胡壮麟语言学笔记 28页

chapterIwhatislanguage?[A]TheoriginsoflanguageSomespeculationsoftheoriginsoflanguage:①ThedivinesourceThebasichypothesis:ifinfantswereallowedtogrowupwithouthearinganylanguage,thentheywouldspontaneouslybeginusingtheoriginalgod-givenlanguage.Actually,childrenlivingwithoutaccesstohumanspeechintheirearlyyearsgrowupwithnolanguageatall.②Thenatural-soundsourceThebow-wowtheory:thesuggestionisthatprimitivewordscouldhavebeenimitationsofthenaturalsoundswhichearlymenandwomenheardaroundthem.The“Yo-heave-ho”theory:thesoundsproducedbyhumanswhenexertingphysicaleffort,especiallywhenco-operatingwithotherhumans,maybetheoriginsofspeechsounds.Onomatopoeicsounds③Theoral-gesturesourceItisclaimedthatoriginallyasetofphysicalgestureswasdevelopedasameansofcommunication.Thepatternsofmovementinarticulationwouldbethesameasgesturalmovement;hencewavingtonguewoulddevelopfromwavinghand.④Glossogenetics(言语遗传学)Thisfocusesmainlyonthebiologicalbasisoftheformationanddevelopmentofhumanlanguage.PhysiologicaladaptationàdevelopnamingabilityàinteractionsandtransactionsPhysicaladaptation:Humanteethareuprightandroughlyeveninheight.Humanlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemveryflexible.Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue.Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthepharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepiecesoffood,butmakingthesoundspeechpossible.Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyticfunctions(tool-usingandlanguage)arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrainformosthumans.Twomajorfunctionsoflanguage:Interactional:asocialfunctionoflanguage.Transactional:afunctioninvolvingthecommunicationofknowledgeandinformation[B]ThepropertiesoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.a)System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorulesb)Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthethingintheworldwhichitreferstoc)Vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguagesd)Human:languageishuman-specific(交际性与信息性)Communicativevs.Informative:Communicative:intentionallyusinglanguagetocommunicatesomethingInformative:through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenotintentionallysentDesignfeatures(uniqueproperties):thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication\n①Displacement(跨时空性，移位性)Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations)②Arbitrariness(任意性)Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.a) echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:onomatopoeicwordsb) somecompoundwords③Productivity(能产性，创造性)Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness)④Culturaltransition(文化传递性)Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.⑤Discreteness(可分离性)Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.⑥Duality(双重结构性，两重性或二元性)Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)Theabovesixpropertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Vocal-auditorychannel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,orrapidfade,thesepropertiesarebesttreatedaswaysofdescribinghumanlanguage,butnotasameansofdistinguishingitfromothersystemsofcommunication.[C]Thedevelopmentofwrittenlanguage①pictograms&ideograms(象形文字和表意文字)Pictogram:whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticularimagesinaconsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasaformofpicture-writing,orpictograms.Ideogram:thepicturedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedotherthanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,orideogramHieroglyph:古埃及象形文字②Logograms(语标书写法)Whensymbolscometobeusedtorepresentwordsinalanguage,theyaredescribedasexamplesofword-writing,orlogograms.“Arbitrariness”—awritingsystemwhichwasword-basedhadcomeintoexistence.Cuneiform--楔形文字—theSumerians(5000and6000yearsago)Chineseisoneexampleofitsmodernwritingsystem.Advantages:twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewritingsystem.Disadvantages:vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms.③Syllabicwriting(音节书写法)Whenawritingsystememploysasetofsymbolswhichrepresentthepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting.ThePhoenicians:thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofasyllabicwritingsystem(ca1000\nBC)④Alphabeticwriting(字母书写法)Semiticlanguages(ArabicandHebrew):firstappliedthisruleTheGreeks:takingtheinherentlysyllabicsystemfromthePhoeniciansviatheRomansLatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet(Slaviclanguages)⑤RebuswritingRobuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforanentitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedforthatentity.ChapterIIwhatislinguistics?[A]ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Processoflinguisticstudy:①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;②Hypothesesareformulated;③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.[B]ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics:thestudyoflanguageasawholeMainbranchesofLinguistics:Phonetics:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)Phonology:isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)Morphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)Syntax:thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)Semantics:thestudyofmeaninginabstractionPragmatics:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseBranchesofMacrolinguistics:Sociolinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive②Synchronicvs.DiachronicThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.\n③SpeechandwritingSpokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten④LangueandparoleProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunityParole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse⑤CompetenceandperformanceProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)Competence:theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageChapterIIIPhoneticsandphonology[A]ThedefinitionofphoneticsPhonetics:thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Articulatoryphonetics:thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.Acousticphonetics:dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.Forensicphonetics:hasanapplicationinlegalcasesinvolvingspeakeridentificationandtheanalysisofrecordedutterances.[B]OrgansofspeechVoiceless:whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Voiced:whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced(voicing).Theimportantcavities:ThepharyngealcavityTheoralcavityThenasalcavityLips,teeth,teethridge(alveolus),hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backoftongue,vocalcords[C]OrthographicrepresentationofspeechsoundsBroadandnarrowtranscriptionsIPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association)Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyNarrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithdiacriticsE.g.:[l]à[li:f]--àaclear[l](nodiacritic)[l]à[bild]--àadark[l](~)[l]à[helW]--àadental[l]()[p]à[pit]--àanaspirated[ph](h)[p]à[spit]--àanunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àasyllabicnasal[n]\n(7)[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonantsIntermsofmannerofarticulation(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)①Stops:theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/,[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives:theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant)③Affricates:theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[tF]/[dV]④Liquids:theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth[l]àalateralsound;[r]àretroflex⑤Glides:[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants⑥Nasals:thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],[n],[N]Byplaceofarticulation(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)①bilabials:upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/,[w]à(velar)②labiodentals:thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v]③dentals:thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[W]/[T]④alveolars:thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars):tongueandtheveryfrontofthepalate,nearthealveolarridge[F]/[V],[tF]/[dV]⑥palatal:tongueinthemiddleofthepalate[j]⑦velars:thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[N]…[w]⑧glottals:theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h][E]ClassificationofEnglishvowelsFronti:        Central    Back  Close  i    `        u:uSemi-closee        E:    Semi-open        E    C:Open    AB        Q    RB:①Thehighestpositionofthetongue:front,central,back;②Theopennessofthemouth:close,semi-close,semi-open,open;③theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(the\nlips):Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[B]Allthebackvowels,except[a:]areroundedvowels④Thelengthofthesound:longvowels&shortvowelsLarynxà(tense)or(lax)Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowels[F]ThedefinitionofphonologyPhoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.[G]Phone,phoneme,andallophonePhone:thedifferentversionsoftheabstractunit–phonemePhoneme:themean-distinguishingsoundinalanguage,placedinslashmarksAllophone:asetofphones,allofwhichareversionsofonephoneme[G]Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairPhonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they’reinphonemiccontrast.E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/Complementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Whenagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme(alwaysinthesameposition),thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.[H]Somerulesinphonology①sequentialrulesSyllableOnset              rime              Nucleus      coda[Consonant]      vowel    [consonant(s)]Phonotacticsof3Csoccurringinonset:No1:___/s/___voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/___approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,\n/j/No2:Theaffricates[tF]/[dV]andthesibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants.②assimilationrulesCo-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.Assimilation&elisioneffectsAssimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheotherE.g.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.③deletionrule-ElisionDefinition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolationE.g.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant[I]Suprasegmentalfeatures①StressWordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement②ToneDefinition:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.Level,rise,fall-rise,fall③IntonationWhenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtonesThefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltoneChapterIVMorphology[A]ThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.InflectionalmorphologyDerivationalmorphology(lexicalmorphology)Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulcomponentsofwords(Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction)[B]Freemorphemes&boundmorphemesFreemorphemes:canstandbythemselvesassinglewordsàLexicalmorphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.]Boundmorphemes:cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherformàDerivationalmorphemes----àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+rootàInflectionalmorphemesà\n88typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-’s,-s[possessive;plural]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular;presentparticiple;pasttense,pastparticiple]Adj+-er,-est[comparative;superlative][C]Derivationalvs.inflectionalInflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofawordInflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory;DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder:root(stem)+derivational+inflectional[D]MorphologicalRulesN.+lyàa.;A.+lyàadv.;guardovergeneralization[E]MorphsandallomorphsMorphs:theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,werefertothemasallomorphsofthatmorpheme.[F]Word-formationprocess①Coinageàtheinventionoftotallynewterms②BorrowingàthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguagesLoan-translation(Claque)àadirecttranslationoftheelementsofawordintotheborrowinglanguageStandalonetobetheoppositeofword-formation③CompoundingàajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleformFeaturesofcompoundsa)    Orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,withorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.b)    Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.c)    Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notalwaysbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningsofitscomponents.d)    Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,Whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.④Blendingàtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherword⑤Clippingàawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterform⑥BackformationàaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingwordHypocorismsàclippingor+ie⑦Conversionàcategorychange,functionalshift⑧Acronymsànewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwords⑨Derivationàthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords⑩AbbreviationàashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteformAnalogyChapterVGrammar[A]Typesofgrammar\nThestudyofgrammar,orthestudyofthestructureofexpressionsinalanguage,hasaverylongtradition.①Mentalgrammar:aformofinternallinguisticknowledgewhichoperatesintheproductionandrecognitionofappropriatelystructuredexpressionsinthatlanguage.àPsychologist②Linguisticetiquette:theidentificationoftheproperorbeststructurestobeusedinalanguage.àSociologist③Thestudyandanalysisofthestructuresfoundinalanguage,withtheaimofestablishingadescriptionofthegrammarofEnglish,e.g.asdistinctfromthegrammarofRussiaorFrench.àLinguist[B]ThepartsofspeechNouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctionsàthegrammaticalcategoriesofwordsinsentences[C]Traditionalgrammar(Categoriesandanalysis)Othercategories:number,person,tense,voiceandgenderAgreement:EnglishlanguageßnaturalgenderGrammaticalgenderàFrench[D]TypesofgrammarconcerninganalysisTheprescriptiveapproach:TheviewofgrammarasasetofrulesfortheproperuseofalanguageThedescriptiveapproach:analystscollectsamplesofthelanguagetheyareinterestedinandattempttodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageatitisused,notaccordingtosomeviewofhowitshouldbeused.[E]Structuralandimmediateconstituentanalysis(ICAnalysis)Structuralanalysis:toinvestigatethedistinctionofforms(e.g.morphemes)inalanguageICAnalysis:howsmallconstituents(Components)insentencesgotogethertoformlargerconstituents[F]LabeledandbracketedsentencesHierarchicalorganizationoftheconstituentsinasentenceLabeleachconstituentwithgrammaticaltermssuchasArt.N.NPChapterVISyntax[A]ThedefinitionofsyntaxAsubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage[B]ThebasiccomponentsofasentenceSentenceSubject                PredicateReferringexpression      comprisesfiniteverboraverbphraseandsayssomethingaboutthesubject[C]TypesofsentencesSimplesentence:consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence:containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”,“by”,“or”…Complexsentence:containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheotherEmbeddedclauseßàmatrixclause\n①subordinator②functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybecomplete[D]ThelinearandhierarchicalstructuresofsentencesWhenasentenceisutteredorwrittendown,thewordsofthesentenceareproducedoneafteranotherinasequence,whichsuggeststhestructureofasentenceislinear.Butthesuperficialarrangementofwordsinalinearsequencedoesnotentailthatsentencesaresimplylinearly-structured;sentencesareorganizedwithwordsofthesamesyntacticcategory,suchasNPorVP,groupedtogether.TreediagramofconstituentstructureBracketsandsubscriptlabels[E]SomecategoriesSyntacticcategories:refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicateLexicalcategories:(partsofspeech)Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories):N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories):Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasalcategories:NP,VP,PP,AP[F]GrammaticalRelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsofconstituentsItconcernsthewayeachnounphraseinthesentencerelatestotheverbSubjectofanddirectobjectofStructuralsubject,structuralobjectLogicalsubject(thedoeroftheaction),thelogicalobject(therecipientoftheaction)Thesetwogroupsofsubjectsandobjectsmayhavedifferentpositions[G]CombinationalrulesAresmallinnumberàYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones①phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)SàNPVP(Asentenceconsistsof,orisrewrittenas,anounphraseandaverbphrase)NPà(Det.)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)Anoptionaldeterminer….andobligatorynoun,VPàV(NP)(POP)(S)APàA(PP)(S)PPàPNP②therecursivenessofphrasestructurerulesSignificantly,theaboverulescangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences,andsentenceswithinfinitelength,duetotheirrecursiveproperties.③X-bartheoryHeadàanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXPà(Specifier)X\n(complement)Formula:X”àSpecX’            X-bartheory(X-barschema)X’àXcomplTreediagramX”Specifier    X’          X    complement[H]SyntacticmovementandmovementrulesSyntacticmovement:occurswhenaconstituentinasentencemovesoutofitsoriginalplacetoanewplaceTransformationalrules①NP-movementandWH-movementNP-movement:activevoiceàpassivevoicePostposing,preposingWH-movement:affirmativeàinterrogativeLeftwardmattertothesentenceinitial-position②OthertypesofmovementAux-movement:themovementofanauxiliarytothesentence-initialposition③D-structureandS-structureTwolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure:OnethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration:D-structure:phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structureTheapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefromD-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysis④Moveα–ageneralmovementruleMoveanyconstituenttoanyplaceCertainconstituentscanmovetoonlycertainpositions[I]UniversalGrammar(UG)Principles-and-parameterstheory:UGisasystemoflinguisticknowledgeandahumanspecies-specificgiftwhichexitsinthemindorbrainofanormalhumanbeingandwhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturallanguages.①generalprinciplesofUGCaseconditionprinciple:anounphrasemusthavecaseandcaseisassignedbyVorPtotheobjectpositionorbyAuxtothesubjectpositionAdjacencyconditionorCaseassignment:acaseassignorandacaserecipientshouldstayadjacencyto\neachother.ItisstrictlyobservedinEnglishwell-formedsentences,nototherlanguages(nootherphrasalcategorycanintervenebetweenaverbanditsdirectobject)TheAdjacencyconditionmustbesubjecttoparametricvariationinordertoexplaintheapparentadjacencyviolationssuchasinFrench.②TheparametersofUGParametersaresyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.[+strictadjacency]Adjacencyparameter[-strictadjacency][Rightwarddirectionality]TheDirectionalityParameter  àinvolveswordorder[Leftwarddirectionality]En:VPwordorder  VPàVNPJp:VPwordorder  VPàNPVNaturallanguagesareviewedtovaryaccordingtoparameterssetonUGprinciplestoparticularvalues.ChapterVIISemantics[A]ThedefinitionofsemanticsDefinition:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview[B]Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning①thenamingtheory:Thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor;wordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.②theconceptualistview:There’snodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Thought/referenceàconceptSymbol/Form(words)                  Referentà(realobject)ProposedbyOgden&Richards③contextualism:JohnFirthThesituationalcontext:inaparticularspatiotemporalsituationLinguisticcontext(co-text):theprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword④behaviorismàBloomfield  basedoncontextualistviewBehavioristsdefinemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearerS:stimulus      r:responseJill      JackS---------r………s---------R(thesmalllettersr,sàspeech)(thecapitalizedletterR,Sàpracticalevents)\n[C]SenseandreferenceSense:isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperienceMovingstar      Ioncewasbittenbyadog.Morningstar    Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.[D]Majorsenserelations①synonymyàthesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaninga.    dialectalsynonyms——synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsb.    stylisticsynonyms——synonymsdifferinginstylec.    synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningd.    collocationalsynonymse.    semanticallydifferentsynonyms②polysemy——onewordthathasmorethanonerelatedmeaning③homonymyHomophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsoundHomographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspellingCompletehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSoundEtymology④hyponymy——inclusivenessThewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinator.Thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym⑤antonymy——oppositenessGradableantonymsComplementaryantonymsRelationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems⑥metonymyMeaningbasedonacloseconnectionineverydayexperience,ofwhichcanbebasedonacontainer-contentsrelation,awhole-partrelation,orarepresentative-symbolrelationship⑦collocationOrganizetheknowledgeofwordsintermsoffrequentlyoccurringtogether⑧prototypesTheconceptofaprototypehelpsexplainthemeaningofcertainwords,notintermsofcomponentfeatures,butintermsofresemblancetotheclearestexemplar.[E]Senserelationsbetweensentences①XissynonymouswithY②XisinconsistentwithY③XentailsY(YisanentailmentofX)④XpresupposesY(YisaprerequisiteofX)⑤Xisacontradiction⑥Xissemanticallyanomalous[F]Componentialanalysisàawaytoanalyzelexical\nmeaningSemanticfeatures:themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,orsemanticfeaturesPhonemeàdistinctivefeaturesShowhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaning[G]PredicationanalysisàawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech①themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal(ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents)②GrammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaningGrammaticality        selectionalrestrictionsSemanticanalysis:Predication(basicunit)àtheabstractmeaningofthesentenceArgument(s)论元    predicate(谓词)Logicalparticipant(s)  Sthsaidaboutanargumentorstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargument(s)inasentenceThepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement.Tomsmokes.àTOM(SMOKE)àone-placepredicationKidslikeapples.àKID,APPLE(LIKE)àtwo-placepredicationIt’sraining.à(RAIN)àno-placepredicationChapterVIIIPragmatics[A]ThedefinitionofpragmaticsDefinition:thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunicationWhatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifitisnot,itissemantics.Ifitis,itispragmatics.[B]ContextItisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Linguisticcontextàco-textPhysicalcontext[C]Sentencemeaningv.utterancemeaningThedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.Meaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized.Meaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextualized.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.[D]SpeechActTheory言语行为理论DirectspeechactIndirectspeech\nactFace-threateningFace-savingProposedbyBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate1950sAnswer:whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?Constatives:statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andthusverifiablePerformatives:sentencesthatdon’tstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable(performcertainacts)Gavethedistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformativesandgaverisetoanewmodel:[Aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking]①locutionaryact:(言内行为)theactofutteringwords,phrases,clausesItistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.②illocutionaryact:(言外行为)theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionItistheactpreformedinsayingsomething.③perlocutionaryact:(言后行为)theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomethingItistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.Linguistsaremoreconcernedaboutorinterestedinillocutionaryact.TheclassificationofillocutionaryactmadebyAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearleFivegeneralcategories:①representatives:(阐述类)statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue②directives:(指令类)tryingtogetthehearertodosomething③commissives:(承诺类)committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction④expressives:(表达类)expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate⑤declaratives:(宣告类)bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomethingAlltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforce.Alltheutterancesthatcanbemadetoservethesamepurposemayvaryintheirsyntacticform.[E]Principlesofconversation(Co-operativeprinciples)会话原则或合作原则ProposedbyPaulGrice,alogicianandphilosopherThemaximofquantity:量准则Themaximofquality:质准则Themaximofrelation:关联准则Themaximofmanner:方式准则Significance:itexplainshowitispossibleforthespeakertoconveymorethanisliterarysaid.CPisnearlyalwaysobserved,whilethesemaximsarenot,whichgivesriseto“Conversationalimplicatures”,i.e.thelanguagebecomesindirect.[F]Deixis,reference,anaphora,presupposition①Deixis:Therearesomewordsinthelanguagethatcannotbeinterpretedatallunlessthephysicalcontext,esp.thephysicalcontextofthespeakerisknown.PersondeixisPlacedeixisTimedeixis②Reference:anactbywhichaspeakerorwriteruseslanguagetoenablealistenerorreadertoidentify\nsomethingInference:anyadditionalinformationusedbythelistenertoconnectwhatissaidtowhatmustbemeant.③Anaphora:thesecondandanysubsequentreferringexpressionisanexampleofanaphora,andthefirstmentioniscalledtheantecedent.Anaphora:subsequentreferencetoanalreadyintroducedentity④Presupposition:WhataspeakerassumesistrueorisknownbythespeakercanbedescribedasapresuppositionConstancyundernegation:thepresuppositionremainstruewhenasentenceisnegated.[G]BackgroundknowledgeWeactuallycreatewhatthetextisabout,basedonourexpectationsofwhatnormallyhappens,i.e.usingtheconceptofaSCHEMA.Schema:ageneraltermforaconventionalknowledgestructurewhichexistsinmemory.(Schemata)Script:adynamicschema,inwhichaseriesofconventionalactiontakesplace.ChapterIXDiscourseAnalysis[A]InterpretingdiscourseWe,aslanguageusers,cancopewithfragments,notices,orevenungrammaticalsentencesandtextsapartfromsimplyrecognizingcorrectversusincorrectformsandstructures.Thekeyelementinvestigatedinthestudyofdiscourseisthatweattempttoarriveatareasonableinterpretationofwhatthewriterintendedtoconvey.[B]Cohesionandcoherence连接与连贯(衔接)Cohesion:thetiesandconnectionswhichexistwithintextsthatmakethetextssystematicandsmooth.Cohesivelinks(ties)Connectednessbasedonthelexicallevelisnotsufficientenoughtomakeatextreadable,orinterpretable.Coherence:connectionwithinmeaning,orinpeople.[C]SpeecheventandconversationalinteractionConversationalinteraction:taketurns,whensomeoneinterrupts,thespeakerwillstopuntiltheendoftheintruder’ssentenceCompletionpoint:byaskingaquestion;bypausingTheonewhokeepstheturnwillavoidhavingthosetwoindicatorsoccurtogetherRudenessv.shynessChapterXHistoricallinguistics[A]ThepurposeandsignificanceofhistoricallinguisticsHistoricallinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.Diachroniclinguistics①theidentificationofthechangesenablesustoreconstructthelinguistichistoryofthatlanguage,hypothesizesitsearlierforms②alsoitenablesustodeterminehownon-linguisticfactors,suchassocial,culturalandpsychologicalfactors,interactovertimetotriggerlinguisticchange[B]ThenatureoflanguagechangeLanguagechangeisuniversal,continuousand,toaconsiderabledegree,regularandsystematic;a\ngradualandconstantprocess,oftenindiscernibletospeakersofthesamegenerationLanguagechangeisextensive,allaspectsofgrammar-phonology,morphology,syntax,lexicon,andsemantics.[C]MajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglishThedivisionofchangesinEnglishonlymakesiteasier,moreconvenientandmorepracticaltostudylanguagechange.OldEnglish:(449-1100)MiddleEnglish:(1100-1500)ModernEnglish:(1500-now)[D]LinguisticchangeofEnglishLanguagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.①soundchangea)    vowelsoundchangeàca.1400-1600,knownasthegreatvowelshiftb)    soundloss(apocope)词尾脱落c)    soundaddition(epenthesis)插音d)    soundmovement(metathesis)换位②morphologicalchangea)    affixloss:lossofgenderandcasemarkings      dropofcausativeverbformationruleb)    affixaddition:-able,-ment(fromFrench),-ize③syntacticchangea)    ruleloss:(1)adj,agreewiththeheadnounincase,numberandgender;(2)double-negationruleb)    ruleaddition:(1)particlemovementrule;(2)distinctionbetweenauxiliaryverbsandmainverbsc)    rulechange:(1)negationway;(2)sentencestructure:SVO,VSO,SOV,OSVThelossofcasecontrastsinEnglishwascompensatedforwiththeadoptionoftheconsistentSVOorder.④lexicalchangeàmostvigorousandon-goingchangea)    lexicalloss:nolongerinuseb)    lexicaladdition:borrowingandword-formation(refertosyntax)c)    Semanticchange:(1)semanticbroadening;(2)semanticnarrowing;(3)semanticshift:aprocessofsemanticchangeinwhichawordlosesitsformermeaningandacquiresanew,sometimesrelatedone.[E]LanguagefamilyàhistoricalandcomparativelinguisticsProtolanguage:theoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexistAlanguagefamilyisestablishedbytheuseofamethodknownascomparativereconstruction.TheIndo-EuropeanFamily:150TheSino-TibetanFamily:300TheAustro-wesianFamily:1000TheAfro-asiaticFamily:250Grim’s(theGermanscholar)majorcontributiontohistoricallinguisticsishisexplanationoftherelationshipsamongcognatesintermsofasoundshift.Grim’slaw:Voicedstopsbecome\nvoicelessVoicelessstopsbecomefricativesVoicedaspiratesbecomede-aspirated[F]ThecausesoflanguagechangeAsamatteroffact,nolinguisthaseverclaimedtoknowallthecausesoflanguagechange.Physiological,linguistic,orsociologicalfactors①soundassimilation②rulesimplificationandregularization③internalborrowingàanalogue④elaboration:规则细化⑤socialtriggers:NormanConquest,Britishcolonialsettlement,thecountry’spolitical,culturalandeconomicadvancesindistantlands⑥culturaltransmittion⑦children’sapproximationtowardtheadultgrammar:儿童语言习得Childrenacquiretheirnativelanguagenotthroughformalinstructionofgrammaticalrules.ChapterXISociolinguisticsThesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsociety[A]SpeechcommunityandspeechvarietySC:aspeechcommunityisagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity,whichmayhaveasfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymembersasacountry,andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.Thelinguisticmarkersthatcharacterizeindividualsocialgroupsmayserveassocialmarkersofgroupmembership.SV:alsoknownaslanguagevarietyreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgroupofspeakers.Aspeechvarietyisnomorethanadialectalvarietyofalanguage.RegionaldialectsSociolects(socialdialects)      carrynovaluejudgmentandsimplyRegisters(functionaldialects)    refertoadistinctformofalanguage[B]Regional,social,stylistic,andidiolectalvariationsRegionalvariation:isaspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom,whichisthemostdiscernibleanddefinableGeographicalbarriers:loyaltytoone’snativespeech;physicalandpsychologicalresistancetochangeAccent(referstoawayofpronunciationwhichtellsthelistenersomethingaboutthespeaker’sregionalorsocialbackground);pronunciation;vocabulary;syntaxLanguagestandardizationàlanguageplanningisonewayoutofthecommunicationdilemma.Socialvariation(sociolect):linguisticdifferencesassociatedwithrespectivedefinablesocialgroupsevenwithinthesamegeographicallocation.Stylisticvariation:(register)①rangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation②maybeusedbyaparticulargroupofpeople③aparticularregisteroftendistinguishesitselffromotherregisterbyhavinganumberofdistinctive\nwords,byspecialgrammaticalconstructionsIdiolectalvariation:(idiolect)Aspeaker’slinguisticperformanceisheterogeneous,ratherthanhomogeneous.Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inonewayoranother.[C]Standardandnon-standardlanguageThestandardlanguageisasuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.SAE(StandardAmericanEnglish)ßàNetworkEnglishNon-standard,orvernacular,languages:Alldialectsofalanguageareequallyeffectiveinexpressingideas.Governmentpolicy,historicalandculturaltraditionNational(official)language[D]Linguafranca,pidgins,andcreolesLinguafranca:isavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefromdiverselinguisticbackgrounds.Itcanbegeneralizedtorefertonayotherlanguageusedasatradeorcommunicationmedium.Pidgin:isavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativeofspeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.Itmaycontainsignificantgrammaticalfeaturesoftwoormorelanguages,butrule-governed.Creole:isoriginallyapidginthathasbecomeestablishedasanativelanguageinsomespeechcommunity.ApidginbecomesaCreolewhenitisadoptedbyapopulationasitsprimarylanguage,andchildrenlearnitastheirfirstlanguage.[E]DiglossiaandbilingualismDiglossia:isasituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionsandappropriateforcertainsituations.Oneisamorestandardvarietycalledthehighvariety(H-variety),theotherisanon-prestigevarietycalledthelowvariety(L-variety).ClassicallanguageàlocalvernacularTheuseofaparticularvarietymaynotbedeterminedbyaspeaker’ssocialstatus,butbythecommunicativesituationthespeakerisin.Generally,thesetwolevelsofvarietiesaregenerallytwovarietiesofthesamelanguage.Butinthehistory,therearesomeothersituationsinwhichthehighvarietymayhavenogeneticrelationshipwiththelowone.(theMiddleAges)Bilingualism:referstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionsoranation.Perfectbilingualismisuncommon.Onelanguageisusuallymoredominantthantheother.Mostbilingualcommunitieshaveonethingincommon,i.e.afairlyclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituationsknownasdomains.Code-switching:abilingualspeakeroftenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker.[F]EthnicdialectàBlackEnglishVernacular(BEV)Ethnicdialect:asocialdialectofalanguage,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferencesBEV:spokenmostlybyalargesectionofnon-middle-classAmericanblacks.ItisstigmatizedasbadEnglish,apurelysocialattitudethathasnolinguistic\nbasis.ThesocialenvironmentofBEV:ThedistinctivefeaturesofBEVpersistnotforracialreasons,butforsocial,educational,andeconomicalreasons.SpeakerofanethnicdialectlikeBEVregardthelanguagetheyspeakthemajorsymboloftheirsocio-culturalidentity.SomefeaturesofBEV:①phonologicalcharacteristics:Thefrequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofwordswhenoneofthetwoconsonantsisanalveolar/t/,/d/,/s/,or/z/;thel-deletionrule;thedeletionofsomeword-finalstopconsonantsinwordslike“side”and“borrowed”;②syntacticalcharacteristics:thefrequentabsenceofthecopula“be”;thesystematicuseoftheexpression“itis”whereSEuses“thereis”inthesenseof“thereexists”;theuseofdoublenegationconstructions;[G]SocialdialectVarietiesoflanguageusedbygroupsdefinedaccordingtoclass,education,age,sex,andanumberofothersocialparametersOvertprestigev.covertprestige①EducationalvarietiesOneextremeformoftheeducationalinfluenceonthewayonespeaksisthefactthatsomecollegeprofessorstalklikeabook.Lowerclassandlesseducated:[n]ratherthan[N][h]-dropping②AgevarietiesLexicalvariationaccordingtotheagecorrelateswithtimeperiodsismorenoticeableacrossthree-generationtimespan.Oldpeopletendtobemoreconservativethantheyoungergeneration③GendervarietiesFemalespeakerstendtousemoreprestigiousformsthanmalespeakerswiththesamegeneralsocialbackground:a)    Femalesarepoliterinconversation;b)    thedifferenceofspeechacts(thefrequentuseofpoliteformulasinfemalespeeches)Thechoiceofwordsintermsofgrammaticalgenderissexist:useof“he”torefertoeithersexesorunknownorirrelevantThesexistbiasisalsorootedbythewayneutraltermsareinterpreted.Governor/governess|Master/mistress|Careerwoman/manEnglishisonesuchlanguagewhosegendertermsareheavilyasymmetricinmorphologicalrepresentation.Maletermsgetunmarkedandthefemaletermisoftenmarkedbyaddingaboundmorpheme,orbycompounding.Feministmovement,usemoregender-neutralexpressions④Registervarieties(situationaldialects)Register:onelanguagevarietyappropriateforuseinparticularspeechsituations,incontrasttolanguagevarietiesthatareassociatedwiththesocialorregionalgroupingoftheircustomaryusers.Speechvariationinregistermaybecarriedoverintothewrittenlanguage.⑤AddresstermsAddressterm:oraddressform,referstothewordorwordsusedtoaddresssomebodyinspeechor\nwriting.CommonEnglishaddressterms:FirstnameLastnameTitle+lastnameTitlealoneKinterm:Dad,mummyetc.⑥SlangSlang:acasualuseoflanguagethatconsistsofexpressivebutnonstandardvocabulary,typicallyofarbitrary,flashyandoftenephemeralcoinagesandfiguresofspeechcharacterizedbyspontaneityandsometimesbyraciness.Purpose:adesirefornovelty,forvividemphasis,formembershipinaparticulargrouporclass,forbeingupwiththetermsofalittleaheadNegativeconnotation:aloworvulgarformoflanguageIn-grouplanguageorcommunityjargon⑦LinguistictabooLinguistictaboo:referstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythepolitesocietyfromgeneraluse.Obscene,profane,andswearwordsManylanguagescontaintwowordsorexpressionswiththeidenticallinguisticmeaning,withoneacceptableandtheotheracauseofembarrassmentorhorror.Theavoidanceofusingtaboo:languagemirrorssocialattitudes,emotionsandvaluejudgment,andhasnolinguisticbasis.⑧EuphemismEuphemism:amild,indirectorlessoffensivewordorexpressionsubstitutedwhenthespeakerorwriterfearsmoredirectwordingmightbeharsh,unpleasantlydirect,oroffensiveDeathordying,askforlocationofthe“bathroom”etc.Oftenwhenthenegativeconnotationofawordisrecognizedinitseuphemisticform,aneweuphemismwillhavetobesoughtfor.Toilet,WC,powderroom,Men’sRoom,Ladies’Room,Gentlemen,bathroom,restroomAslongasthereisaneedtoavoidtheuseoftaboolanguage,thereisaneedfortheuseofeuphemisticsubstitutes.ChapterXIIPsycholinguisticsThestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemindP.S.someofthefollowingdiscussedsometimesfallintothescopeofneurolinguisticsandsociolinguistics,esp.concerningthestructureofthebrain.[A]ThebiologicalfoundationsoflanguageHumanlinguisticabilitylargelydependsonthestructureanddynamicsofthehumanbrain,ratherthan,thestructureofthevocalcords.NeuronsàcerebralcortexàhemisphereBrainlateralization(specifictohumanbeings):thelefthemispherehasprimaryresponsibilityforlanguage,whiletherighthemispherecontrolsvisualandspatialskillsaswellastheperceptionofnonlinguisticsoundsandmusical\nmelodies.Thelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularhemisphereofthebrainiscalledlateralization.[B]LinguisticlateralizationLefthemisphericdominanceforlanguage,thishypothesishasbeenprovedbyDichoticlisteningresearch(两耳分听试验)Thesoundpresentedintherighteargoesdirectlytotheleftbrain.Thesoundheardintheleftear,ontheotherhand,mustfirstgototherighthemisphere,fromwhereitistransferredtotheleftsideofthebrainforprocessing.Rightearadvantage:(右耳优势)itappearstoexistprimarilyforlinguisticstimuli,bothmeaningfulandnonsensical.[C]Thelanguagecenters①Broca’sarea[Frenchsurgeonandanatomist]:Thefrontallobeintheleftcerebralhemispheredamagedextremedifficultyinproducingspeech;[Speechproductiondeficit]word-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax②Wernicke’sarea(Germanphysician,1874):StrengthenedBroca’sclaim,andgeneratedintenseinterestinthehypothesisthatdifferentareaswithinthelefthemispherefulfilldifferentlinguisticfunctions[Speechcomprehensiondeficit]difficultinunderstandingspeech(posteriorspeechcortex)③Theangulargyrus(角形脑回):ItisresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversaThewordisheardandcomprehendedviaWernicke’sarea.ThissignalisthentransferredviathearcuatefasciculustoBroca’sarea(theangulargyrus),wherepreparationsaremadetoproduceit.Asignalisthensenttothemotorcortextophysicallyarticulatetheword.④languageperception,comprehensionandproduction[D]ThecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisitionßneurobiologistEricLennebergItreferstoaperiodinone’slifeextendingfromabouttwotopuberty,duringwhichthehumanbrainismostreadytoacquireaparticularlanguageandlanguagelearningcanproceedeasily,swiftly,andwithoutexplicitinstruction.Languagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiod.{Languagecanbeacquiredafterthecriticalperiod.}[E]EarlyviewsonlanguageandthoughtMentalistàthoughtandlanguagewereidentical,proposedbyPlatoEmpiricistàlanguagesweresignsofpsychologicalexperiences(Aristotle)Bloomfield,Americanpsychologist,founderofBehaviorism,supportedthementalist:thinkingwasasystemofmovementsthathadbeenreducedfromactualspeechtothepointwheretheywerenolongervisible.Violatesthefollowingtwophenomena:Non-speakinghumansàdisplaycomplexthoughtprocessIdidn’tmeantosaythatTheSapir-Whorfhypothesis:(theAmericananthropologist-linguistEdwardSapirandhisstudentBenjaminLeeWhorf)“Wecutnatureup,organizeitintoconcepts,andascribesignificanceaswedo,largelybecausewearepartiestoanagreementtoorganizeitinthisway—anagreementthatholdsthroughoutourspeechcommunityandiscodifiedinthepatternsofour\nlanguage.”Linguisticdetermination—thestrongnotion:LanguagedeterminesthoughtLinguisticrelativism—speakersofdifferentlanguageperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,i.e.relativetotheirlinguisticbackgroundThishypothesisappearsplausible,butitsstrongversionhasveryfewadherentstoday.Whorfdidnotonlydependtooheavilyontheliteraluseofwordsbutalsoongrammaticalstructure.Theweakerversionisaccepted.Languagemaybeusedtoprovideideas,bringaboutachangeinbeliefsandvalues,solveproblems,andkeeptrackofthingsinmemory.Languagedoesinfluencetheperceptions,memorytasks,andotherverbalandnonverbalbehaviorofhumanbeingsbyitsconvenience,availability,andhabitualuse.[F]ArguesforandagainsttheSapir-Whorfhypothesis①Wordsandmeaning:Relationisarbitrary;withouttheparticularwordsofsnowdoesn’tmeanhecannotperceivedifferencesinvarietiesofsnow…②GrammaticalstructureManygrammaticalfeaturesofalanguagearepurelysuperficialaspectsoflinguisticstructure.Theydon’thavethekindofinterdependentrelationshipwiththeperceptualsystemofthespeakersofthatlanguage.(Grammaticalgender)③TranslationSuccessfultranslationbetweenlanguagescanbemade.Thathe(Sapir)canexplain/describeHopiconceptsinEnglishforanaverageEnglishspeakertounderstandeasilyfullyprovesthattranslationcanbeobtained.④SecondlanguageacquisitionBilingualism:haveaconsistentconceptual-perceptualsystemofthephysicalworld.Don’thavetohavedoubleminds.⑤languageandworldviewsPeoplewhousethesamelanguagemayhavedifferentworldviews.Peoplewhousedifferentlanguagesmayhavethesimilarworldviews.Onelanguagecandescribemanydifferentworldviews.[G]Understandingtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought①functionsoflanguage:Interpersonalcommunication:conveyinformation,thoughts,feelingsfromonetoanotherIntrapersonalcommunication:languagefacilitatesthinking,speechbehavior,andactionfortheindividualHalliday:ideational,interpersonalandtextualfunctionsa)Informativeb)Interpersonalfunction(1)Performativefunction(2)Emotivefunction(3)Expressivefunction(4)Phaticfunctionc)Recreationalfunctiond)Metalingualfunction②Languageandthoughtmaybeviewedastwoindependentcirclesoverlappinginsomeparts.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleledtoeachother,wemayregardthoughtas“subvocalspeech”,andspeechas“overt\nthought”Nonverbalsignals:facialexpressions,grimaces,gestures,postures,orproxemicspacecanbeusedtoexpressthoughts.Therelationshipbetweenthecodingsystemoflanguageontheonehandandtheconceptualizingsystemofthoughtontheotherisconventionalratherthangenetic.Bilingualspeakersswitchbetweenthetwolanguagesconcerned,notconvertingonemodeofthinkingintotheother,butrather,makingtransitionbetweenthetwolinguisticcodingsystems.ChapterXIIIFirstLanguageAcquisition(FLA)Languageacquisitionreferstochildren’sdevelopmentoftheirfirstlanguage,thatis,thenativelanguageofthecommunityinwhichachildhasbeenbroughtup(naturallyandsuccessfully).[A]ThebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisitionWhatismeantbythebiological,ornativist,viewoflanguageacquisitionisthathumanareequippedwiththeneuralperquisitesforlanguageandlanguageuse,justasbirdsarebiologically“prewired”tolearnthesongsoftheirspecies.Nolanguageisinferior,orsuperior,toanyotherlanguage.Nosinglehumanisabetterorworselanguageacquirethananyotherhuman.Differentlanguageshaveasimilarlevelofcomplexityanddetail,andreflectgeneralabstractpropertiesofthecommonlinguisticsystemcalledtheUniversalGrammar(UG).[B]LanguageacquisitionastheacquisitionofgrammaticalrulesBefore5,knowingmostoftheintricategrammaticalsystemoftheirnativelanguageWhatisacquiredisnotabunchofutterancesbutasetofrules,conditions,andelements(fundamentalgrammaticalrules)thatallowonetospeakandunderstandspeech.[C]Theroleofinputandinteraction,instruction,correctionandreinforcement,imitation①theroleofinputandinteractionGeneticpredisposition+anappropriatelinguisticenvironmentAccesstolanguagedataandopportunitiestointeractwiththeinputModifiedspeechßrelationshipàlanguageacquisitionCaretakerspeech(babytalk,motheress,orparentese):withoutitdoesn’tmeanacquiringlanguageslowlyAdvantages:1)helpheightenitscomprehensibility2)makeiteasierforchildrentomatchlinguisticformswiththeirmeanings②theroleofinstruction“Childrenlearntospeakbecauseadultsteachthemtospeak.”1)    thisviewoverestimateswhatadultscando,andatthesametime2)    thisviewunderestimateswhatchildrencando,andwhattheyactuallydoChildrenrequirelittleconsciousinstruction.Parentsoftenfailtheirattempttoteachchildrengrammaticalrules,andonlyplayingaminorroleatbest③theroleofcorrectionandreinforcementAssumption1:childrenreceivedconstantcorrectionforusinga“bad”grammarandrewardswhenusinga“good”grammarAssumption2:childrenlearnttoproducesentencebecausetheywerepositivelyreinforcedwhentheysaidsomethingrightandnegativelyreinforcedwhentheysaidsomething\nwrong.Behavioristlearningtheoryàachild’sverbalbehaviorwasconditionedthroughassociationbetweenastimulusandarelevantresponse.Correctionplaysaminorrole;evenwhensyntacticcorrectiondoesoccur,childrenoftendonotknowwhattheproblemisandareunabletomakecorrections.④theroleofimitationThehypothesisthatchildrenlearntlanguagebysimplyimitatingthespeechofthosearoundthemisnottrue.Amorereasonableexplanationisthat:childrenareattemptingtoconstructandgeneralizetheirowngrammaticalrules.Besides,childrenwhocannotspeakcanlearnthelanguagespokentothemandunderstandwhatissaid.Childrendon’tblindlymimicadultspeechinaparrotfashion,butratherexploititinveryrestrictedwaystoimprovetheirlinguisticskills[D]StagesoffirstlanguageacquisitionIngeneral,childrenbeginutteringtheirfirstwordssometimesduringthesecondyearoflife.Duringthefollowing4to5years,linguisticdevelopmentoccursquiterapidly.①theprelinguisticstage(babblingage)3months:/k/,/u/3-4months:babblingspeechlikesounds6months:abletositup;produceanumberofdifferentvowelsandconsonants(meaningless),deafbaby,babybornofnon-speakingdeafparentsalsobabble②theone-wordstageàholophrasticsentences2year-old:useonewordtoserveanamingfunction,torefertofamiliarpeople,toys,pets,drinksandobjectsinthechild’senvironment,indicatecertainactionsanddemands,orconveyemotions.SimplenounsandverbsVeryfewfunctionalwordssuchasprep.,art.,andaux.verbsChoosethemostinformativewordthatappliestothesituationbeingcommenteduponOverextension(underextensionofreference):usethesamewordforthingsthathaveasimilarappearance③themultiwordstage2-3year-old:thesalientfeatureoftheutterancesatthisstageceasestobethenumberofwords,butthevariationinstringsoflexicalmorphemes(telegraphicspeech)Lackinggrammaticalmorphemes,butfollowingtheprinciplesofsentenceformation[makenowordordererrorsatthisstage]5year-old:hasanoperatingvocabularyofmorethan2000words[E]Thedevelopmentofgrammaticalsystem①thedevelopmentofphonologyTheemergenceofarticulatoryskillsbeginsaroundtheagewhenchildrenstarttoproducebabblingsounds.Childrenfirstacquirethesoundsfoundinalllanguagesoftheworld,andinlaterstagesacquirethe“moredifficult”sounds.Certainsoundsthatoccurinbabblingarelostwhenchildrenbegantospeakthelanguage,andthenreappearatalaterstage:/l/and/r/②thedevelopmentofsyntaxChildren’searlylanguageisnotonlysemanticallybased,butalsomakesreferencetosyntactic\ncategories,andgrammaticalrelations.Two-wordstage:noun-likeelement+predicate-likeelementThen,addfunctionalwordsaswellasinflectionalandderivationalmorphemesofthelanguage-ing,in,on,theregularpluralending“-s”Negativesentences:no/allgone///negativewordsoccuratthebeginningofexpressions///insertthenegative“no”,“can’t”or“don’t”insidethesentence,usuallybetweensubjectandthepredicateEnglishquestionshavedevelopedinthesimilarway,inaninterrelatedwaywiththedevelopmentoftheauxiliaryverbsystem③thedevelopmentofmorphologyBeyondthetelegraphicstage:incorporatesomeoftheinflectionalmorphemes1stone:-ing;2ndone:markingofregularpluralswiththe“-s”form(overgeneralization);3rdone:-edruletoallverbs;begintolearnbothregularandirregularformsasindividualwords④thedevelopmentofvocabularyofsemanticsThefirsttwoyears:50-100wordsSemanticreferenttoawordexpands:overgeneralizationTheageoftwoandahalfyears:vocabularyisexpandingrapidlyTheageofthree:hundredsofwordsConnectionbetweenawordanditsdenotativemeaningismorelikethatofadultlanguageByfive:4.6wordspersentenceIncreaseofabout25wordsperdayTheageofsix:7800wordsàEnglish-speakingschoolchildrenBytheageofeight:17600wordsor28300includingderivedformsIngeneral,childrenhavevirtuallyacquiredthebasicfabricoftheirnativelanguageattheageoffiveorsix.Per-schoolyearsarecrucialperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.ChapterXIVSecondlanguageAcquisition/Learning[A]Acquisitionv.learningAcquisition:referstothegradualdevelopmentofabilityinalanguagebyusingitnaturallyincommunicativesituations;orthegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations(byAmericanSLAscholarStephenKrashen)Learning:referstoaconsciousprocessofaccumulatingknowledgeofthevocabularyandgrammarofalanguage,usuallyobtainedinschoolsetting.[B]TransferandinterferenceTransfer:whilelearningthetargetlanguageconsciouslyorunconsciously,learnerswillsubconsciouslyusetheirL1knowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.PositiveornegativeInterference(negativetransfer)wasoncebelievedtobethemajorsourceofdifficultiesexperiencedanderrorsmadebyL2learners.Contrastiveanalysis:establishthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguagesystems,topredictproblemsanderrors[Oldview]:L2errorswerepredominantlytheresultofnegativetransfer,ormothertongueinterference.Thus,learningaL2isalwaystoovercomethe\ndifferences.Empiricalinvestigation:3%àinterferenceerrors,85%àdevelopmentalerrors[Newview]:L2learningisaprocessofcontractingandmodifyingrulesofcommunication[C]ErroranalysisandthenaturalrouteofSLAdevelopmentTherewassupposedtobeauniversalrouteinL2learningbecausenegativetransferisnotthemajorfactorinSLAasitwasonceassumedtobe.L2=L1hypothesis:theprocessofSLAandFLAareverysimilar.Thiswasinvestigatedthroughtheanalysisoflearnererrors.TherearestrikingsimilaritiesinthewaysinwhichdifferentL2learnersacquireanewlanguage.L2learnersfollowbroadlysimilarroutes,althoughminordifferencesexistduetovariablelearnerfactorsandlearningsituations.[D]InterlanguageandfossilizationInterlanguage:thelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLA.Itconsistsofaseriesofinterlockingandapproximatelinguisticsystemsinbetweenandyetdistinctfromthelearner’snativeandtargetlanguages.Fossilization:itwasonceassumedthatlearners’Interlanguagewoulddevelopgraduallyinthedirectionofthetargetlanguagecompetenceifprovidedwithsufficientandtherightkindoflanguageexposureandinteraction.ButmostL2learnersfailedtoreachtheend-pointoftheinterlanguagecontinuumandacquirethenative-likecompetenceinthetargetlanguage.Explanation:learns’interlanguagefossilizedsomewayshortoftargetlanguagecompetencewhiletheinternalizedrulesystemcontainedrulesthataredifferentfromthoseofthetargetlanguagesystemChinesesound/d/àEnglish/W/,/T/;heforheorsheTheuseofthepresenttenseformforapasttenseverb3rdpersonsingularformwithout“s”[E]Theroleofinputandformalinstruction①SLAtakesplaceonlywhenthelearnerhasaccesstoL2inputandtheopportunitytointeractwiththeinput.Inputmaytaketheformofexposureinnaturalsettingsorformalinstruction,eitherspokenorwritten;optimuminputisneeded.Comprehensibleinput:theuseoflearnedstructuresandvocabulary,thelinguisticandextralinguisticcontextsoftheinputdata,andthelearner’sgeneralknowledgetointerpretnewlanguageitems.Twoveryimportantkindsofinputmethods:Interaction:takingpartingincommunicationactivitiesIntake:theinputthatisassimilatedandfedintotheinterlanguagesystem②ingeneral,studiesoftheeffectsofformalinstructionsupportthehypothesisthatinstructionaidsSLAL2learnersaremuchmorelikelytoobtaincomprehensibleinputintheintake-typeenvironmentofaclassroomsetting,otherthanintheexposure-typeenvironmentofanaturalsetting.Casualandspontaneousconversationhelpsalittle,whileplannedspeech,writingorcareer-orientedexaminationhelpalot.[F]Individualleanerfactorslikeage,motivation,acculturationandpersonalityTherateandultimatesuccessinSLAareaffectednotonlybylearner’sexperiencewithoptimalinputandinstruction,butalsobyindividuallearnerfactors.①theoptimumageforsecondlanguageacquisitionAdolescents:quickerandmoreeffectiveL2learnersthanyoung\nchildrenWhy:thelearner’sflexibilityofthelanguageacquisitionfacultyhasnotbeencompletelylostwhileone’scognitiveskillshavedevelopedconsiderablytofacilitatetheprocessingoflinguisticfeaturesofanewlanguage.②motivationMotivation:thelearner’soverallgoalandorientationInstrumentalmotivation:learner’sgoalisfunctional(功能性学习动机)Integrativemotivation:learner’sgoalissocial(介入性学习动机)③acculturation(文化移入，文化适应)Ithassomerelationwithintegrativemotivation,theextenttowhichlearnersdifferintheprocessofadaptingtothenewcultureoftheL2community.ThisadaptationprocessiscalledacculturationThelearningofasecondlanguageinvolves,andisdependenton,theacquisitionofthecultureofthetargetlanguagecommunity.Theacculturationhypothesisstatessimplythatthemoreapersonaspirestoacculturatetothecommunityofthetargetlanguage,thefurtherheorshewillprogressalongthedevelopmentalcontinuum,butfocusesnotsomuchontheactualprocessingofthesecondlanguageasonthesocialandpsychologicalconditionsunderwhichL2processingismostlikelytotakeplacesuccessfully.④personalityOutgoingpersonalitymaycontributetolanguageacquisitionExtrovertedßàintrovertedResearchresultsleadonlypartialsupporttothishypothesis.Oralfluency,notoverallproficiencyinasecondlanguageIngeneral,agoodsecondlanguagelearneris,amongotherthings,anadolescentwhohasastrongandwell-definedmotivationtolearn,whoisabletorespondandadaptabletodifferentlearningsituations,whoseeksoutallopportunitiesandmakesmaximumuseofthemtointeractwiththeinput,whoemploysappropriatelearningstrategies,andwhoiswillingtoidentifyhimselforherselfwiththecultureofthetargetlanguagecommunity.