《简明语言学教程》word版 37页

戴版语言学ChapterOne----IntroductionPartone----Whatislinguistics?1.Definition----linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Scientificmeansitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.NoArticlebeforelanguageinthisdefinitionmeansthatlinguisticsstudieslanguageingeneral.Linguists’task:basicallystudyandunderstandthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichalllanguagesarebuilt.Interestoflinguistsis“whatissaid”2.ThescopesoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics----thestudyoflanguageasawhole-----thecoreoflinguisticsPhonetics----thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.Phonology----thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningsincommunication.Morphology----thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwords.Syntax-----thestudyoftherulesforsentenceformationSemantics-----thestudyofmeaning.Pragmatics----thestudyofmeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.AbovearemadeupofthecoreoflinguisticsSociolinguistics-----thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyfromthecoreofthebranch.Psycholinguistics-----thestudyoflanguageprocessing,comprehendingandproduction,aswellaslanguageacquisition.Appliedlinguistics-----theapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.3.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics.(1)prescriptivevs.descriptiveprescriptive----thelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay.Descriptive----thelinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.(2)Synchronicvs.diachronicSynchronic----thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.Diachronic----thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime----thehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime----anothername:historicallinguistics.Asynchronicapproachenjoyspriorityoveradiachronicone.(3)Speechvs.writingTwomajormediaoflinguisticcommunicationSpeechispriortowriting:(1)writingsystemisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeech.37\n(2)speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingininformationconveyance.(3)speechisacquiredasmothertonguewhilewritingislearnedandtaught.(4)speechrevealstruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewritinglanguageisonlythe“revised”recordofspeech.(4)Languevs.paroleProposedbySwisslinguist----F.deSaussure----sociologicalview.Purpose:discovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofsspeechcommunity.----abstract&stable.Parole-----therealizationoflanguageinactualuse----concrete&varied(5)Competencevs.performanceProposedbyAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky----psychologicalviewPurpose:discoverandspecifytheinternalizedsetsofrules.Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Performance----theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.(6)TraditionalgrammarandmodernlinguisticsThebeginningofmodernlinguistics--thepublicationofSaussure’s“CourseinGeneralLinguistics”inearly20thModernlinguisticsdifferstraditionalgrammar:(1)descriptivevs.prescriptive.(2)spokenlanguagevs.writtenlanguage.(3)MLdoesn’tforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.PartTwo----Whatislanguage?1.Definition----languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.System----elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Arbitrary----thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatsymbolstandsfor.Vocal----theprimarymediumforalllanguageissound.Human----languageishuman-specific.2.Designfeatures----proposedbyAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett.(5/12)Designfeatures:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication-----human-specific.(1)Arbitrariness----thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Exceptions:Onomatopoeicwordsandsomecompoundwordsarenotentirearbitrary.(2)Productivity----languageiscreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers----userscanproduceandunderstandsentencesthattheyhaveneverheardbefore.(3)Duality----(anothername:doublearticulation.)Languageisasystemwhichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Thelowerleveristhestructureofmeaninglesssoundsandthehigherlevelisthestructureofmeaning.----sound&meaning(4)Displacement----languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,inafarawayplaces------Itdoesn’tmatterhowfarawaythetopicisofconversationisintimeorspace-----freefromthebarrierscausedby37\nseparationintimeandplace.(5)Culturaltransmission----thecapacityforlanguageisgeneticallybasedwhilethedetailsofandlanguagesystemshouldbetaughtandlearned.-----languageispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.3.Thefunctionsoflanguage.(1)Informative:Themainfunctionoflanguagethatwhenpeopleuselanguagetocommunicatewitheachother,theirexperienceintherealworld,recordordescribethe“content”ofthereality,theyareactuallytakingadvantageofthisfunction.----themostimportantfunction.(2)Interpersonal:peopleestablishandmaintaintheiridentityinthesocietybythisfunction.(3)Performative:thisisafunctionwherebythelanguageinfluencesdirectlyonthereality,suchasthesentenceofimprisonmentbythejudge,thenamingofacertainshipandthecursesasbelievedbytheancientpeople.(4)Emotive:thisfunctionisperformedbythoselinguisticelementsusedtoexpressstrongfeelings,suchasexclamatoryexpressions.(5)Phatic:thisisfunctionrealizedbythose“Phaticlanguage”,aimingtoestablishingaharmoniousandintimaterelationshipamongpeople.ExamplesinChinese:吃了没？inEnglish:Goodnorning.&Aniceday,isn’tit?(6)Recreational:Thisfunctionmeansthatsometimespeoplemayenjoylanguageforlanguage’ssake,i.e.nousinglanguageinanypracticalpurposes,suchastongue-twistersandchildren’sbabblesandchanter’schanting.(7)Metalingual:peoplemayuselanguagetotalkabout,explainorevenchangelanguageitself.Thisisthemetalingualfunctionoflanguage.Forexample,wemayuse“book”torefertotheexistingobjectintherealworld,andyetmayalsouse“thewordbook”tostandbytheconcept“book”asembodiedinlanguage.Chapter2:PhonologyPartOne:ThephonicMediumofLanguageLinguistsconcernonlywiththesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheirspeechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.phonicmedium:Themeaningfulspeechsoundinhumancommunication.Speechsounds:theindividualsoundswithinphonicmediumarethespeechsounds.PartTwo:Phonetics1.Whatisphonetics?phonetics:Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithallsoundsintheworld’slanguages.Classification:articulatoryphonetics:Itstudiessoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.howaspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.-------speakerauditoryphonetics:Thestudiessoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.howthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.-----heareracousticphonetics:Itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.-----physical37\nproperties2.OrgansofSpeech1thepharyngealcavity----throat.2theoralcavity-------------mouth.------tongue:mostflexible.3thenasalcavity-----------nose.InEnglish,therearethreenasalsounds,namely,[m],[n],[η].voicing:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwiththevibrationofthevocalcords.voiceless:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwithnovibrationofthevocalcords.3.Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds----broadandnarrowtranscriptions.IPA:shortforInternationalPhoneticAlphabets,asystemofsymbolsconsistsoflettersanddiacritics,usedtorepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.broadtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbolsonlytoshowthesoundsorsoundssequencesinwrittenform.narrowtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbol,togetherwiththediacriticstoshowsoundsinwrittenform.diacritics:Thesymbolsusedinthenarrowtranscriptiontoshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.aspiration:Alittlepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsaspeechsound.4.ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsClassification:consonant:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamisobstructedinonewayoranother.vowel:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungmeetswithnoobstruction.1ClassificationofEnglishconsonants:1Mannerofarticulation:Themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated.Stops:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g].Fricatives:[f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[],[∫][3],[h].Affricates:[t∫],[d3]Liquids:[l],[r].Nasals:[m],[n],[η]Glides:[w],[j].------semi-vowels2placeofarticulation:Theplacewhereobstructioniscreated.Bilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w].Labiodental:[f],[v]Dental:[θ],[]Alveolar:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]Palatal:[∫][3],[t∫],[d3],[j].Velar:[k],[g],[η]Glottal:[h].Mannerofarticulation,placeofarticulationandvoicing/voicelesshelpdescribeaconsonant.2ClassificationofEnglishVowels.1thepositionofthetongue:front:[i:],[i],[e],[ε],[æ],[a]central:[з:],[з],[/\]back:[u:],[u],[o],[o:],[a:]37\n2theopennessofthemouth.Closevowels:[i:],[i],[u:],[u],Semi-close:[e],[з:]Semi-open:[з],[o:]Openvowels:[æ],[a],[/\],[o],[a:]3shapeofthelips:unrounded:[i:],[i],[e],[ε],[æ],[a],[з:],[з],[/\],[a:]rounded:[u:],[u],[o],[o:].4lengthofthesound:longvowels:[i:],[з:],[u:],[o:],[a:]shortvowels:[i],[e],[ε],[æ],[a],[з],[/\],[u],[o].5monophthong:theindividualvowel.-----abovevowelsareallmonophthongs.diphthong:Thevowelwhichconsistsoftwoindividualvowels,andfunctionsasasingleone.[ei],[ai],[oi],[iз],[au],[зu],[eз],[uз]----eightdiphthongs.PartThree:Phonology1.PhonologyandPhoneticsphonetics:Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithallsoundsintheworld’slanguages.phonology:Thedescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Similarity:allconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.Differences:approachandfocus.1Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages-----howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified.2Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguagefrompatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.E.g.allophonesclear[l]anddark[l]:Phoneticallyspeaking,theyareinterestedinthedifferenceshowtheyarepronounced.Phonologicallyspeaking,theyarethesameinfunctioningconveyanceofthemeanings.2.Phone,Phoneme,andAllophonephone:Thespeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage,whichdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaningintheEnglishlanguage.phoneme:Thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwosounds.allophone:anydifferentformsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments,e.g.clear[l]anddark[l]ofthesame[l],aspirated[p]andunaspirated[p]ofthesame[p]indifferentphoneticenvironments.3.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpairphonemiccontrast:twosimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning.E.g.[b]in[bit]and[p]in[pit]formphonemiccontrast.complementarydistribution:allophonesofthesamephonemeandtheydon’tdistinguishmeaningbutcomplementeachotherindistribution.E.g.clear[l]anddark[l]respectivelyinthepronunciationoflightandfeel.minimalpair:twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptonesoundandoccursinthe37\nsameposition.Thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.E.g.batandbetareaminimalpair.4.SomeRulesinPhonology1sequentialrules:Therulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.2assimilationrule:Theruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.3deletionrule:Therulethatasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented.5.SuprasegmentalFeatures----stress,tone,intonationsuprasegmentalfeatures:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments----syllable,word,sentencearecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures,whichincludestress,toneandintonation.1Stress:Classification:wordstress&sentencestress.WordStress:1ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.Ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverbalthoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.E.g.‘impott(n)----im’port(v),‘record(n)-----re’cord(v)‘blackbird(compound)-----‘black‘bird(noncompound)2Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof–ingformsandnouns.E.g.’diningroom(compound)----sleeping’baby(noncompound)SentenceStress:Sentencestress:Itreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.hepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentenceare:N,V,Adj.,Adv.,Numerals,demonstrativepronouns.E.g.Heisdrivingmycar.------Hedrive,my,car.2Tone:tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Tone(pitchvariation)candistinguishmeaninginsuchlanguagesasChinese,butEnglishisnotatonelanguage.3Intonation:intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Intonationplaysaveryimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.------fourbasictypesofintonation,namely,thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetone,therise-falltone.Thefallingtone------whatissaidisastraightforward,matter-of-factstatement.Therisingtone-------makeaquestionofwhatissaid.Thefall-risetone----indicatethatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Chapter3:MorphologyPartOne:Morphology1.Openclassandclosedclassopenclass:Agroupofwords,whichcontainsanunlimitednumberofitems,andnewwordscan37\nbeaddedtoit.----contentwords.E.g.beatnik:amemberoftheBeatgeneration,orapersonwhorejectsoravoidsconventionalbehaviour.closedclass:Arelativelyfewwords,includingconjunctions,prepositionsandpronouns,andnewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.------functionwords.2.Internalstructureifwordsandrulesforwordformationmorphology:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandrulesforwordformation.PartTwo:Morphemes----theminimalunitsofmeaningmorpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaningofalanguage.Itcannotbedividedwithoutalteringordestroyingitsmeaning.boundmorpheme:Morphemethatcannotbeusedalone,anditmustbecombinedwitothers.E.g.–ment.freemorpheme:amorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword.affix:aletteroragroupofletter,whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthemeaningorfunctionoftheword,includingprefix,infixandsuffix.suffix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtotheendofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthepartofspeechofaword.prefix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtothebeginningofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthemeaningofawordtoitsopposite.Partthree:Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemesderivationalmorpheme:Boundmorpheme,whichcanbeaddedtoastemtoformanewword.inflectionalmorpheme:Akindofmorpheme,whichareusedtomakegrammaticalcategories,suchasnumber,tenseandcase.E.g.–edand–ingendingsareinflectionalmorphemes.inflection:themorphologicalprocesswhichadjustswordsbygrammaticalmodification,e.g.inTherainscame,rainisinflectedforpluralityandcameforpasttense.PartFour:Morphologicalrulesofwordformationmorphologicalrules:Thewayswordsareformed.Theserulesdeterminehowmorphemescombinetoformwords.PartFiveCompoundscompoundwords:Acombinationoftwoormorewords,whichfunctionsasasinglewordsthenoteworthy:1Whentwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory:E.g.postbox,landlady(n+n=n),blue-black,icy-cold(adj.+adj.=adj.)2Inmanycases,thetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,thentheclassofsecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryifthecompound.E.g.under‘take(v),in’action(n),up’lift(v)3Itisoftenthecasethatcompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenoncompoundedwordsequence.E.g.‘redcoat,‘greenhousearecompounds,butredcoatandgreenhousearenot.4Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.E.g.bigwig,highbrow,jack-in-a-box,turncoatConclusion:Morphologicalrulesrevealtherelationsbetweenwordsandprovidethemeansforformingnewwords.Itistheserulesthatenableustocoinnewwords.CompoundingisaverycommonandfrequentprocessforenlargingthevocabularyoftheEnglishlanguage.37\nChapter4:SyntaxPartOne:WhatisSyntax?syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.PartTwo:Categories1.Word-levelcategoriescategory:Itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.syntacticcategories:Wordscanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledsyntacticcategories.Majorlexicalcategories:(asheads)N,V,A,VWord-levelcategoriesMinorlexicalcategories:det.Deg.Qua.Aux.con.majorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichoftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt,includingN,V,Adj,andPrep.minorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichhelpsormodifiesmajorlexicalcategory.Threecriteriatodetermineaword’scategory?1Meaning:1Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning:■Nounstypicallydenoteentitiessuchashumanbeingsandobjects.■Verbs,characteristicallydesignateaction,sensationandstates.2Themeaningassociatedwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvariousways:■Thepropertyorattributeoftheentitiesdenotedbynounscanbeelaboratedbyadjectives.■Thepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstatesdesignatedbyverbscantypicallybedenotedbyadverbs.3Itismisleadingtoassumethataword’scategorycanbetoldstraightforwardfromitsmeaning.■Nounssuchasdilemmaandfriendshipdonotconcretelyrevealtheirentities.■Somewordssuchasloveandhatewhichindicateactionstendtobeverbsbuttheycanalsobeusedasnouns.■Wordswiththesameorsimilarmeaningssometimesbelongtodifferentwordcategories,suchasbeawareofandknowabout.2Inflection:1Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflection.■Nounssuchasboyanddesktakethepluralaffix–s.■Verbssuchasworkandhelptake–edand–ing.■Adjectivessuchasquietandclevertake–erand–est.2Althoughinflectionisveryhelpfulindeterminingaword’scategory,itdoesnotalwayssuffice.■Nounslikemoisture,fog,donottakepluralform–s.■Adjectiveslikefrequentandintelligentdonottake–eror–est.37\n3Distribution:Distributioniswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.■Nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminerlikethegirlandacard.■Verbswithanauxiliarysuchasshouldstayandwillgo.■Adjectiveswithadegreewordsuchasverycoolandtoobright.Conclusion:Thus,aword’sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyissyntacticcategory.2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresphrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrase,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt.phrasecategory:thephrasethatisformedbycombiningwithwordsofdifferentcategories.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,NP,VP,PP,AP.Whetherformedofoneormorethanoneword,phrasesconsistoftwolevels,phraselevelandwordlevel.NPVPAPPP<----------phraselevelNVAP<----------wordlevelPhrasethatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainhead,specifierandcomplement.head:Thewordroundwhichphraseisformedistermedhead.specifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.complement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.PartThreePhraseStructureRulephrasestructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule.NP----->(Det)N(PP)….AP---->(Deg)A(PP)….VP---->(Qual)v(NP)….PP---->(Deg)P(NP)….1.XPRuleInNP,AP,VP,PPphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftofheadwhilecomplementisattachedtotheright.Thesesimilaritiescanbesummarizedwiththehelpofthetemplate,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,A,P.:TheXPrule:XP----->(specifier)X(complement)XPrule:Inallphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftoftheheadwhilethecomplementisattachedtotheright.ThesesimilaritiescanbesummarizedasanXPrule,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.2.X▔TheoryX▔theory:Atheoreticalconceptintransformationalgrammarwhichrestrictstheformofcontext-freephrasesstructurerules.TheintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandthecomplementbetweenwordlevelandphraselevelisrepresentedbythesymbolX▔.Thusthenewthree-levelstructurescanbewrittenasfollows:a.XP----->(specifier)X▔b.X▔---->X(complement)3.CoordinationRulecoordination:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.Such37\nstructurearecalledcoordinationstructure.Fourimportantproperties:1Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.2Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.3Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype4Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.CoordinationRule:X------>X*ConXPartFour:Phraseelements1.Specifiersspecifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsandwhichareattachedtothetoplevel,arespecifiers.Specifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles:■Semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.■Syntactically,theytypicallymakeaphraseboundary.Thesyntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead.2.Complementscomplement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.TheyareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.subcategorization:theinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermedsuncategorization.XP----->(Specifier)X(Complements*)“*”meansthefactthatcomplements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.MissHebertbelievesthatshewillwin.“that”------complementizer:Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementaretermedcomplementizer.“shewillwin”----complementclause:Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizer.“thatshewillwin”----complementphrase:theelements,includingacomplementizerandacomplementclause.“MissHebertbelieves”----matrixclause:thecontrusctioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembedded.3.modifiersmodifier:theelement,whichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsiscalledmodifier.XP------>(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)Thisruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforetheheadorafterit.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthataccursaftertheheadwillnormallyoccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.PartFive:Sentences(TheSRule)1TheSrule:S---->NPVP(Thisanalysisisbasedontheassumptionnthatunlikeotherphrases,whichcontainsahead,acomplementandapecifier,Sdoesnothaveaninternal37\nstructure.)2Anotherview:Manylinguistsbeliebvethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Theytakeabstractcategoryinflectionastheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement,Likeotherphrases,InfltakesanNPasitsspecifierandaVPasitscomplement.1Inflrealizedbyatenselabel-----Theboyfoundthebook.2Inflpositionrealizedbyanauxiliary----Aboywillfindthebook.PartSix:Transformations1.Auxiliarymovementtransformation:aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromonepositiontoanother.Theyes-noquestionstructuresarebuiltintwosteps:1TheusualXPruleisusedtoformastructureinwhichtheauxiliaryoccupiesitsnormalpositioninInfl,betweensubjectandtheVP.2Informingayes-noquestionrequiresatransformationknownasinversiontomovetheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontoapositiontotheleftofthesubject,Cposition.inversion:theprocessoftransformationthatmovestheauxiliaryfromtheInflpositiontoapositiontotheleftofthesubject,iscalledinversion.Suchtypeofinversionoperationinvolvingthemovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninonephraseintotheheadpositioninanotherisknownasheadmovement.2.DoInsertionHowtoformayes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInflsuchas“Birdsfly.”Linguistscircumventsthisproblembyaddingthespecialauxiliaryverbdo.Sowecanformulateaninsertionrule:Doinsertion:InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.Doinsertion:Intheprocessofformingyes-noquestionthatdoesnotcontainanovertInfl,interrogativedoisinsertedintoanemptyInflpositontomaketransformationwork.3.Deepstructureandsurfacestructuredeepstructure:AlevelofabstractsyntacticrepresentationformedbytheXPrule.surfacestructure:Alevelofsyntacticrepresentationafterapplyingthenecessarysyntacticmovement,i.e.,transformation,tothedeepstructure.TheXPrule--->Deepstructure--->Transformation--->Surfacestructure.(Subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements.)4.WhMovementWhquestion:InEnglish,thekindofquestionsbeginningwithawh-wordarecalledwhquestion.Whmovement:Thetransformationthatwillmovewhphrasefromitspositionindeepstructuretoapositionatthebeginningofthesentence.Thistransformationiscalledwhmovement.【Practice】Drawatreediagramofthesentence:Shehasfinallyfoundthemanwhosheloves.5.Moveａandconstraintsontransformationsmoveα:ageneralruleforallthemovementrules,where‘alpha‘isacovertermfoeanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.Constraints:1InversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredidtantCposition.E.g.:Deepstructure:Mikeshouldknowthatthetrainmightbelate.T:ShouldMikeknowwhetherthetrainmightbelate?(√)37\nF:MightMikeshouldknowwhetherthetrainbelate?(×)2Noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.E.g.:Deepstructure:Thelittlegirlwilltellusastoryandajoke.F:Whatwillthelittlegirltellusastoryor?(×)Chapter5:SemanticsPartOne:Whatissemantics?semantics:Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.PartTwo:SomeViewsConcerningTheStudyofMeaning1.Thenamingtheory-------PlatoThenamingtheorywasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.View:Thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Limitation:1Thistheoryseemsapplicabletonounsonly-----V,Adj.,Adv.aredefinitelynotlabelsofobjects.2Withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld.-----unicorn,dragon,ghost.3Withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects,butabstractnotions------joy,impulse.2.Theconceptualistview------Odgen&RichardsView:Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Semantictriangle(triangleofsignificance):proposedbyOdgen&RichardsThought/Reference(Concept)……………………………………Symbol/Form(word/phrase)Referent(object)Conclusion:Thesymbolorawordsignifies“things”byvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeakerofthelanguage;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.Problem:Whatispreciselythelinkbetweenthesymbolandtheconceptremainsunclarified.3.Contextualism------J.R.Firth37\nView:Themeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context-----elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.Weshouldknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps.Context:Thegeneralknowledgesharedbythespeakersandthehearers.Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemenaingtoobservablecontexts.Contexts:A)thesituationalcontext:Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,thespeakerandthehearer,theactionstheyareperforming,thevariousobjectsandeventsexistentinthesituation.-----Thesealcouldnotbefound.(海狮or图章?)B)thelinguisticcontext:co-text,isconcernedwiththeprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe“meaning”oftheword,andalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.-----blackcoffer&blackhair.4.Behaviourism------BloomfieldView:Behaviouristsattempttodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe“situationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.”-----psychological.JackandJill:JillJackSr…….sR(Physicalstimulus)(Verbalresponse)(Verbalstimulus)(Non-verbalresponse)seeanappleI’mthirsty.Gettheinformation.PicktheappleforJill.PartThree:LexicalMeaning.1.SenseandReferenceSense:Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.Itisabstractandde-contexturalized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.-----dog:adomesticatedcaninemammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowagreatvarietyinsizeandform.reference:Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld.Itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.-----“Thedogisbarking.”,adogknowntoboththespeakerandthehearerintherealworld.Relation:1Linguisticforms,havingthesamesense,mayhavedifferentreferenceindifferentsituations.2Linguisticformswiththesamereferencemaydifferinsense.-----morningstar=eveningstar.3Linguisticformsmayhavesense,buthavenoreferenceintherealworld.------dragon,ghost.2.MajorSenseRelations1Synonymy:37\nsynonymy:Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.Classification:1dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects.E.g.BritishEnglishVSAmericanEnglish:Autumn---fall,lift---elevator,luggage---baggage,lorry---truck,petrol---gasoline,flat----apartment,windscreen---windshield,torch---flashlight.BritishEnglishdomain:girl---lassie,liquor---whiskey.2Stylisticsynonyms----synonymsdifferinginstyleWordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.(formal---neutral---casual)E.g.oldman,daddy,dad,father,maleparent/start,begin,commence/kid,child,offspring….3SynonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaningTherearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsofuser,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardswhatheistalkingabout.E.g.collaborator----accomplice4CollocationalsynonymsSomesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.inthewordstheygotogetherwith.Thisisamatterofusage.E.g.accuse(of)----charge(with)-----rebuke(for)Sourmilk---rottentomato----addledeggs----rancidbaconorbutter5SemanticdifferentsynonymsThesearesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymean:amaze----astound2Polysemy:polysemy:Thesamewordhasmorethanonemeaning.E.g.foot,table.Historicallyspeaking,polysemycanbeunderstoodasthegrowthanddevelopmentoforchangeinthemeaningofwords.3Homonymy:homonymy:Homonymyreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Classifications:homophones:Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones-----rain—reign,night---knight,peace---piece,leak---leek.homographs:Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs.-----bow(v)---bow(n),tear(v)---tear(n),lead(v)---lead(n)completehomonymy:Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms.-----fast(adj.)---fast(adv),scale(n)---scale(v).Question:Whentwoformsareidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,howcanwetellwhethertheyarepolysemicwords,orcompletehomonyms?--------etymology.4Hyponymy:hyponymy:Hyponymyreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.superordinate:Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.co-hyponyms:Hyponymsofthesamesuperordinateareco-hyponyms.Flower(superordinate)37\nRosetulipcarnationlilymorningglory(co-hyponyms)5Antonymy:antonymy:Thetermantonymyisusedforoppositenessofmeaning.Classification:gradableantonyms:Someantonymsaregradablebecausethereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair.e.g,antonymsoldandyoung,betweenthemthereexistmiddle-aged,mature,elderly.complementaryantonyms:apairofantonymsthatthedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother.Itisamatterofeitheroneortheother.relationalopposites:Pairsifwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitemsarecalledrelationalopposites.Forexample,husband---wife,father---son,buy---sell,let---rent,above---below.PartFour:SenseRelationsBetweenSentences1XissynonymouswithYX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevermarriedallhislife.2XisinconsistentwitY.X:Johnismarried.Y:Johnisabachelor.3XentailsY.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofoneisinferredfromthetruthoftheother.E.g.Cindykilledthedogentailsthedogisdead.4XpresupposesY.X:John’sbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Johnhadabike.presupposition:Whataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemassagealreadyknows.e.g.SometeahasalreadybeentakenisapresuppositionofTakesomemoretea.5Xiscontradiction.X:Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.6Xissemanticallyanomalous.X:Thetablehasabadintention.PartFive:AnalysisofMeaning1.Componentialanalysis----awaytoanalyselexicalmeaning.componentialanalysis:anapproachtoanalyzethelexicalmeaningintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,boymaybeshownas[+human][+male][-adult].semanticfeatures:Thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword,whichmaybedescribedasacombinationofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,womanhasthesemanticfeatures[+human][-male][+adult].Advantages:byspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainword,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.37\n2.PredicationAnalysis----awaytoanalysesentencemeaning.Whatshouldbementionedbeforelookingattheanalysisofsentencemeaning:1Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents,thatis,themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitsconstituentwords.E.g:Thedogbittheman.&Themanbitthedog.2Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.Grammaticality:grammaticalwell-formednessSemanticallymeaningful:selectionalrestrictions.selectionalrestriction:Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbytherulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.predicationanalysis:away,proposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech,toanalyzesentencemeaning.predication:Intheframeworkofpredicationanalysis,thebasicunitsiscalledpredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.predicate:Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.argument:Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.E.g.Kidslikeapples.--------KID,APPLE(LIKE).Classification:Two-placepredication(twoarguments):KID,APPLE(LIKE)------kidslikeapples.One-placepredication(oneargument):TOM(SMOKE)------DoesTomsmoke?No-placepredication(noargument):(BEHOT)------It’shotChapter6:PragmaticsPartOne:SomeBasicNotions1.Definition:pragmatics:Thestudyofhowspeakersusessentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.2.PragmaticsVS.SemanticsThedifferencebetweenpragmaticsandsemanticslieinthefactwhetherthecontextistakenintoaccount.3.Contextcontext:Thegeneralknowledgesharedbythespeakersandthehearers.Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suseoflanguageandalsothehearer’sinterpretationofwhatissaidtohim.4.SentencemeaningVS.utterancemeaningsentencemeaning:Themeaningofaself-containedunitwithabstractandde-contextualizedfeatures.utterancemeaning:Themeaningthataspeakerconveysbyusingaparticularutteranceinaparticularcontext.E.g.Mybagisheavy.------sentencemeaning(BAG(BEHEAVY)),utterancemeaning(wouldyougivemeahand?)37\nPartTwo:SpeechActTheory1.Austin’smodelofspeechactsSpeechActTheory:ThetheoryproposedbyJohnAustinanddeepenedbySearle,whichbelievesthatweareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.constatives:Constativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable.performatives:Performativesaresentencesthatdon’tstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Speechacttheory:locutionaryact:Theactofconveyingliteralmeaningbyvirtueofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.illocutionaryact:Theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionandperformedinsayingsomething.perlocutionaryact:Theactresultingfromsayingsomethingandtheconsequenceorthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.2.Searle’sClassificationofSpeechActs1representatives:Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2directives:Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3commisives:Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.4expressives:Expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5declaration:Bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.Conclusion:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce.PartThree:PrincipleofConversationcooperativePrinciple(CP):ProposedbyPaulGrice,theprinciplethattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperateinmakingconversation,otherwise,itwouldbeimpossibletocarryonthetalk.Fourmaxims:1Themaximofquantity:1Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposeofexchange.)2Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.E.g.A:WhenisSusan’sfarewellparty?B:Sometimenextmonth.2Themaximofquality:1Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.E.g.A:WouldyouliketojoinusforthepicniconSunday?B:I’mafraidIhavegotaclassonSunday.3Themaximofrelation:Berelevant.E.g.A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?B:Wehadabasketballmatchwiththeotherclassandwebeatthem.4Themaximofmanner:1Avoidobscurityofexpression.2Avoidambiguity.37\n3Bebelief.4Beorderly.E.g.A:Shallwegotsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButUvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.conversationalimplicature:Theuseofconversationalmaximstoimplymeaningduringconversation.Chapter7LanguageChangePartOne:IntroductionConclusion:Itisafactthatalllanguagechangethroughtime.PartTwo:SoundChangeSoundchangestendtobesystematic.————>vowelshift.PartThree:Morphologicalandsyntacticchange.1.Changein“Agreement”rule.e.g.WhanthatAprillewithhisshouressooth…WhenthatAprilwithhisshowerssweet…【InmodernEnglish,weuseITtoreplaceHIS】2.Changeinnegationrule.e.g.IloveyouNOT.HesawyouNOT.Idonotloveyou.Hedidnotseeyou.3.Processofsimplification.CaseandgenderinoldEnglisharelostduringtheMiddleEnglishperiod.e.g.OldEnglishMiddleEnglishModernEnglishure/urum—————>oure———————>our4.LossofinflectionsInflectionoftenchangebyaprocessofrule-generalization.e.g.OldEnglishModernEnglishstan/slanasstone/stonesgear/gearyear/yearsPartFour:VocabularyChangeVocabularychangecaninclude:A)additionofnewwords.B)LossofwordsC)Changesinthemeaningofwords1.AdditonofnewwordsA)CoinageAnewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.e.g.walkmanKodakXeroxFordB)ClippedwordsClippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases.e.g.gym---gymnasiumexpo---expositionmemo---memorandumdisco---discothequeburger---hamburgerdozer---bulldozerquake---earthquakefridge---refrigeratorscript---prescription37\nC)BlendingAblendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.e.g.smog---smoke+fogcomsat---communication+satellitebrunch---breakfast+lunchmotel---motor+hotelcamcorder---camera+recordervideophone---video+telephoneD)AcronymsAcronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.e.g.CBS----ColumbiaBroadcastingSystemISBN---InternationalStandardBookNumberIT--------InformationtechnologyCAD---ComputerassisteddesignWTO.APEC----AsianPacificEconomicCooperationAIDS---AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome.UNESCO----UnitedNationsEducationalScientificandCulturalOrganization.IDD----InternationaldirectdiallingUCLA----UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngelesE)BackformationNewwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby‘‘subtracting‘‘anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.Suchwordsarethuscalledback-formation.e.g.toedit,tohawk,tobeg,tobaby-sit,tobutchF)FunctionalshiftWordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes.e.g.n---vtoknee,tobug,totape,tobrake,v---nahole,aflyby,areject,aretreatadj---vtocool,tonarrow,todim,toslowadj---nadaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossibleG)BorrowingWhendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.2.LossofwordsItistruethatwordscanbelostfromalanguage.e.g.beseem---tobesuitable,wot----toknow,gyve---afetterwherefore---whyManynewcoinagesareveryshort-lived.Oneofhemostcommoncausesforthelossoflexicalitemsisthediscontinuationoftheobjecttheyname,e.g.soapflake,washboard,rumbleseatareonthewayout.3.ChangesinthemeaningofwordsTherearethreeprocessesofsemanticchange,namely,widening,narrowing,andshiftinmeaning.A)WideningofmeaningWhenthemeaningofawordbecomesbroader,thatwordmeanseverythingitusedtomean,andthenmore.holidayAdayofreligioussignificanceAnydayonwhichwedon’thavetowork.tailThetailofahorse.Thetailofanyanimal.37\ncompanionApersonwithwhomyousharebread.Apersonwhoaccompaniesyou.quarantineFortyday’sisolation.birdYoungbirdsailAboatwithsailsB)NarrowingofmeaninghoundThegeneraltermfordog.Aspecialkindofdog.girlYoungpersonofeithersexYoungpeopleoffemalesexdeerAnyanimalAparticularkindofanimalmeatfoodEdiblepartofananimalcorngrainAparticulargrainC)MeaningshiftinginnAsmallhotelorpub,usuallyoldAwell-knownnicehotelniceignorantgoodlustPleasurewithnonegativeorsexualovertonesimmoralNotcustomarysillyHappy-----naivefoolishPartFive:Somerecenttrends1.MovingtowardsgreaterinformalityA)conversationalformslikeain’t.don’tandcan’tarecommonlyusedinarticlesinthepress.B)Peopleprefertouseinformalstyle,suchasIt’smeandwhodidyousee?2.TheinfluenceofAmericanEnglish37\nFoemanyyearsAmericanEnglishhasbeenassaultingtheBritishIsleswithever-increasingweightandpersistence,throughmovies,newspapers,magazines,radioandtelevision.3.TheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologyWiththedevelopmentofscienceandtechnology,newwordsandexpressionsarecoinedinthreedifferentdomains:A)Spacetravel:spacesuit,heat-shield,splash-down,spacestation,linkup,readout,lunarmoduleetc.B)Computerandinternetlanguage:program,input,output,email,hacker,informationhighwayetc.C)Ecology:Ecologyreferstothestudyoftherelationshipbetweenplants,animals,people,andtheirenvironment,andthebalancesbetweentheserelationships.e.g.ecoactivist,ecocide,ecocatastrope,visualpollution,noisepollution,graffitipollution,eco-friendly,planet-friendly,environment-friendlyPartSix:CausesoflanguagechangeThelinguistshavelittleideawhatcausesalanguagetochange.A)therapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnologyhasledtothecreationofmanynewwords:bullettrain,fax.B)SocialandpoliticalchangesandpoliticalneedshavesuppliedtheEnglishvocabularywithgreatqualityofnewwordsandexpressions:shuttlediplomacy,mini-summit,junglewar,Euro,hotline.C)Womanmovementandfeministmovementmakewomenawareoftheirsocialpositions:e.g.chairman----chairperson,foreman---supervisor,policeman----policeofficerfireman----firefighterjuryforeman----juryforepersonD)Thewaychildrenacquirelanguageprovidesabasiccauseofchange:rulesaresimplifiedandover-generalized.E)Economyofmemoryresultsingrammarsimplification:internalborrowing(foe—foes,dog---dogs),regularization(medium---media,curriculum---curricula),thelossofthemorphologicalrulecreatingcausativeverbsfromadjectives(black---blacken),theoryofleasteffort(cheapforcheaply).Simplificationofgrammaroccurs,sodoeselaborationorcomplication.Toavoidconfusions,strictword-order-constraintsarethusplacedonthegrammar.Whileoneseesatendencytowardgreatersimplification,onealsofindsacounter-tendency,thedesiretobeintelligible.Chapter8:LanguageandSocietyPartone:Thescopeofsociolinguistics1.Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsocietysociolinguistics:Sociolinguisticsisthesub-fieldoflinguisticthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Inter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety:A)languageisusednotonlytocommunicatemeaning,butalsoestablishandmaintainsocial37\nrelationships.B)Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently,duetotheirsocialbackgrounds.C)Language,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.E.g.thereisonlyonewordinEnglishforsnow,andthereareseveralinEskimo.D)Languageisrelatedtothestructureifthesocietyinwhichitisused,therefore,judgmentsconcerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesaresocialratherthanlinguistic.E.g.theuseofpostvocalic[r]inEnglandandinNewYorkcity.2.SpeechcommunityandspeechvarietyThedefinitionofspeechcommunity:Forgenerallinguistics:Itisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyofalanguage.Forsociolinguistics:ItisdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhodoinfacthavetheopportunitytointeractwitheachotherandwhosharenotjustasinglelanguagewithitsrelatedvarietiesbutalsoattitudestowardlinguisticnormsSpeechvariety,orlanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Varietyisconsideredamoreneutraltermthantermssuchasstandardornon-standardlanguageanddialects.3.TwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudiesA)abird’s-eyeview:lookatsocietyasawholeandconsiderhowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowitreflectsthesocialdifferentiations.------Macro-sociolinguistics/thesociologyoflanguageB)aworm’s-eyeview:lookatsocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit.------Micro-sociolinguistics/sociolinguistics.PartTwo:Varietiesoflanguage1speakersofthesamelanguagespeakthelanguageindifferentmanner.2thelanguageusedbythesameindividualvariesasthecircumstancesofcommunicationvaries.Conclusion:thenotionofalanguageisnotmonolithicandthereexisttypesorvarietiesofthesamelanguage.VarietiesarebothrelatedtoA)thelanguageuser----dialectsB)Theuse---------------registers.1.Dialectalvarieties(1)Regionaldialect----alinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.Causes:1geographicalbarriers,suchasmountains,rivers,swamps-----lackofcommunication.2loyaltytoone’snativespeech,3physicalandpsychologicalresistancetochange.(2)Sociolect----thelinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass,andcausedbytheseparationbroughtaboutbydifferentsocialconditions.People’ssocialbackgroundsinfluencetheirchoiceoflinguisticforms,andthelinguisticfeaturesofthelanguagetheyuserevealtheiridentities.Accentisanimportantmarkerofsociolect.Acaseinpointistheso-called‘ReceivedPronunciation‘(RP).-----sociolect.(3)LanguageandgenderDifferences:37\nA)Womenareusuallymorestatus-consciousthanmenintheEnglish-speakingworld,thustheirspeechcloselyapproachesthestandardvarietythanthespeechofmen.B)Maleandfemalespeechesarealsodifferentintheuseofintonations----awiderrangeinfemales’intonation/usethelow-riseintonationwithstatementsmuchmorefrequentlyforfemales.C)Genderdifferentiationisalsoreflectedintheuseofcertainlexicalitems:nice,lovely,cute.D)Femalespeechislessassertiveandthussoundstobemorepolitethanmalespeech:questiontag/I’mafraid…/I’mnotsurebut…(4)LanguageandAgethelanguageusedbytheoldgenerationdiffersfromthatusedbytheyounggenerationincertainways.Themoststrikingdifferenceisfoundatthelexicallevel:icebox---fridge,wirless---boombox.Therootcause:societyischanging,andthiscausesdifferenceinsocialattitudes,valuejudgements,etc.betweenthetwogenerations:old----tooconservative,lessreadytoincorporatenewtermsintotheirvocabulary.(5)Idiolect----Idiolectisapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations.Inanarrowsense,whatmakesupaperson’sidiolectalsoincludessuchfactorsasvoicequality,pitchandspeechtempoandrhythm.(6)EthnicDialect----Anethnicdialectisasocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences,itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.BlackEnglish----A)phonologically,thesimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofaword.e.g.passed/past------[pa:s]B)syntactically,thedeletionofthelinkverb‘be’------Youcrazy./Theymine./Theuseofdoublenegationconstruction----Hedon’tknownothing.2.Registerlinguisticrepertoire:Thetotalityoflinguisticvarietiespossessedbyanindividualconstituteshislinguisticrepertoire.RegisterTheory----BritishlinguistHalliday.Register:thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Threesocialvariables:A)Fieldofdiscourse----topic:thepurposeandsubjectmatterofthecommunicativebehavior.----why/what---vocabulary,phonological,grammaticalfeaturesB)Tenorofdiscourse----role:participantsandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.----formality/technicalityofthelanguageweuse.C)Modeofdiscourse----meansofcommunication.-----how(speakingorwriting).Example:Field:Scientific(biological)Tenor:Teacher-students(formal,polite)Mode:Oral(academiclecturing)3.DegreeofFormality37\nLanguageusedondifferentoccasionsdiffersinthedegreeofformality,whichisdeterminedbythesocialvariables,eg.Whowearetalkingwithandwhatwearetalkingabout.Formality------AmericanlinguistMartinJoosFivestagesofformality:1intimate2casual3consultative4formal5frozenDifferentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels,namely,syntactic,lexicalandphonological.A)syntactically:passiveandimpersonalconstructions----higherdegreeofformality.B)lexically:loadwords,addressforms-----moreformal.PartThree:Standarddialectstandarddialect:Asuperimposedvarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.Features:A)thestandarddialectisbasedonaselectedvarietyofthelanguage,usuallyitisthelocalspeechofanareawhichisconsideredthenation’spoliticalandcommercialcenter.B)thestandarddialectisnotadialectachildacquiresnaturallylikehisregionaldialect.Itisasuperimposedvariety.Itisavarietyimposedfromaboveovertherangeofregionaldialects.Ithasawidelyacceptedcodifiedgrammarandvocabulary.C)thestandarddialecthassomespecialfunctions.------forofficialpurposes,onformaloccasions.PartFour:PidginandCreolePidgin:itisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Characteristics:A)ablendingofseverallanguages.B)usuallyaEuropeanlanguageservesasthebasisofthepidgin.C)limitedvocabularyD)reducedgrammaticalstructurecharacterizedbythelossofinflection,genderandcase.Creole:Apidginlanguagewhichhasbecomethenativelanguageofagroupofspeakersusedinthisdailylife.Characteristics:A)structureisexpanded.B)vocabularyisvastlyenriched.C)newsyntactic-semanticconceptsdeveloped.PartFive:BilingualismandDiglossiabilingualism:Theuseoftwodifferentlanguagessidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay,andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.Astheresultofincreasingimmigrationintheworld,bilingualismisspreading.diaglossia:theterm,firstusedbyFergusonin1959.referstoasociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwodifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.Thelanguagehastwovarieties:thehighvariety(H)andthelowvariety(L).Thetwovarietieshaveovertrecognitioninthecommunityandhavecommonlyknownandusedlabels.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdialossiaisthespecializationoffunctionofthetwovarieties.Eachvarietyistheappropriatelanguageforcertainsituationswithveryslightoverlapping.37\nChapter9:LanguageandCulturePartone:IntroductionLanguageandculture,intrinsicallydependentoneachother,haveevolvedtogetherthroughthehistory.-----mutualinterdependent.PartTwo:Whatisculture?1.Definition:A）Inabroadsense:Culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.B)Inanarrowsense:Culturemayrefertoalocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc.2.Classification:A)Material:concrete,substantialandobservableB)Spiritual:abstract,ambiguous,hidden.3.Conclusion:Culturereferstowhathasbeengrownandbroughtupwith,inotherwords,whatcanbenurtured.PartThree:TherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureLanguageuseisheavilytintedwithitsculture.A)People’slanguageusesexpresstheculture.Languagenotonlyexpressesfacts,ideas,oreventsbutalsoreflectsthepeople’sattitudes,beliefs,andworldoutlooks.1Languageexpressesculturalreality.2Languageembodiesculturalidentities.3Alanguage,asasystemofsignswiththeirownculturalsubstancesandvalues,maybeviewedasasymbolofsocialidentity.4Peopleareidentifiedviatheiruseoflanguage.Inthissense,languagesymbolizesculturalreality.B)People’scultureemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.1Socially:Theuniquenessofeachgroup’slanguageuses,thewaytheytalkandthestyletheytalkwith,constitutedifferentsocialstatus.2Historically:Cultureconsistsbothofthewayshowasocialgrouprepresentsitself…andofitshistoricalidentityrecordedandpasseddownbythepopculture.Languagehasplayedamajorroleinsocializingthepeopleandinperpetuatingculture,especiallyinprintform.3Metaphorically:Cultureaffectsitspeople’simaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.Theyserveametaphorforitsculturalreality.C)Cultureisawidersystemthatcompletelyincludeslanguageasasubsystem.PartFour:Sapir-WhorfHypothesisSapir-WhorfHypothesis:Abeliefthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartlybytheirstructureoftheirnativelanguage.------interdependenceoflanguageandthought.(SWHlinguisticdeterminism:Itreferstotheideathatthelanguageweuse,tosomeextent,determineswhollythewayinwhichweviewandthinkabouttheworldaroundus.-----strongversion.37\nlinguisticrelativity:Abeliefthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedpartlybythestructureoftheirnativelanguage,whichisalsocalledSapir-WhorfHypothesis.------weakversion.TheinsightsofthestudyofSWH:A)Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.B)MorethaninWhorf’sdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningencodedinthelanguage.PartFive:LinguisticevidenceofculturaldifferencesDenotativemeaning:themeaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary-----centralmeaning.Connotativemeaning:Theadditionalmeaningsthatawordhasbeyonditscentralmeaning.Themeaningshowpeople’semotionsandattitudeswhatthewordrefersto.------association.Iconicmeaning:Theimagethatawordcaninvoketopeople------image.Conclusion:Themeaningsofawordareboundwithculturalencodingsorassociations.1.reetingsandtermsofaddressA)Peopleindifferentcountrieschoosethepropergreetingstogreetdifferentpeopletheymeetondifferentoccasions.B)Thetermsofaddresscanbedifferentindifferentcountries.C)Chinesepeoplewillalsoextendkinshiptermsandindicatepeople’sinfluentialstatus.2.ThanksandcomplimentsPeopleintheWesttendtooverbalizetheirgratitudeandcomplimentsmorethanChinesespeakersandthatthewesternerstendtoacceptthanksandcomplimentsmoredirectlyandfranklythanweChinesedo.3.ColourwordsA)Languagesvarysomewhatinheircolourterminology;thevariationisapparentlynotrandom.B)Differentlanguagesmayhavedifferentdivisionsofcolour;differentlanguagesentaildifferentcolourrelatedassociations.4.PrivacyandTaboosItisnotappropriatetoaskquestionsaboutpersonalinformationlikeage,familybackground,salary,orquestiononpersonalactivities.Taboo:Wordsknowntospeakersbutavoidedinsomecontextsofspeechforreasonsofreligion,politenessetc.5.RoundingoffnumbersItisoftenoutoflinguisticconveniencethatpeoplewithdifferentculturesroundoffnumbersdifferently.Membersofaspeechcommunityoftengivepreferencetothenumbersthattheircommunityregardsassignificant.6.Wordsandcultural-specificconnotationsThesamewordindifferentlanguagesmaybeentailedwithdifferentconnotations.A)Aterminonelanguagethatdoesnothaveacounterpartinanotherlanguage.B)Aterminbothlanguagesappeartorefertothesameobject,butactuallyrefertodifferentthings.----weekend.C)Aconceptthatisrepresentedbyoneterminonelanguage,butbymanymoreterminanotherlanguage.37\nD)Termsthathavethesameprimarymeaning,butwhichhaveconsiderablydifferentsecondarymeanings.7.Cultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphorsDifferentlanguagesmayhavedifferentidioms,proverbsandmetaphorsowingtodifferentlivingenvironments,socialconventionsandliteraturetraditionetc.PartSix:ThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearningA)Languageasthekeystoneofcultureistightlyintertwinedwithculture.Learningalanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Whenlearningaforeignlanguage,weshouldacculturateourselvestotheirlanguageofmind.B)Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguage’sculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.PartSeven:Culturaloverlapanddiffusionculturaloverlap:Thesituationbetweentwosocietiesduetosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeingculturaldiffusion:Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thusbringingaboutculturaldiffusion.linguisticsimperialism:itisakindofkindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworld-wideexpansionofonelanguage.culturalimperialism:Thesituationofincreasingculturaldiffusionallovertheworld.linguisticnationalism:Inordertoprotectthepurityoftheirlanguage,somecountrieshaveadoptedspeciallanguagepolicy.Itiscalledlinguisticnationalism.PartEight:InterculturalCommunicationinterculturalcommunication:Itiscommunicationbetweenpeoplewhoseculturalperceptionsandsymbolsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.Chapter10.LanguageAcquisitionPartOne:Introduction:languageacquisition:Itreferstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.Childrenallovertheworldlearntospeakataboutthesametimeunlesstheyareisolatedduringthecriticalacquisitionyearsorunlesstheysufferfromextremeexternaldeficiency.PartTwo:TheoriesofChildLanguageAcquisition1.Abehaviouristviewoflanguageacquisition----B.F.SkinnerView:Traditionalbehaviouristsviewlanguageasbehaviourandbelievethatlanguagelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.Steps:Childrenimitatethesoundsandpatterns------>peoplerecognizeandreinforce---->childrenrepeattherightsoundsandpatternstogetthereward(reinforcement)Conclusion:imitationandpracticearepreliminary,discriminationandgeneralizationarekeytolanguagedevelopmentinthistheory.-------regularandroutineaspectsofthelanguage.2.AnInnatistViewofLanguageAcquisition-------NoamChomskyView:NoamChomskyclaimsthathumanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageand37\nthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.LanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)----theinnateability,Ahypotheticalinnatemechanismeverynormalhumanchildisbelievedtobebornwith,whichallowthemtoacquirelanguage.Steps:Childrenneedaccesstothesamplesofanaturallanguage----->activatetheLAD----->matchtheinnateknowledgeofbasicgrammarsystemtothatparticularlanguage.Conclusion:Whenexposedtoconfusinginformationorwhenguidanceorcorrectionisnotavailable,children,bornwithUG,candiscoverforthemselvestheunderlyingrulesofthelanguagesystem.------complexsystem.3AnInteractionistViewofLanguageAcquisitionView:languagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Themodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechild’scapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.Motherese:(childdirectedspeech[CDS]/caretakertalk):Aspecialspeechtochildrenusedbyadults,whichischaracterizedwithslowrateofspeed,highpitch,richintonation,shorterandsimplersentencestructuresetc,frequentrepetition,paraphrasingandlimitedvocabulary.Itisalsocalledchilddirectedspeech，orcaretakertalk.------nowandhereenvironment.Conclusion:themodifiedlanguageisverycrucial.Onlywhenconversationsprovidetherightleveloflanguagethatchildrenarecapableofprocessing,cantheyfacilitatechildren’slanguageacquisition.-----theimportanceofenvironment.PartThree:CognitiveFactorinChildLanguageDevelopmentThecognitivefactorsrelatedtolanguageacquisitionmainlyintwoways:1Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenfromabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlatestagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.E.g.Childrenattheearlystagecanusetwo-wordutterance,butmaynotuseEnglishperfecttenseuntilattheageoffourandahalf.Conclusion:aschildren’sconceptualdevelopmentleadtotheirlanguagedevelopment,itislikelythattheirlanguagedevelopmentalsohelpintheformationandenhancementoftheconcept.2Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelinguisticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningthechildperceiveandexpresses.E.g.theprocessoflearningthenegativeform.Conclusion:Inthecourseofacquiringthenativelanguage,childrenseemtolookinitiallyforasystemwhichisrule-governedinaconsistentway,thenasysteminwhichthecluetomeaningareclearlydisplayed,andfinallytheoneinwhicheachitemordistinctionhasadefinitefunctionincommunicativemeaning.PartFour:LanguageEnvironmentandtheCriticalPeriodHypothesisTwofactors:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedto+theagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.Environment:A)Inbehaviouristview:Languageplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandthenecessaryfeedbacksamongwhichthepositivereinforcementencourageschildren’seffortsandfacilitatesthe“correct”learning,whilethenegativefeedbackdiscourageschildrentorepeatthe“mistakes”.B)Ininnatistview:theyemphasizesmoreonchildren’sinternalprocessingofthelanguageitems37\ntobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.C)Theinteractionistview:Theycallforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguisticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildren’scomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.Age:CriticalPeriodHypothesis------EricLennebergCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH):Thehypothesisthatthetimespanbetweenearlychildhoodandpubertyisthecriticalperiodforlanguageacquisition,duringwhichchildrencanacquirelanguagewithoutformalinstructionsuccessfullyandeffortlessly.Twoversions:(A)Strongversion----childrenwillneverbeabletolearnfromsubsequentexposureiftheyfailtoacquiretheirfirstlanguagebeforepuberty.(B)Weakversion------languagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.PartFive:StagesinChildLanguageDevelopment1.PhonologicaldevelopmentThechildmustpasseachstagebeforehecanproceedtothenextone.2.VocabularydevelopmentAdultcanincreasetheamountofbabblingbypayingattentiontothesounds,theycan’tchangethesoundsbabymakes.Vocabularydevelopmentgoeshand-in-handwiththechild’senvironment.A)under-extension:Useawordwithlessthanitsusualrangeofdenotation.E.g,babyusesanimaltorefertocat,butdeniesthebirdbelongstoananimal.B)over-extension:Extensionofthemeaningofawordbeyonditsusualdomainofapplicationbyyoungchildren.E.g,babyusesappleforallfruit.3.GrammaticalDevelopmentA)aroundtheageoftwo:two-wordutterance------telegraphicspeech.telegraphicspeech:Children’searlymultiwordspeechthatcontainscontentwordsandlacksfunctionwordsandinflectionalmorphemes.contentword:Wordsreferringtothings,quality,stateoraction,whichhavelexicalmeaningusedalone.functionword:Wordswithlittlemeaningontheirownbutshowgrammaticalrelationshipsinandbetweensentences.B)twoandahalf:three-wordutterance.4.PragmaticdevelopmentPragmatics----Howtospeaktoothersinanappropriatemanner:greetings,taboowords,thepoliteformsofaddress,variousstylesappropriatetodifferentspeechsituationsofhiscommunity.taboo:Wordsknowntospeakersbutavoidedinsomecontextsofspeechforreasonsofreligion,politenessetc.1Gender:bytheageofthree,E.g:CometoDaddy,there’sagoodgirl.2Politeness:Attheageofthreeorfour:E.g.remindchildrentosay“Please”.PartSix:AtypicalDevelopmentatypicaldevelopment:Someacquisitionoflanguagemaybedelayedbutfollowthesamerulesoflanguagedevelopmentduetotraumaorinjury.Examples:hearingimpairment,mentalretardation,autism,stuttering,aphasia,dyslexia,37\ndysgraphia.Chapter11:SecondLanguageAcquisitionPartOne:Introductionsecondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.targetlanguage:Thelanguagetobeacquiredbythesecondlanguagelearner.secondlanguage:Asecondlanguageisalanguagewhichisnotanativelanguageinacountrybutwhichiswidelyusedasamediumofcommunicationandwhichisusuallyusedalongsideanotherlanguageorlanguages.foreignlanguage:Aforeignlanguageisalanguagewhichistaughtasaschoolsubjectbutwhichisnotusedasamediumofinstructioninschoolsnorasalanguageofcommunicationwithinacountry.PartTwo:ConnectionbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisitionAdvantages:A)Theoretically----Thenewfindingsandadvancesinfistlanguageacquisitionespeciallyinlearningtheoriesandlearningprocessareilluminatinginunderstandingsecondlanguageacquisition.B)Practically------Thetechniquesusedtocollectandanalyzedatainfirstlanguageacquisitionalsoprovideinsightsandperspectivesinthestudyofsecondlanguageacquisition.Disadvantages:interlanguage:Atypeoflanguageproducedbysecondandforeignlanguagelearners,whoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage,andthistypeoflanguageusuallycontainswrongexpressions.Itisalsocalledlearnerlanguage.-----itsmainfeatureisfossilization.fossilization:Insecondorforeignlanguagelearning,thereisaprocesswhichsometimesoccursinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.PartThree:ContrastiveAnalysisInfluencedbythebehaviourismviewthatsecondlanguagelearningwasseenasthedevelopmentofanewsetofhabits,thenativelanguagetookonagreatsignificanceforitwasregardedasthemajorcauseforthelackofsuccessinlearningasecondlanguageorforeignlanguage.positivetransfer:Itreferstothetransferthatoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameform,thusmakinglearningeasier.negativetransfer:themistakentransferoffeaturesofone’snativelanguageintoasecondlanguage.contrastiveanalysis:amethodofanalyzinglanguagesforinstructionalpurposeswherebyanativelanguageandtargetlanguagearecomparedwithaviewtoestablishingpointsofdifferencelikelytocausedifficultiesforlearners.contrastiveanalysishypothesis:Ahypothesisinsecondlanguageacquisition.Itpredictsthatwheretherearesimilaritiesbetweenthefirstandsecondlanguages,thelearnerwillacquiresecondlanguagestructurewithease,wheretherearedifferences,thelearnerwillhavedifficulty.Contrastiveanalysis(nativelanguageVStargetlanguage)-----comparestheformsanmeanings37\nacrossthetwolanguagestospotthemismatchesordifferencessothatpeoplecouldpredictlearners’difficulty.PartFour:ErrorAnalysiserroranalysis:thestudyandanalysisoferrorsmadebysecondandforeignlanguagelearnersinordertoidentifycausesoferrorsorcommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning.Erroranalysis(InterlanguageVStargetlanguage)-------describeinterlanguage,andthencompareofthetwotolocatemismatches.-----givelessconsiderationtothenativelanguage.Twomainsortsoferrors:A)interlingualerror:errors,whichmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticaletc.Causes:crosslinguisticinterference.(a)substitutionof[t]for[θ]and[d]for[](b)Shorteningoflongvowels.B)intralingualerror:Errors,whichmainlyresultfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.Thetypicalexamplesareovergeneralizationandcross-association.Causes:faultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage(a)overgeneralization:Theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations,inwhichtheyareunacceptable.E.g:Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking(×).Cause:themistakesduetowhatthelearnersknowofthetargetlanguage,orbytheirintuitions,orevensomecommunicationstrategiesinothersituation.(b)cross-association:somewordsaresimilarinmeaningaswellasspellingandpronunciation.Thisinternalinterferenceiscalledcross-association.E.g.Theapricotistoosourtoeatit(×).MistakeVSerror:error:theproductionofincorrectformsinspeechorwritingbyanon-nativespeakerofasecondlanguage,duetohisincompleteknowledgeoftherulesofthattargetlanguage.-----competence-----notself-corrigiblemistake:mistakes,definedaseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible,suggestfailureinperformance.----performance------self-corrigible.PartFive:Interlanguageinterlanguage:Atypeoflanguageproducedbysecondandforeignlanguagelearners,whoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage,andthistypeoflanguageusuallycontainswrongexpressions.Threeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeability,fossilization.fossilization:Insecondorforeignlanguagelearning,thereisaprocesswhichsometimesoccursinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.Fossilizationmayoccuratanytimeandatanylevel.Causes:lackofacculturation,willtomaintainidentity,inappropriateextrinsicfeedback,cognitivematuration,satisfactionofcommunicativeneeds,lackofcontrol,qualityofinput,lackofinput,nativelanguageinfluencesandinstruction.PartSix:TheRoleofNativeLanguageinSecondLanguageLearningLanguagetransfer:Theeffectofonelanguageonthelearningofanother.positivetransfer:Itreferstothetransferthatoccurwhenboththenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesameform,thusmakinglearningeasier.37\nnegativetransfer:themistakentransferoffeaturesofone’snativelanguageintoasecondlanguage.Threefactorsindetermininglanguagetransferinsecondlanguagelearning:1Alearner’spsychology,howalearnerorganizehisorhernativelanguage;2Perceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistance;3Actualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage.PartSeven:SecondLanguageLearningModelsandInputHypothesisBehaviourist------imitation-----nurtureMentalist/innatist-----innate------LAD-------nature.InputHypothesis:AhypothesisproposedbyKrashen,whichstatesthatinsecondlanguagelearning,it’snecessaryforthelearnertounderstandinputlanguage,whichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.Eventuallytheabilitytoproducelanguageissaidtoemergenaturallywithoutbeingtaughtdirectly.comprehensibleinput:Inputlanguagewhichcontainslinguisticitemsthatareslightlybeyondthelearner’spresentlinguisticcompetence.acquisition:Acquisitionisaprocesssimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Itisasubconsciousprocesswithoutminutelearningofgrammaticalrules.Learnersarehardlyawareoftheirlearningbuttheyareusinglanguagetocommunicate.Itisalsocalledimplicitlearning,informallearningornaturallearning.learning:learningisaconsciouslearningofsecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherulesandtalkingabouttherules.input:languagewhichalearnerhearsorreceivesandfromwhichheorshecanlearn.intake:theinputwhichisactuallyhelpfulforthelearner.PartEight:IndividualDifferencesA)Languageaptitude:thenaturalabilitytolearnalanguage,notincludingintelligence,motivation,interest,etc.B)motivation:motivationisdefinedasthelearner’sattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.1instrumentalmotivation:themotivationthatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguageforinstrumentalgoalssuchaspassingexams,orfurtheringacareeretc.2integrativemotivation:thedrivethatpeoplelearnaforeignlanguagebecauseofthewishtoidentifywiththetargetculture.3resultativemotivation:thedrivethatlearnerslearnasecondlanguageforexternalpurposes.4intrinsicmotivation:thedrivethatlearnerslearnthesecondlanguageforenjoymentorpleasurefromlearning.C)learningstrategies:learningstrategiesarelearners’consciousgoal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.cognitivestrategies:strategiesinvolvedinanalyzing,synthesis,andinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.metacognitivestrategies:thetechniquesinplanning,monitoringandevaluatingone’slearning.affect/socialstrategies:thestrategiesdealingwiththewayslearnersinteractorcommunicatewithotherspeakers,nativeornon-native.D)AgeofAcquisition.-------CPH,Rightagehelpsecondlanguageacquisition.E)Personality---------extroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencehelpsecondlanguageacquisition.37\nPartNine:SecondLanguageAcquisitionAndItsPedagogicalImplicationsSecondlanguageacquisitionasascientificmulti-disciplinarystudyhasprovidedinsightsintohowpeoplelearnasecondlanguagefromhuman’sinternalmechanismandexternalfactorswhichimposeimpactstodifferentextents.Chapter12----LanguageAndBrainPartOne:Neurolinguistics1.Definition:Neurolinguisticsisthestudyoftherelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage(1)Howthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguagelearning.(2)Howandwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored.(3)Howdamagetothebrainaffectstheabilitytouselanguage.2.Thestructureandfunctionofthehumanbrain.(1)Structureofbrain:lowersection---brainstem---alivebrain---lefthemispherehighersection---cerebrum---cortex---decision-making---righthemispherelefthemisphererighthemispherelanguageandspeechholisticreasoninganalyticreasoningholisticreasoningtemporalorderingvisualandspatialskillreadingandwritingrecognitionofpatternscalculationrecognitionofmusicalmelodyassociativethought3.Methodsusedtoprovelateralization.(1)autopsystudies(尸体解剖):thetechniqueisusedtoexaminethebrainafterthepatient’sdeathinordertofindtherelationshipbetweentheareaofbraindamageandthetypeofdisorderthepatientdisplayedwhilealive.Broca’sareawasfoundandnamedinthisway.(2)Methodstostudythebrain:(A).SAT----shortforSodiumAmytalTest:thepatientisaskedtocountoutaloudwhilesodiumamytalisinjectedintoanarterycarryingbloodtoonesideofthebrain.Assumedresults:(1)ifthisisthehemisphereusedinspeech,losealltrackofhiscountingandexperiencesseverelanguagedifficultiesforseveralminutes.(2)ifthisisnot,resumenormalcountingallmostimmediatelyaftertheinjection.Althougheffective,thetestisofrisk(B).CTScanning:useanarrowbeamfX-raytocreatebrainimagesthattaketheformofaseriesofbrainslice.Lookinsidealivingbraintoidentifybrainlesionsandtumors,thoughtheimageprovidedisstatic.(C)PET----shortforPositronEmissionTomography,studythebraininaction.37\n(3)Methodstoexaminethebehavior:(A).Dichoticlistening:atechniqueinwhichstimulieitherlinguisticornon-linguisticarepresentedthroughheadphonestotheleftandrightearstodeterminethelateralizationofvariouscognitivefunctions.Rightearadvantage(REA):thephenomenonthattherightearshowsanadvantagefortheperceptionoflinguisticsignalsareknownastherightearadvantage.(B).Splitbrainstudies:theexperimentthatinvestigatestheeffectsofsurgicallyseveringthecorpuscallosumoncognitionarereferredtoassplitbrainstudies.4.AphasiaDefinition:Aphasiareferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisorderduetothecerebrallesionscausedbyvascularproblems,atumor,anaccidentandsoon.(1).Broca’saphasia-----FrenchneurologistPaulBroca---frontalpartcharacteristics:(1).Phonologically,thespeechofBroca’saphasicsisveryhaltingandlackofnormalsentenceintonation.(2).Syntactically,Broca’saphasicsproducetelegraphicspeech----showdifficultyjudgingthegrammaticalityofsentences,whichlackoffunctionalwordsandinflectionalaffix.(3).Writing:mostBroca’saphasicsshowwritingdisturbancesthatarecomparabletotheirspeakingdeficits.(2)Wernicke’saphasia----GermanphysiologistCarlWernickeWernicke’saphasicsaregenerallyunawareoftheirdeficit.Theycannotexpressthemselvesbecausetheycannotunderstandwhattheyhavejustsaidandusethatunderstandingintheplanningofwhattosaynext.Theyalsoshowreadingandwritingdeficitscomparabletotheirdeficitsinspeakingandlistening.Theformofwritingiscorrect,butmakeslittlesense.Arapidflowofformwithlittlecontent.(3)AcquireddyslexiaDefinition:damageinandaroundtheangulargyrusoftheparietallobeoftencausestheimpairmentofreadingandwritingability,whichisoftenreferredtoasacquireddyslexia.Classification:phonologicaldyslexia----atypeofacquireddyslexiainwhichthepatientseemstohavelosttheabilitytousespelling-to-soundrules.Theycannotreadthewordstheyhaveseenbefore.Surfacedyslexia-----patientsareunabletorecognizewordsaswholesbutmustprocessallwordsthroughasetofspelling-to-wordrules.Theycanreadtheregularwordscorrectly,butwhencomingacrossirregularwords,theywillapplyregularrulesandproducetheincorrectformandassignitameaningthatisappropriatetotheirincorrectpronunciation.PartTwo:Psychology1.Whatispsychology?Definition:psycholinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageprocessing,whichisconcernedwiththeprocessesoflanguagecomprehensionandproduction.2.Psycholinguisticresearchmethods(1)Fieldwork:inferfromtheobservablebehavior-----slipoftongue=Spoonerism----hardtocontrol.(2)Experimentalmethods:thecircumstancesinwhichlanguageprocessedcanbecontrolled(A)LexicalDecision-------aparticipantseesastringoflettersandisrequiredtodecidewhether37\nthestringisawordornotbysayingyesorno,orbypressingthebuttonlabeledyesorno.Twovariables----timeandaccuracyMeasure----------speedandaccuracyResultofthreepoints:(1)thetimeusedinthefrequentlyusedwordsunpronounceablenon-words.(3)thetimeusedinthenon-wordssoundinglikerealwords>non-wordsbothvisuallyandphonologically.(B)Theprimingexperiment----involvethesameprocessaslexicaldecisiontaskexceptthatthewordtobejudge(calledtarget)isprecededbyanotherstimulus(calledprime),asemanticallyrelatedword.Purpose-----theextenttowhichtheprimeinfluencesthesubject’slexicaldecisionperformanceonthetargetstimulus.Result------thetimeareshorterwhentheprimeissemanticallyrelatedthanunrelated.Primingeffect----Iftheprimeisrelatedtothetargetword,whichisactivatedthroughtheprime,whenthetargetispresented,responsetimeisshorterthanitotherwisewouldhavebeen.Thisiscalledtheprimingeffect.(C)Timed-readingexperiments----Thebar-pressingparadigm:Inwhichsubjectsareseatedinfrontofacomputerscreenandreadasentenceonewordatatimeinthemiddleofthescreen.Whenthesubjectsprocesstheword,heorshepressesabaronthekeyboard.Theworddisappearsandthenextwordofthesentenceappearsinitsplace.Thisprocesscontinuesuntilthesubjecthasreadallthewordsinthesentence.Assumption------themoredifficultsentenceprocessingis,thelongertimeitshouldtake.Thedependentvariableintheseexperiments------theamountoftimeittakessubjectstopressthebarafterseeingaparticularword.Purpose----studythedeterminantsofsentence-processingdifficulty.Result:(1)showlongerbar-pressingtimeforprocessingmostnounsandverbs.(2)showrelativelylesstimeforfunctionwords.(3)showlongestbar-pressingtimeattheendoftheclauseboundarysinceextratimeisrequiredtointegrateprecedinginformationintoacompleteclausestructure.(D)Eyemovementexperiments-----experimentsthatexamineeyemovementsduringthereadingprocess.Thepurposeistostudysentenceprocessing.Result:(1)Thefixationtimesaretypicallylongerforlessfrequentwords.(2)Thepointsoffixationaretypicallycenteredoncontentwordsratherthanonfunctionwords.(3)Difficultsentencestructurescreatelongerfixationtimeaswellasmanymoreregressivesaccades.(E)Event-relatedpotentialexperiment----Thesubjectsimplysitsinfrontofacomputerscreenandreadslikeinnormallanguage-processingsituations.Electrodesareplacedonasubject’sscalpandrecordingsaremadeofvoltagefluctuationsresultingfromthebrain’Purpose-----useacomputertocalculatewhatpartoftheelectricalbrainactivityisrelatedtowordsorsentenceonascreen.37\nResult------Sentenceprocessingisimmediateandonline.Whenreadingasentencewedonotwaituntiltheentirestringiscomplete,butratherconstantlybuildinginterpretationsofthesentenceasitunfolds.3.Linguisticsandlanguageprocessingbottom-upprocessing:anapproachthatmakesuseprincipallyofinformationwhichisalreadypresentinthedata.top-downprocessing:anapproachthatmakesuseofpreviousknowledgeandexperienceofthereadersinanalyzingandprocessinginformationwhichisreceived.Howconceptsandprinciplesareusedinlanguageprocessing?(1)PhoneticsandphonologyA)Errorspeoplemakeinspontaneousspeechofteninvolveaphonologicalfeaturesuchasvoicing.B)Phonemesoftenplayaroleinlanguageprocessing.Entirephonemesaremisplacedduringasentenceplanning.cohortmodel:Inwordcomprehension,wordsareanalyzedbyhearersfrombeginningtoend.Spokenwordrecognitionoccursinthreestages:1Onthebasisofanacoustic-phoneticanalysisoftheinput,asetoflexicalcandidatesisactivated.2Onememberofthecohortisselectedforfurtheranalysis.3Theselectedlexicalitemisintegratedintotheongoingsemanticandsyntacticcontext.C)Thesyllableplaysanimportantroleinspeechperception.(2)MorphologicalprocessingMorphologicalstructuresandprinciplesplayasubstantialroleintherepresentationofwordsinthemindandinwordrecognition.Selectionalrestrictions----Theknowledgeoftheselectionalrestrictionsofaffixesdoesindeedformpartoftheword-processingsystem.HierarchicalStructure----Ourrepresentationodcomplexwordsisorganizedintermsofhierarchicalmorphologicalstructure.(3)Syntaxtgardenpathsentences:asentenceinwhichthecomprehenderassumesaparticularmeaningofawordorphrasebutdiscoverslaterthattheassumptionwasincorrect,forcingthecomprehendertobacktrackandreinterpretthesentence.E.g.:Thehorseracedpastthebarnfell.Twoprinciplesofparsing:minimalattachment&lateclosure.Minimalattachment:wepreferattachingnewitemsintothephrasemarkerbeingconstructedusingthefewestsyntacticnodesconsistentwiththerulesofthelanguage.E.g.MikekissedLucyandhersister…(Therearetwomeaningsinthissentence.)Lateclosure:whereverpossible,weprefertoattachnewitemstothecurrentconstituenttoreducetheburdenonworkingmemoryduringparsing.E.g.:TomsaidthatBillhadtakenthecleaningoutyesterday.(Therearetwomeaningsinthissentence.)Sentenceambiguity:Asentenceinwhichthereisawordwhichhasmorethanonemeanings,thusrequiringthecomprehendertodiscardtheonethatareeitherincorrectorunnecessaryaccordingtothecontext.4.Psycholinguisticmodelling37\nLevelt’smodelofspeechproduction:Fourstagesofproduction:conceptualizing----->formulating---->articulating---->self-monitoring.(1)Conceptualizing:wemustconceptualizewhatwewishtocommunicate.(2)Formulating:weformulatethisthoughtintolinguisticplanintheFormulator.Itcontainsgrammaticalandphonologicalprocessanddrawsuponthelexicon.(3)TheinformationispassedtotheArticulatorfromFormulatorwhichactuallyproducestheutterance.(4)Wemonitorourspeech,toassesswhetheritiswhatweintendedtosayandhowweintendedtosayit.Conclusion:Theinformationdoesnotflowinonedirectiononly.Thereisfeedbacksothatwhileproducinglanguage,aspeakermonitorsthroughthecomprehensionsystemwhethertheutterancemakessense.Ps:这个完全是对戴版的整理笔记，应该完全记熟！37