英语语言学卓越课程中心 284页

ACourseonLinguisticsforStudentsofEnglishZhouChangmingDept.ofForeignLanguages,SHUPL\nTheGoalsforthisCourseTogetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication……;Toprepareforthefutureresearchwork.\nTheRequirementsforthiscourseClassattendanceClassroomdiscussionFulfillmentoftheassignmentExamination\nReferenceBooks戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。Fromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,Ranehart&Winston,Inc.\nChapter1.Introduction\n1.Whatislinguistics?----Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.----Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.\nFourprinciplesoflinguisticstudiesExhaustiveness/adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity\nThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsTheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics……\nTheoreticallinguisticsPhonetics----speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.Phonology----soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology----theformofwordsSyntax----therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics----themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse----Pragmatics)\nUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguistics----linguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguistics----socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics----linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics----linguisticandliterature\nSomeotherapplicationsAnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation)\nSomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics\nDescriptivevsprescriptiveDescriptive----describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive----laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)\nSynchronicvsdiachronicSynchronicstudy----descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy----descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)\nSpeechvswritingSpeech----primarymediumoflanguageWriting----laterdeveloped\nLanguevsparole(F.deSaussure)Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Parole----therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.\nCompetenceandperformance(Chomsky)Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.\nTraditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguisticsTraditionalgrammar----prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkModernlinguistics-----descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework\n2.Whatislanguage?\nLanguagecanmeanwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)thewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeare’slanguage,Luxun’slanguage)aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)atoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)asetofrules.(rule-governed)\nSapir’sdefinition(1921)“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”\nHall’sdefinition(1968)Languageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”\nChomsky’sdefinition(1957)“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”\nLanguagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.\nLanguageisasystemSystematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can’tbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.\nLanguageisarbitraryArbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.\nLanguageissymbolicinnatureSymbolic----wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”----Shakespeare\nLanguageisprimarilyvocalVocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.\nLanguageishuman-specificHuman-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.\nThedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission\nArbitrariness----Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,….Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang…)Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy…\nProductivity/creativity----Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires\nDuality(doublearticulation)Lowerlevel----sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel----meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.\nDisplacement----Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.\nCulturaltransmission----Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.\nFunctionsoflanguagePhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.Directive:getthehearertodosomething.Informative:giveinformationaboutfacts.Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.Expressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)Performative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.\nTheoriginoflanguageThedivine-origintheory----LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.Theinventiontheory----imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.Theevolutionarytheory----theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.\n许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.\nChapter2PhonologyLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds----soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.\nPhonetics----Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.[p]bilabial,stop.\nThreebranchesofphoneticsArticulatoryphonetics----fromthespeakers’pointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics----fromthehearers’pointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics----fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.\nArticulatoryphonetics■Ithasthelongesthistory.Itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.howaspeakeruseshisspeechorgantoarticulatethesounds.\nAcousticphonetics■Ittriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissues.■Spectrograph(频谱仪）：torecordsoundwaves\nSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngealcavity(咽腔）----thethroat;Theoralcavity（口腔）----themouth;Nasalcavity（鼻腔）----thenose.\nThediagramofspeechorgansLipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity\nOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds----AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription----usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clear[l][pit]Narrowtranscription----usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.dark[l],aspirated[p]\nSomemajorarticulatoryvariables----dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:Voicing----voiced&voicelessNasality----nasal&non-nasalAspiration-----aspirated&unaspirated\nClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds----Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:VowelsConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.\n“Vowelsaremodificationsofthevoice-soundthatinvolvenoclosure,friction,orcontactofthetongueorlips(Bloomfield)Avowelisdefinedasavoicedsoundinformingwhichtheairissuesinacontinuousstreamthroughthepharynxandmouth,therebeingnoaudiblefriction.”(Jones)\nClassificationofconsonants----Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions:ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulation\nThemannerofarticulationstops/plosives(闭塞音）:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g];Fricatives（摩擦音）:[f][v],[s],[z],[∫],[З],[],[ð],[h];Affricates（塞擦音）:[t∫],[dЗ];Liquids（流音）:[l](lateral),[r];Nasals（鼻音）:[m],[n],[];glides/semivowels（滑音）:[w],[j].\nTheplaceofarticulationBilabial（双唇音）:[p],[b],[m],[w];Labiodental（唇齿音）:[f],[v];Dental（齿音）:[],[ð],Alveolar（齿龈音）:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r];Palatal（腭音）:[∫],[З],[t∫],[dЗ],[j];Velar（软腭音）:[k],[g],[];Glottal（喉音）:[h].\nTheplaceofarticulationBilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.\nThedescriptionofEnglishconsonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelarGlottalStopsorplosivesVL[p][t][k]VD[b][d][g]Frica-tivesVL[f[][s][∫][h]VD[v][ð][z][З]Affri-catesVL([t∫])[t∫]VD(dЗ)[dЗ]NasalsVD[m][n][]LiquidsVD[l],[r]GlidesVD[w][j]\nClassificationofvowels----Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:Monophthongsorpure/singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels\nMonophthongsorpure/singlevowels----Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:frontvowels:[i:],[i],[e][æ][a]centralvowels:[],[],[];backvowels:[],[],[],[],[].\nAccordingtotheopennessofthemouthClose:[],[],[],[].Semi-close:[],[];Semi-open:[],[];Open:[],[],[],[],[];\nThediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:\nAccordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliproundingrounded:[],[],[],[];unrounded:[],[],[],[],[],[],[],[],[],[].\nAccordingtothelengthofthevowelslong:[],[],[],[],[]short:[],[],[],[],[],[],[],[],[].\nDiphthongs/glidingvowels[],[],[],[],[],[],[],[].\nExercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeAglide:onewaryolkrush\nUnderlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate:racksuchridgebooze\nUnderlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:Acentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather\nDescribetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither\nPhonologyPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.\nPhonetics&phonologyBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.Phoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.\nPhone,phoneme,allophone\nPhoneAphone----aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedon’t,e.g.[]&[],[]&[].\nPhonemeAphoneme----isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyin[pt],[tp]and[spt].\nAllophoneAllophones----thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.\nPhonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.\nPhonemiccontrastPhonemiccontrast----differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/in[bIt]and[pIt].\nComplementarydistributionComplementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].\nMinimalpairMinimalpair----whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.\nSomerulesofphonologySequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionrule\nSequentialrulesSequentialrules----therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.Ifawordbeginswitha[l]ora[r],thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.\nSequentialrulesIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)  thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)  thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)  thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*[N]neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语……”\nAssimilationruleAssimilationrule----assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:indiscreetalveolar[In]inconceivablevelar[IN]inputbilabial[Im]\nAssimilationinMandarin好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊changNa跳啊tiaowa……\nDeletionruleDeletionrule----ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisno[g]sound;butthe[g]soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.\nSuprasegmentalfeaturesSuprasegmentalfeatures----thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonation\nSyllable(whatissyllable?)AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.acombinationorsetofoneormoreunitsofsoundinalanguagethatmustconsistofasonorous(响亮的)element(asonant(浊音的;成(音)节的)orvowel)andmayormaynotcontainlesssonorouselements(consonantsorsemivowels)flankingitoneitherorbothsides:forexample``paper''hastwosyllablesSeeopenSeeclosed”.\nStressWordstressSentencestress\nWordstressThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cord…noun:5import;5increase;5rebel;5record…\nWordstressSimilaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdog…nounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dog…\nWordstressThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbag…doer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane…\nSentencestressSentencestress----therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.\nToneTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)\nIntonationWhenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“That’snotthebookhewants.”\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonations----Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsb)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“Johndidn’tcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn’tcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.\nGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsd)Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone----matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone----politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.\nChapter3MorphologyMorphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.\nOpenclasswordandclosedclasswordOpenclasswords----contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀…”inChinese.Closedclasswords----grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.\nMorpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism\nAffixPrefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.\nFreemorpheme&boundmorphemeFreemorpheme(自由词素）isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme（黏着词素）----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.\nAllomorph(词素变体)Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:map----maps[s]dog----dogs[z]watch----watches[iz]mouse----mice[ai]ox----oxen[n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.\nDerivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemeDerivationalmorphemes（派生词素）----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes（屈折词素）----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesapplescarsb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/John’s\nSomeothertermsRootStemBase\nRootArootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional&derivational)areremoved,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”…\nStemAstemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“undesiralbe”inundesirables\nBaseAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.\nThedifferencebetweenroot,stem&baseAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;Abaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireinundesirable)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desireinundesirable;Root,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desireindesired;Undesirableinundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;Desirableinundesirableisonlyabase.\nMorphologicalrulesTherulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+----”rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptable…Compoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertake…\nCompoundsNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)Verbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)Adjectivecompoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)Prepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)\nSomepointsaboutcompoundsWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.\nChapter4Syntax\nWhatissyntax?----abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.\nTransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)Norm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:(1957)SyntacticStructure;(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalist（极简主义）Program;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry……\nCriteriaongoodgrammarObservationaladequacy（观察的充分性）Descriptiveadequacy（描述的充分性）Explanatoryadequacy（解释的充分性）Theultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.\nChomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.TherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).\nCategoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)\nWord-levelcategoriesMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词）,qualifier(Qual修饰词）,Auxiliary(Aux助动词),conjunction(Conj.连词）\nThecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredeterminedMeaning（意义）Inflection（屈折变化）Distribution（分布）Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.\nPhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead（中心词）----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier（标志语）----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement（补语）----thewordsontherightsideoftheheads\nPhrasestructurerulesThegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.\nSpecifierXComplementHeadXPTheXPruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.\nX’TheoryXP(Specifier)X’X’X(complement)X(head)complementspecifierXP(Phraselevel)X’\nCoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.----Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.\nPhraseelementsSpecifiers(标志语）Head（中心词）Complement（补语)\nSpecifiers----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qualifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.\nComplements----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentities(实体）andlocations（位置）whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers（补语化成份）,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.\nModifiers(修饰语）----Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.\nSentences(theSrule)SNPVPSNPVPNPDetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence\nSNPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbed‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(theSrule)\nInflrealizedbyatenselabelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence\nInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence\nTransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructure&surfacestructureWh-movementMoveαandconstraintsontransformations\nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Inversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.CCPSDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveNP\nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInflDetNInflVWillthetrainearrive\nDoinsertionDoinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.CPCSNPInflVPBirdsflyCPCPCCSSInflNPInflVPNPInflVPBirdsdoflyDobirdseflyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3\nDeepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.（约翰很容易满足）Johniseagertoplease.（约翰急于讨好他人）Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.\nDeepstructure&surfacestructureConsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.\nDeepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.Deepstructure&surfacestructure\nTheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements\nWh-movementConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.\nWh-movementWh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?\nWh-movementWh-movement----MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)CPVPVNPwonthegameSNPInflePstNPCWho\nMoveα（包含性术语）andconstraintsontransformationsInversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredistantCposition.Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.\nChapter5SemanticsSemantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.Whatismeaning?----Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.\nSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaningNamingtheory(Plato)（命名论）Theconceptualistview（概念论）Contextualism(Bloomfield)（语境论）Behaviorism（行为主义论）\nNamingtheory(Plato)Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn（麒麟）,pheonix…3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…\nTheconceptualistviewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconcepts(思维的概念）inthemind.\nOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/objectintheworldofexperienceThought/reference/concept\nCharlesKayOgden(1889-1957)奥格登美国作家、教育家和语言心理学家。毕业于剑桥大学并留校，创立《剑桥杂志》。20世纪20年代，出版《意义之意义（TheMeaningofMeaning)，提出著名的语义三角(semantictriangle)。该书是20世纪最重要的著作之一。1930年他创立基本英语，作为一门国际辅助语；而哈佛大学的理查兹（I.A.Richards）则是基本英语的重要宣传者。1925年，出版（心理学的意义）（TheMeaningofPsychology),提出了他的语言心理学思想。1927年，成立语言正字研究所，总部设在英国剑桥。\nIvorAmstrongRichards(1893-1979)理查兹英国心理学家、教育家、评论家和诗人。毕业于剑桥大学并留校任教。1923年，与奥格登合著《意义之意义》，《文学批评原理》。1944年，任哈佛大学教授，是基本英语的倡导者。\nOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.Thesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.\nTheContextualism（语境论）Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationLinguisticcontext:theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“ThepresidentoftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.\nJ.R.Firth弗斯（1890-1960）英国语言学家，伦敦学派的奠基人。毕业里兹大学，曾任教于伦敦大学语言系，后在伦敦大学设立普通语言学讲座。曾与马林诺夫斯基（B。Malinowski）共事多年。弗斯对语言学贡献有两点：1、发展了马林诺夫斯基的意义语境理论（或情境的上下文理论）。2、提出语言学中的韵律分析（亦称超音段分析）。主要专著：《言语Speech》，《人的语言TheTongueofMen》和《语言学论文集PapersinLinguistics》。\nBronislowMalinowski（1889-1942）马林诺夫斯基波兰著名人类学家。毕业于牛津大学人类学系，一直从事文化人类学研究。他对语言学的贡献：1、“提供了一种普遍的理论，特别是他使用了语境和语言功能的概念”。2、“在行动中的语言”和“语义就是使用”。主要著作：《原始语言的意义问题TheProblemofMeaninginPrimitiveLanguages》和《珊瑚岛CorralGardenandTheirMagic和其魔力》\nWittgensteinLudwig维特根斯坦（1889-1951）奥地利人，旅居英国。20世纪英语世界中哲学界的重要人物，主要贡献：《哲学研究》和《逻辑哲学论》。第一本书揭示概念怎样同行为和反应相联系，怎样同人们的生活方式，而不是根据模糊的精神领域来展示概念的作用和意义。第二本书的中心问题是“语言是怎样发生的”。\nBehaviorismBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.ThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_________r--------s_________R\nLexicalmeaningSense（意义）andreference（指称）arebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.\nNote:Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstar（晨星）andtheeveningstar（昏星）,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.\nMajorsenserelationsSynonymy（同义现象）Antonymy（反义词）Polysemy（多义现象）Homonymy（同音异义）Hyponymy（下义关系）\nSynonymySynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms（方言同义）----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol–gasoline…2)Stylisticsynonyms（文体同义）----synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;…\nSynonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,（情感或评价意义不同的同义）e.g.collaborator-accomplice,…4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配同义）,e.g.accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（语义不同的同义词）,e.g.amaze,astound,…\nAntonymyGradableantonyms（等级反义词）----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…Complementaryantonyms（互不反义词）----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…Relationalopposites（关系反义词）----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,…\nGradableantonyms（等级反义）Gradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…\nComplementaryantonymsComplementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…\nPolysemyPolysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.……\nHomonymyHomonymy（同音异义词）----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone（同音异义词）----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh（同形异义词）----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),…Completehomonym（完全同音异义词）----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…\nNote:Apolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymology（词源学）oftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.\nHyponymyHyponymy（下义关系）----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate（上坐标词）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms（下义词）:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms（并列下义词）:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.\nHyponymySuperordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,…Superordinate:furnitureHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,…\nSenserelationsbetweensentences(1)  XissynonymouswithY（同义）(2)  XisinconsistentwithY（不一致）(3)  XentailsY（蕴含）(4)  XpresupposesY（预设）(5)  Xisacontradiction（自我矛盾）(6)  Xissemanticallyanomalous（语义反常）\nXissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.\nXisinconsistentwithYX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.\nXentailsYX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.\nXpresupposesYX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.Paulhasgivenupsmoking.Pauloncesmoked.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.\nXisacontradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphan’sparentsareprettywell-off.\nXissemanticallyanomalous*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions.*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.\nAnalysisofmeaningComponentialanalysis（成分分析法）Predicationanalysis（述谓结构分析法）\nComponentialanalysisComponentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Boy:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE]Woman:[+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]Girl:[+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE]\nPredicationanalysis1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”issemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.2)Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.\nPredicationanalysisPredicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).Predication----theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.\nPredicationanalysisAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:One-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,…Two-placepredication:like,love,save,bite,beat,…Three-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,…No-placepredication:Itishot.\nPredicationanalysisTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Thekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEIsenthimaletter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER\nChapter6Pragmatics（语用学）----thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.----thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.\nSomebasicnotionsinPragmaticsContextPragmaticsvs.semanticsSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningCorrectnessvs.appropriateness\nContextContext----abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.….\nPragmaticsvs.semanticsSemantics----isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics----thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation…\nSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning----Sentencemeaning:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;havingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?----utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;havingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?\nForexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmeanabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;thespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.\nCorrectnessvs.appropriateness*“Johnplaygolf”----grammaticallyincorrect;?“GolfplayedJohn”----logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)\nSpeechacttheorySpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”\nTwotypesofutterancesConstatives(叙述句)----statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)----sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.\nSomeExamplesofPerformatives“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”\nAustin’snewmodelofspeechacts----AccordingtoAustin’snewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryact----anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Theillocutionaryact----anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact----anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.\nForexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer’sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.----Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.\nAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:----(thetelephonerings)----H:That’thephone.(1)----W:I’minthebathroom.(2)----H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachother’sillocutionaryacts:(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewife’srefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,I’llanswerit.”\nSearle’sclassificationofspeechacts(1969)Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布)\nAssertives/representatives----Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.Ithinkthefilmismoving.I’mcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.…\nDirectives----Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife!…\nCommissives----Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.…\nExpressives----Expressingthespeaker’spsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.I’msorryforbeinglate.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.…\nDeclarations----Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.…\nNote:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.Note:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!\nPrincipleofconversation(PaulGrice)Cooperativeprinciple(CP)----AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.\nFourmaximsofCPThemaximofquality----Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.----Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity----Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.----Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation----Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner----Avoidobscurityofexpression.----Avoidambiguity.----Bebrief.----Beorderly.\nConversationalimplicatureInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.\nViolationofMaximofquality----A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?----B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.I’mafraidIhavetoprepareforit.----A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?----B:I’mafraidI’mnotfeelingsowelltonight.----A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?----B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.\nViolationofmaximofquantityAtapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“I’mRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried…”“Wariswar.”“Girlsaregirls.”----A:WhenisSusan’sfarewellparty?----B:Sometimenextmonth.\nViolationofmaximofrelation----A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?----B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.----A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.----B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,aren’tthey?----A:Whattimeisit?----B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.\nViolationofmaximofmanner----A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?----B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.\nPolitenessprinciple(Leech)\nChapter7LanguagechangeSoundchangeMorphologicalandsyntacticchangeVocabularychange\nMorphologicalandsyntacticchangeChangein“agreement”ruleChangeinnegationruleProcessofsimplificationLossofinflections\nVocabularychangeAdditionofnewwordsLossofwordsChangesinthemeaningofwords\nAdditionofnewwordscoinage(创新词)clippedwords(缩略词)blending(紧缩法)acronyms(词首字母缩略词)back-formation(逆构词法)functionalshiftborrowing\nCoinage----Anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.walkmanKodakXeroxFordBenzToyota\nClippedwords----Theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.gym—gymnasiummemo—memorandumdisco—discothequefridge—refrigerator\nBlending----Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.smog—smoke+fogmotel—motor+hotelcamcorder—camera+recorder\nAcronyms----Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.CBS----ColumbiaBroadcastingsystemISBN----InternationalStandardBookNumberWTOWHOPLAAIDSUNESCOAPECOPECCADSARS\nBack-formation----Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.editeditorhawkhawkerbegbeggarbaby-sitbaby-sitter\nFunctionalshift----Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.Nounverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobrake…Verbnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreat…Adj.verb:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslow…Adj.noun:adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossible…\nBorrowing----Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.ThefollowingaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish(seemoreinP100-101).LatinbonuseducationexitGermanbeerwaltzquartzChineseteakowtowsampanRussiansputnikcommissarvodkaArabiczeroalgebraalcohol\nLossofwordsWordscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.BeseemtobesuitableWottoknowGyveafetterWhereforewhy\nChangesinthemeaningofwordsWideningofmeaningNarrowingofmeaningMeaningshift\nWideningofmeaningHoliday:[+specific]holyday[+general]anyrestdayTail:[+specific]tailofahorse[+general]tailofanyanimal\nNarrowingofmeaninghound:anydogaspecialkindofdoggirl:youngpersonofeithersexyoungpeopleoffemalesexdeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalmeat:foodediblepartofananimalcorn:grainaparticulargrain\nMeaningshiftinn:asmall,oldhotelorpubwell-known,nicehotelnice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finelust:pleasurewithnegativeandsexualovertonessilly:happynaïve,foolish\nSomerecenttrendsMovingtowardsgreaterinformalityTheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology\nTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologySpacetravelComputerandinternetlanguageEcology\nCausesofthelanguagechangeTherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;Moreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammarsimplification;Regularizationofexceptionalpluralformsprovidesanotherexampleforanalogicalchange.\nChapter8LanguageandsocietySociolinguistics----asub-fieldoflinguiststhatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.\nTherelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety----Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuser’ssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)Language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)Asasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalic[r]).\nSpeechcommunityandspeechvarietySpeechcommunity----thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Speechvarietyorlanguagevariety----anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.\nTwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudiesMacrosociolinguistics,i.e.abird’s-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;Microsociolinguistics,i.e.aworm’s-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.\nVarietiesoflanguageDialectalvarietiesRegisterDegreeofformality\nDialectalvarietiesRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).Sociolectisalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)Languageandgender(e.g.intonation,lexicon)Languageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox----fridge,wireless----boombox)Idiolect----apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).Ethnicdialect----asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).\nRegisterRegister,inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoone’soccupation.Inabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Hallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse.\nThreesocialvariablesFieldofdiscourse:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Tenorofdiscourse:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)Modeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline…)\nDegreeofformality----Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Frozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.----Note:Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).\nStandarddialectThestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.\nPidginandCreoleApidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.\nBilingualismandDiglossiaInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.AccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.\nChapter9Languageandculture\nWhatisculture?Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.\nTherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureThesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.Languageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.Culturealsoaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.Ontheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.\nSapir-WhorfhypothesisEdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeople’sperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.\nStrongversion&weakversionStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’sthinkingandbehavior;Weakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.----ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.MorethaninWhorf’sdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.\nLinguisticevidenceofculturaldifferencesDenotativemeaning----ameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary.Connotativemeaning----ameaningorideasuggestedbyawordorthinginadditiontotheformalmeaningornatureofthewordorthing.Iconicmeaning----theimageoriconinvokedinmindbyaword.Forexample,“rose”.\nSomeculturaldifferencesinlanguageuseGreetingsandtermsofaddressThanksandcomplimentsColorwordsPrivacyandtaboosRoundingoffnumbersWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphor\nThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearningLearningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage’sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.\nCulturaloverlapCulturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchas“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”\nCulturaldiffusionThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenonisknownasculturaldiffusion.Onetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.Thepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercultures.Theattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)\nInterculturalcommunicationInterculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.)Incross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspectivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthatcancausefrustrationsincommunicationsandcontacts.\nChapter10LanguageacquisitionLanguageacquisition----referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.\nTheoriesofchildlanguageacquisitionAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition(Skinners)Aninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition(Chomsky)AninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment\nAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisitionTraditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.ImitationRecognitionReinforcementTheinadequacyofbehavioristviewliesinexplaininghowchildrenacquirecomplexlanguagesystem.(SeeexamplesinP144)\nAninnatistviewoflanguageacquisitionAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.\nAninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistview,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechild’scapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.(motherese)\nCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment1)     Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.(theacquisitionofperfecttenseandtheconceptofpresentrelevance)2)     Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.(theacquisitionofnegativeform)\nLanguageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesisTwoimportantfactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.Inbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacks.Theinnatistviewemphasizesmoreonchildren’sinternalprocessingofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.Theinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildren’scomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.\nCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH)----EricLennebergarguesthattheLAD,likeotherbiologicalfunctions,workssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime----aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.ThestrongversionofCPHsuggeststhatchildrenmustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposure.Theweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictor’sandGenie’scases)\nStagesinchildlanguagedevelopmentPhonologicaldevelopmentVocabularydevelopment1)Under-extension2)Over-extension3)PrototypetheoryGrammaticaldevelopment1)Telegraphicspeech(2)2)Sentencesofthreemainelements(2.5)Pragmaticdevelopment\nAtypicaldevelopmentAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:HearingimpairmentMentalretardationautismstutteringAphasiaDyslexiaanddysgraphia\nChapter11SecondLanguageAcquisitionSecondLanguageAcquisition----formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Distinguishsecondlanguage&foreignlanguage\nConnectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisitionThefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackclothforperceivingandunderstandingnewfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).SLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.Interlanguage\nContrastiveanalysis(CA)(1960s)Positivetransfer----facilitatetargetlanguagelearningNegativetransfer----interfereorhindertargetlanguagelearningItisbelievedthatdifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewouldposedifficultiesinsecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching,e.g.*Totouchthesociety.*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.*Iwaityouatthegateoftheschool.\nShortcomingsofCATheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyofthepredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiveanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.\nErroranalysis(EA)Thecontrastiveapproachtolearners’errorshasshednewlightonpeople’sattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypothesesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.Twomainsortsoferrors:Interlingualerrors&intralingualerrors\nInterlingualerrors----Interlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a. Substitutionof[t]for[W]and[d]for[T]:threetree,thisdis.b. Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmit\nIntralingualerrors----Theintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Twotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-association\nOvergeneralizationOvergeneralization----theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.Walked,watched,washed…*rided,*goed,*doed,*eated…Janeadvisemetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janehopedmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking.\nCross-associationCross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.Other/another,much/many,stalagmite/stalactite…Itmayalsooccursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.\nErrors&mistakesErrors----unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；Mistakes----eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).\nInterlanguage(S.PitCorder&LarrySelinker)Interlangauge----learners’independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfromhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.\nCharacteristicsofinterlanguageInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeabilityandfossilization.Fossilization----aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.\nTheroleofnativelanguagein2ndlanguagelearningLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)Mentalistsarguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.Threeinteractingfactorsindetermininglanguagetransfer:Alearner’spsychologyPerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistanceActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage\n2ndlanguagelearningmodelsandinputhypothesisBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;Thementalistsortheinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiondevice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.Thesocialinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.\nKrashen’sInputHypothesisKrashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.Heputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.Hedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearners’currentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.Krashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriticism.\nIndividualdifferencesLanguageaptitudeMotivationLearningstrategiesAgeofacquisitionPersonality\nLanguageaptitudeLanguageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearner’sgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomecomponentsoflanguageaptitude:PhonemiccodingabilityGrammaticalsensitivityInductivelanguagelearningabilityRotelearningability\nMotivationMotivationcanbedefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastrongimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecondlanguage.Generallyfourtypesofmotivationshavebeenidentified:InstrumentalmotivationIntegrativemotivationResultativemotivationIntrinsicmotivation\nLearningstrategiesLearningstrategiesarelearners’conscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.AccordingtoChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:Cognitivestrategies----analyzing,synthesisandinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.Metacognitivestrategies----planning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.Affect/socialstrategies----thewayslearnersinteractwithotherspeakers.Cohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.\nAgeofacquisitionTheCriticalPeriodHypothesisRecentstudiessupportthehypothesisthatintermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.\nPersonalityIntermsofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(asinthecaseofLiyang:CrazyEnglish).\nSLA&itspedagogicalimplications\nChapter12LanguageandBrain