplexsentence复合句Acomplexsentencecontainstwoormoreclauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.Thatis,thetwoclausesinacomplexsentenceholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingtheother.Theincorporated,orsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanembeddedclause,andtheclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句,其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的,一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句,而包含子句的子句被称为主句。5.Thelinearwordorderofasentence句子的线性词序Whenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence.Meanwhile,theyareheardorreadasarrangedoneafteranotherinasequence.Thissequentialorderofwordsinasentencesuggeststhatthestructureofasentenceislinear.我们说出或写下一个句子,其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时,对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有次序的排列表明,句子的结构是线性的。6.Thehierarchicalstructureofasentence句子的层次结构Thesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearlystructured.Sentencestructureishierarchicalinnature....\n.组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。7.Treediagramsofsentencestructure句子结构树形图Thehierarchicalordercanbebestillustratedwithatreediagramofconstituentstructure.句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地说明。见课文67-70页。Inaddition,thehierarchicalstructureofsentencescanalsobeillustratedbyusingbracketsandsubscriptlabels.另外,句子的层次结构还可以用括号和写在下角的标记来标示。见课文71页。8.Lexicalcategories词类Wordsareorganizedintogroupsoflexicalcategories,commonlyknownaspartsofspeech.Alanguagehasmajorandminorlexicalcategories.Majorlexicalcategoriesareopencategoriesthatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.Minorlexicalcategoriesareclosedcategoriesbecausethenumberofthelexicalitemsinthesecategoriesisfixedandnonewmembersareallowedfor.Englishhasfourmajorlexicalcategoriesandsixminorlexicalcategories.所有的词都有某种属性,即词性。词可以分为主要词类和次要词类。主要词类不断有新词加入,它是开放词类,而次要词类是封闭的,因为这类词的词项是固定的,不允许有新词加入。英语有四个主要词类和六个次要词类。主要词类:Noun(N)名词:studentVerb(V)动词:likeAdjective(Adj)形容词:tallAdverb(Adv)副词:loudly次要词类:Determiner(Det)限定词:the,a,this,hisAuxiliary(Aux)助动词:can,do,willPreposition(Prep)介词:in,at,overPronoun(Pron)代词:he,she,us,mineConjunction(Conj)连词:and,or,but,whileInterjection(Int)感叹词:oh,ah,eh9.Phrasalcategories词组类型Fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP),andadjectivephrase(AP)....\n.NPandVPareessentialcomponentsofasentence,comprisingthesubjectandpredicate.Importantnote:NPjustcontainanoun,VPjustcontainaverb,PPjustcontainaprepositionandAPjustcontainanadjective.通常讨论的词组类型有四种,分别是:名词词组,动词词组,介词词组和形容词词组。名词词组和动词词组是句子中最重要的词组,因为它们构成了句子的主语和谓语。重要:一个名词词组只包含一个名词,一个动词词组只包含一个动词,一个介词词组只包含一个介词,一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。10.Grammaticalrelations语法关系Thestructuralandlogicalfunctionrelationsofconstituentsarecalledgrammaticalrelations.Thegrammaticalrelationsofasentenceconcernthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverb.InEnglishandmanyotherlanguages,thesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.Strictlyspeaking,thisstatementistrueonlyintermsofthestructuralsubject(结构主语)andthestructuralobject(结构宾语).Thelogicalsubject(逻辑主语)andthelogicalobject(逻辑宾语)mayhavedifferentpositions.语法关系是指句子中名词词组和动词的关系,其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。从结构上看,英语句子中的主语往往出现在动词之前,宾语往往出现在动词止回。这种置动词之前的主语叫结构主语,置动词之后的宾语叫结构宾语。结构主语和结构宾语只是句子的形式主语和形式宾语,而意义上的主语和宾语才是句子的逻辑主语和逻辑宾语。逻辑主语是实施者,而逻辑宾语是受事者。逻辑主语和逻辑宾语在句子中的位置可以同形式主语和形式宾语在句子中的位置相同,也可以不同。如英语被动句中的形式主语是逻辑宾语,而形式宾语是逻辑主语。11.Phrasalstructurerules短语结构规则Thecombinationalpatterninalinearformulamaybecalledaphrasestructuralrule,orrewriterule.短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。Example1:S→NPVP.Thearrowisreadas“consistof”,or“isrewrittenas”。Theruleis:asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase.在本例中,箭头读作“包含”或“重写为”。这样的规则就读作:一个句子包含或可以重写为一个名词词组和一个动词词组。Example2:NP→(Det)(Adj)N(PP)(S)Anounphraseconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anoptionaldeterminer,anoptionaladjective,anobligatorynoun,anoptionalprepositionalphrase,and/oranoptionalsentence....\n.这就是名词词组的短语结构规则,读作:一个名词词组包含或可以重写为一个限定词、一个形容词、一个名词、一个介词词组和(或)一个句子,其中名词是必须有的,其它是可选成分。Example3:VP→V(NP)(PP)(S)AP→A(PP)(S)PP→PNP12.Therecursivenessofphrasestructurerules短语结构规则的循环性Significantly,theserulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.Althoughtheserulesarepartoftherulesandregulationsofthegrammar,theysufficetoexplainhowlanguageis“creative”,andhowspeakerswith“finite”mindshavetheabilitytoproduceandunderstandaninfinitesetofsentences.Thatis,therecursivepropertycapturestheabilityoflanguagetogeneratemoreconstituentstoasentenceandenablesspeakerstorepeatsyntacticconstituentswithinthesamesentence.由于这些短语规则的循环性,运用它们可以造出无数句子,这些句子又可以是无限长的。这些规则虽然只是语法规则的一部分,却足以解释为什么语言具有创造性,为什么说话人的记忆力是有限的,却能表达并理解无限的句子。这就是说,循环性体现了语言中的句子能够有更多的成分,并且使说话者能够在同一个句子中重复一些句法成分。13.X-bartheoryX标杆理论NP/VP/AP/PPallmustcontainoneobligatoryword,wecallXP.ThismeansthatXPmustcontainX,whereXPstandsrespectivelyforNP/VP/AP/PPandXstandsforN/V/A/P.Therulemodifiedas:XP→(Specifier)X(Complement).X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论,短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成,其中指示语和补语可有可无,但核心词却不可缺少。14.Syntacticmovementandmovementrules句法位移和移位规则a)NPmovement名词词组位移NP-movementoccurswhenasentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Example:Themanbeatthechild./Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.NotallNP-movementarerelatedtochangingasentencefromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice....\n.Example:Itseemstheyarequitefitforthejob./Theyseemquitefitforthejob.NP“they”hasmovedfromthesubjectpositionoftheembeddedclausetothematrixclause.名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫做名词词组位移。例如,在主动语态句中当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位,使句子转换成被动语态。并不是所有的名词词组位移都和主动语态转被动语态相关。示例中的they由从句的主语位置位移到了主句的主语位置。a)WHmovementWH位移WH-movementisobligatoryinEnglishwhichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative.WH-movementissyntacticallyrequiredwhenthesentencechangesfromastatementintoaquestion.WH位移能把句子从肯定句变为疑问句,在英语中不可缺少的。b)Othertypesofmovement其它类型的位移(1)Generalquestions(一般疑问句)inEnglishmayalsoinvolvesyntacticmovementwithAUX-movement.AUX-movementisthemovementofanauxiliaryverb,suchasbe/have/do/will/can/should,tothesentence-initialposition.Example:SheisanEnglishprofessor./IssheanEnglishprofessor?一般疑问句也会通过助动词移位引起句法移位,助动词移位即助动词移到句首的移位,助动词有be/have/do/will/can/should。(2)Forstylisticpurposes,apost-verbadjectiveinanadverbialclausebeginningwith“though”mayproposetothesentenceinitialposition.Example:Thoughshewassick,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren./Sickthoughshewas,thewomanfoughtwiththewolfandsavedherchildren.由于文体的原因,以though开头的状语从句中位于动词后的形容词可以移到句首。15.D-structureandS-structure深层结构和表层结构Whatsyntacticmovementsuggestsforthestudyofthegrammaristhatasentencestructuremayhavetwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentation,onethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplace,andtheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplace.Informallinguisticexploration,thesetwosyntacticrepresentationsarecommonlytermedasD-structure(thedeepstructure)andS-structure(thesurfacestructure).Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure,whiletheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromthelevelofD-structuretothatofS-structure....\n.句法位移对语法研究的启示是,一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现,一个存在于位移发生之前,一个存在于位移发生之后。在正规的语言学研究中,这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子,而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。Sincesyntacticmovementdoesnotoccurtoallsentences,theD-structureandS-structureofsomesentenceslookexactlythesameatdifferentlevelsofrepresentation.由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移,因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。15.Moveα–ageneralmovementrule移动α规则Justasthereisageneralruleforallphrasestructurerules,thatis,theX-barschema,thereisageneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.ThismovementruleiscalledMoveAlpha.AlphaisaGreeksymbolusedheretorepresentanyconstituent,andwhatMoveAlphasaysis“moveanyconstituenttoanyplace”.Itistoopowerful,sothegrammarshouldincludesomeconditionswhichwillrestrainthemovementpoweroftheruleandwhichwillstimulatethatonly“certainconstituents”canmovetoonly“certainpositions.”移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合起来一样,该规则综合了所有的位移规则,可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。如果一个成分可以移到任意位置,那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来限制移位能力,使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。17.Theoryofuniversalgrammar普遍语法理论Sinceearly1980sNoamChomskydevelopedatheoryofuniversalgrammar(UG)knowastheprinciple-an-parameterstheory.UGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahumanspecies-specificgiftwhichexistsinthemindorbrainofanormalhumanbeing.UGconsistsofasetofgeneralconditions,orgeneralprinciplesandalsocontainsasetofparameters.从八十年代初期开始,乔姆斯基发展了一种普遍语法理论,称为原则与参数理论。普遍语法是一个语言知识体系,是人类特有的天赋,它存在于正常人的头脑中。普遍语法包含一组广义条件,或广义原则,还包含一种参数。18.Generalprinciplesofuniversalgrammar普遍语法的广义原则a)CaseCondition.AsisrequiredbytheCaseConditionprinciple,anounphrasemusthaveCaseandCaseisassignedbyverborprepositiontotheobjectposition,orbyauxiliarytothesubjectposition.ThetheoryofCaseConditionaccountsforthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.格条件原则。格条件原则要求名词词组必须有格,宾语的格是由动词或介词决定的,而主语的格是由助动词决定的。格条件理论说明了为什么名词词组只在主语和宾语的位置上出现。...\n.b)AdjacencyCondition.AsisrequiredbyAdjacencyConditionprinciple,aCaseassignorandaCaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.Thisconditionexplainswhynootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject.毗邻条件。毗邻条件决定格分派,该条件要求格分派者和格接受者要相互毗邻。这一条件解释了为什么任何别的词组类型都不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。18.Theparametersofuniversalgrammar普遍语法的参数ParametersaresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.Setinoneofthepermissibleways,aparameteracquiresaparticularvalue,forexample,aplusorminusvalue,whichallowsthegrammarofalanguagetobehaveinawayverydifferentfromthatofanotherlanguage.参数是普遍语法中的句法选项,它使广义原则能以一种或另一种方式进行操作并造成了不同自然语言之间在语言上的显著不同。一个参数若以某种可允许的方式设置,它就可以得到某种意义,如加或减的意义,这就使一种语言的语法和另一种语言的语法有很大不同。a)UGisbelievedtocontainaparameterwitthevalues(+strictadjacency)and(-strictadjacency)setontheAdjacencyCondition.WithEnglish-typelanguages,theAdjacencyParameterissettothe(+strictadjacency)value,whileforFrench-typelanguages,theparameterissettotheother.普遍语法被认为包含一个参数,这个参数的意义是设置在毗邻条件之上的(加严格毗邻)和(减严格毗邻)。英语属前者而法语属后者。b)Anotherparameter,theonethatinvolveswordorder,concernsthedirectionalityofCaseassignment,knownastheDirectionalityParameter.ThisparameteroffersaneatandconsistentaccountforthetypologicaldifferenceinthewordorderwithintheVPcategorybetweenEnglishandJapanese.InEnglish,VP→VNPwhileinJapanese,VP→NPV.另一个参数与词序有关,它涉及格分派的方位,被称为方位参数。这一参数为英语和日语的动词词组的词序的类型差异提供了一个满意的、恰当的解释...

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