语言学与外语教学 10页

Chapter11LinguisticsandForeignLanguageTeaching11.1TheRelationbetweenLinguisticsandLanguageTeaching1.Bothlinguisticsandforeignlanguageteachingtakelanguageastheirsubject.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage，soitisclearlyrelatedwithlanguageteaching.However,linguisticsandlanguageteachingdifferintheirattitudes，goalsandmethodstowardslanguage.2.Linguisticsregardslanguageasasystemofforms，whilethefieldofforeignlanguageteachingconsidersitasasetofskills.Linguisticsresearchisconcernedwiththeestablishmentoftheorieswhichexplainthephenomenaoflanguageuse,whereasforeignlanguageteachingaimsatthelearners'masteryoflanguage.3.Appliedlinguisticsservestoreconcileandcombinelinguisticsandforeignlanguageteaching:(1):Appliedlinguisticsextendstheoreticallinguisticsinthedirectionoflanguagelearningandteaching，sothattheteacherisenabledtomakebetterdecisionsonthegoalandcontentoftheteaching.(2):Appliedlinguisticsstatestheinsightsandimplicationsthatlinguistictheorieshaveonthelanguageteachingmethodology.11.2VariousLinguisticViewandTheirSignificanceinLanguageLearningandTeachingTraditionalgrammarTraditionalgrammar,asaprc-20thcenturylanguagedescriptionandaprc-linguisticproductofresearch，wasbaseduponearliergrammarsofLatinandGreek,andlaidemphasisoncorrectness,literaryexcellence,theuseofLatinmodels,andthepriorityofwrittenlanguage.Prescriptionwasitskeytone.Themainteachingandlearningactivitiesaregrammarandtranslationstudy.StructuralistlinguisticsModernlinguistics,inspiteofthetheoreticaldiversities，isprimarilydescriptive.Structuralistlinguisticsdescribeslinguisticsfeaturesintermsofstructuresandsystems.Itdescribesthecurrentspokenlanguage,whichpeopleuseindailycommunication.Itsfocus，however，isstillongrammaticalstructures.Structuralistlinguistsareinfluencedbythebehavioristicviewthatonelearnsalanguagebybuildinguphabitsonthebasisofstimulus-responsechains.UniversalgrammarUGisalsocalledTransformation-GenerativeGrammarorTGgrammar.UGgrammarseeslanguageasasystemofinnaterules.Anativespeakerpossessesalinguisticcompetence,oralanguageacquisitiondevice.AndUGattemptstoexplaintherelativelyquickacquisitionofLIonthebasisofminimumexposuretoexternalinput.UG认为语言习得本质上并小依雜外在的语言输入Thechildisbornwithknowledgeofsomelinguisticuniversals.Whileacquiringhismothertongue，hecompareshisinnatelanguagesystemwiththatofhisnativelanguageandmodifieshisgrammar.Therefore,languagelearningisnotamatterofhabitformation，butanactivityofbuildingandtestinghypothesis.Asfortheconstructofasentence，TGgrammardescribesitascomposedofadeepstructure，asurfacestructureandsometransformationalrules.AlthoughChomskydoesnotintendtomakehismodelarepresentationofperformance,i.e.thelanguageactuallyusedincommunication，appliedlinguisticsfindUGgrammarusefulincertainaspects.Butbecauseitisaformalandabstractgrammar，itremainslimitedinlanguageteaching.FunctionallinguisticsTakingasemantic-sociolinguisticapproach，Halliday’ssystemic-functionallinguisticsseeslanguageasaninstrumentusedtoperformvariousfunctionsinsocialinteraction.Itconcernsnotonlywiththeformalsystemoflanguagebutalsothefunctionoflanguageinsociety，anditsscopeiswiderthanthatofformertheories.Inadultlanguage,thereare3Meta-functions:theideationalfunction,theinterpersonalfunction,andthetextualfunction.\nThediscourse-basedviewoflanguageThediscourse-basedviewoflanguageholdsthatlinguisticpatternsexistacrossstretchesoftext.以语篇力基础的语言观认力语言模式存在于一•段段的文本之屮Thesepatternsextendbeyondthewords，clausesandsentences,whichhavebeenthetraditionalconcernoflanguageteaching.这购模式超出了传统语言教学所重视的单词、断句和句子等范围。\nteachingThefocusofthisviewisoncompletespokenandwrittentextsandonthesocialandculturalcontextsinwhichsuchlanguageoperated.这种观点的重点被放在完整的口诏和书而诺文木上，和语言使用的社会和文化语境Accordingly,thediscourse-basedviewoflanguageteachingaimsatdevelopingdiscoursecompetence,whichissimilartothewell-knownconceptofcompetence,whichissimilartothewell-knownconceptofcommunicativecompetence.TheconceptcompetenceoriginallycomesfromChomsky.Itreferstothegrammaticalknowledgeoftheideallanguageuserandhasnothingtodowiththeactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.Thisconceptoflinguisticcompetencehasbeencriticizedforbeingtoonarrow.Toexpandtheconceptofcompetence,D.H.HvmesproposesCommunicativeCompetence:itreferstowhatalearnerknowsabouthowalanguageisusedinparticularsituationsforeffectiveandappropriatecommunication.Itincludesknowledgeofthegrammarandvocabulary,knowledgeofrulesofspeaking，knowledgeofhowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypesofspeechactsandsocialconventions,andknowledgeofhowtouselanguageappropriately.Basedontheabovetheory,inthecaseofforeignlanguagelearning，languagelearnersareencouragedtodealwithaccomplishingactions，whicharebelievedtohelpthemacquirethetargetlanguage.Thecommunicativelanguageteaching(CLT)andtask-basedlanguageteaching(TBLT)arethebestknownexamplesofsuchtheory.Therearetwobroadtypesoftasks，real-worldtasksandpeda^osicaltasks.Real-worldtask:itisveryclosetosomethingwedoindailylifeorwork.Thisisarealtaskbecausetherearethingslikethisintherealworld.Pedagogicaltasksarethoseactivitiesthatstudentsdointheclassroombutthosemaynottakeplaceinreallife.Itsweakness:itoveremphasizestheroleofexternalfactorsintheprocessoflanguageacquisitionandgiveslittleimportancetointernallearningprocess;itissimilartothebehavioristicviewoflanguageacquisitioninthatenvironmentalfactorsandinputarcattheverycenterinattemptingtoexplicatetheacquisitionprocess;itoverstressestheroleofknowledgeofcompetenceandfunctionsinacquiringalanguage，andfailstonoticeuniversalprinciplethatguidelanguageacquisition.11.3LinguisticsandLanguageLearningGrammarandLanguageLearningOneofthecontroversiesinsecondlanguageacquisitioniswhetherorhowtoincludegrammarinsecondlanguageinstruction.Therearemainlytwomethodsadoptedconcerningthisissue.①Discrete-pointgrammarinstruction②Meaning-focusedinstructionDiscrete-pointgrammarinstructionconductedbymoretraditionallanguageteachershasbeenwidelycriticizedforfocusingonformsandignoringmeanings.Findingsfromimmersionandnaturalisticlanguageacquisitionstudiessuggestthatwhenclassroomsecondlanguagelearningisentirelyexperientialandmeaning-focused,somelinguisticfeaturesdonotultimatelydeveloptotarget-likelevels.Asaresult，acompromisebetweenthe“purelyform-focusedapproaches”and“purelymeaning-focusedapproaches”，FOCUSONFORMcameintobeing.Thefocusonformapproachtakesamorebalancedviewthatalthoughlanguagelearningshouldgenerallybemeaningfocusedandcommunicationoriented，itisstillnecessaryandbeneficialtofocusonformoccasionally.However，thefocusonformhasitsproblem.Onequestioniswhatelementsoflanguagearemostamenabletofocusonform.Thisquestionhasbeendealtwithmostlyfromalinguisticpointofview.TwovariablesconcerningtheamenabilityoflanguageelementstofocusonformarctherelevanceofUniversalGrammar(UG)普遍语法相关性andcomplexityoflanguagestructures语言结构复杂性.Hereweneedtonotethatwhataamenabilityis.Amenability顺从性:就是指某个语言项0通过学而发生变化的可能性\nUniversalgrammarComplexityoflanguagestructuresifanL2structureispartofUQtheamenabilityishigh.Infocusonform，differentmeasureswillbetakendependingonwhethertheamenabilityofformishighorlow，buttheproblemisthatnooneknowswhatexactlyispartofUG.Therefore,thestudyofUGiswhatismostneededinlanguagelearningresearch.thevariableofcomplexityisnoteasiertotackle.Itisassumedthatlesscomplexstructureshavehigheramenability,butcomplexityishardtodefineandmeasure.Formallysimplestructurescanbefunctionallycomplex，soweneedtoturntothestudyoflinguisticstohaveabetterunderstandingofthecomplexityoflanguagestructures.InputandLanguageLearningLanguagelearningcantakeplacewhenthelearnerhasenoughaccesstoinputinthetargetlanguage，whethertheinputisinwrittenorspokenform.学习者接受了足够的目标与输入时，语言学习才有可能发生，这种输入可以是口语也可以是书而语.Inrespectofwhatkindsofinputshouldbeprovidedforlanguagelearners,viewsdivergegreatly.Wewillexaminesomeoftheviewsinthefollowingsection.Authenticinput真实性输入Comprehensiblei叩ut理解性输入Proponentsofmeaning-orientedlanguageinstructiontendtoinsistonauthenticinput.Thatistosay，theinputshouldrelatetothereallife,anditusuallyneglectsthegrammar.Theycontendthatidealmaterialsatalllevelsshouldprovidefrequentexposuretoauthenticinputwhichisrichandvaried,thatis,theinputshouldvaryinstyle,mode,mediumandpurposeandshouldberichinfeatureswhicharecharacteristicofauthenticdiscourseinthetargetlanguage.Someexpertsstronglybelievethatanyinputmustbecomprehensibleifitistohaveanyeffectonlearning.AccordingtoKrashen’sInputHypothesis,learnersacquirelanguageasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem.Krashenputforwardtheconceptof“i+1”principle:thelanguagethatlearnersareexposedtoshouldbejustfarenoughbeyondtheircurrentcompetencethattheycanunderstandmostofitbutstillbechallengedtomakeprepress.InputshouldbeneithertoodifficultnortooeasyforthelearnersOptimalinput最佳输入Manyresearchershaveconductedstudiesonkindsofoptimalinput，thefollowingaretowofwhich:Pre-modifiedinput预修正输入Interactivelymodifiedinput交互性修正输入Itismaterialthatisfinelyturnedinadvancetothelearners’currentlevel.它是指据学习者的现有水平实现对语言材料进行精细调整Itismaterialthatismodifiedwhentheteacherandthelearnersinteract.它是指材料在老师和学生的S动中进行修正Interactivelymodifiedinputisprovedtodoabetterjob.Interlanguageinlanguagelearning语言学习屮的中介语Whenlearnersconstructlanguage，theyarcnotonlyreproducingwhattheyhavelearned;instead,theyareprocessingandconstructingthings.Theconceptoflanguageoutputissimilartotheconstructivism,whicharguesthatlanguageissociallyconstructed.学习者构逮语言，并不仅仅是重复他们所学的东西，而是进行加工和构建。语言输出这个概念和构建主义是相吻合的，构建主义认为语言实在社会中建构的。Theconceptofinterlanguage（中介i/j）wasestablishedaslearners'independentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage，butacontinuumamongthetargetlanguageandthelearner’snativelanguage.It’simperfectcomparedwiththetargetlanguage,butitisnotmeretranslationfromthelearner’snativelanguage.屮介语是学者在学AJ语言的过程屮讳立起的一个独立的语言系统，既不是母语也不是第二语言，而是位于FI标与和学习者母语之间的一种语言。与目标与相比，屮介语是不完善的，但它又不仅仅是学习者对母语的翻译。\n1L4LinguisticsandSyllabusDesignSyllabusistheplanningofacourseofinstruction.Itisadescriptionofthecoursecontent，teachingproceduresandlearningexperience.Syllabusdesignisoffundamentalimportanceinlanguageteaching.Itservesasabridgebetweenlanguageteachingtheoryandlanguageteachingpractice.AClarificationofTermsSyllabus:教学大纲asyllabusisaspecificationofwhattakesplaceintheclassroom，whichusuallycontainstheaimsandcontentsofteachingandsometimescontainssuggestionsofmethodology.Curriculum:课程计戈ljthetermcurriculumisusuallyusedintwosenses.Inabroadsense，itreferstothesubstanceofaprogramofstudiesofaneducationalinstitutionorsystem.Forexample，theschoolcurriculum,theuniversitycurriculum,thecurriculumofFrenchschools,etc.inanarrowsense,itreferstothecourseofstudyorcontentinaparticularsubject，suchasthemathematicscurriculumorhistorycurriculum.Thenarrowsenseisusuallyusedinterchangeablywithsyllabus.MajorfactorsinsyllabusdesignSelectingparticipantsBeforethetrainingprogramstarts,itisnecessarytospecifythecharacteristicsofthelearnerandselectindividualswhomatchthosespecifications.在培训计划开始前要确定学者的特征并且挑选出那些符合特定要求的学习者.ProcessInmostcases,theprocessofsyllabusdesigninforeignlanguageteachingmainlyincludesselectingandgradingwhatistobetaught.Selectioninvolvestwosub-processes:1:therestrictionofthelanguagetoaparticulardialectandregister;2:thecriteriasuchasfrequencyofoccurrence，leamabilityandclassroomneedsAfteralistoflanguageitemshavebeenselected，thenextprocessistoputthemintothemostappropriateorderforpracticalteachingpurposes.Thisprocessisoftenreferredtoasgradingwhichissubdividedintotwodistinctoperations.Weshallusetheterm“staging”torefertothedivisionofthecourseintotimesegments，and“sequencing”torefertotheproblemofdecidingtheorderinwhichtheitemsshouldbetaught.Evaluation评估Attheendofthetrainingprogramme,itisnecessarytofindoutwhetherandtowhatdegreethelearnershavereachedtheteachingobjectives.Therearctwodifferentkindsofevaluation:Internalevaluationwhichcheckswhetherandtowhatdegreetheprogrammehastaughtwhatitmeanttoteach;Externalevaluationwhichtriestofindoutwhetherandtowhatdegreetheprogrammeisusefultothelearnersintheirword.Thetwokindsofevaluationprovidefeedbacktothewholetrainingprogramme.TypesofsyllabusStructuralSyllabus结构教学大纲SituationalSyllabus情京教学大纲Influencedbystructuralistlinguistics，thestructuralsyllabusisasyllabusfortheteachingofalanguagewhichisbasedonaselectionofthegrammaticalitemsandstructure,e.g.tenses，grammaticalrules，sentencepatterns，whichoccurinalanguageandthearrangementofthemintoanordersuitableforteaching.Thelinguisticunitsinasentencemayappearinslots:Myfriendsentme|abirthdaycardlastweek.Thispatternisprobablyfollowedbygroupofsubstitutionalwords,alsoputintoslots:Situationalsyllabusisasyllabuswhichselects，organizesandpresentslanguageitemsbasedonsituations，e.g.atthebank，atthesupermarket,athome，etc.Thesituationalsyllabusdoesnothaveasolidtheoreticalfoundation，butthesituationalistsaccepttheviewthatlanguageisusedforcommunication.Theaimofitistospecifythesituationsinwhichthetargetlanguageisused.Usually，thegrammaticalformsandsentencepatternsarcintroducedandpracticedinwell-knitteddialogueswhichmaytakeplaceincertainsituations.\nMysisterbroughthimanewhatyesterdayTeacherlentthegirladictionaryonSunday.Thusbysubstitutingnewelementsinoneorotheroftheslots，learnerspracticethesamesentencepatternrepeatedlyuntiltheycanproduceitautomatically.Itsdrawbacks:itonlyconcentratesonthegrammaticalformsandthemeaningofindividualwords，butneglectsthemeaningofthewholecontext.Studentscan’tusetheformsthey’velearnedappropriatelyinconcretesituations.Thesituationalsyllabussetsouttomeetthelearners’communicativeneed,butitisstillessentiallygrammatical.Thesituationsdescribedinatextbookcannotbetrulyauthenticandthearrangementofthesyllabusisnotsystematic.Notional-functionalSyllabus意念-功能教学大纲CommunicativeSyllabus父际教学大纲Comparedtothesituationalsyllabus，thenotional-functionalsyllabushasamuchstrongertheoreticalbasis—itisdirectlyinfluencedbyHalliday’sfunctionalgrammarandHymes’theoryofcommunicativecompetence.TheconceptofNotionreferstothemeaningonewantstoconvey，whilethatofFunctionreferstowhatonecandowiththelanguage.Forexample，whilesaying“Wouldyoupleasetellmehowtogettothelibrary?’，thespeakerexpressesthenotionoinquiryandperformsthefunctionofaskingtheway.Whatthenotional-functionalsyllabuswantsthelearnertoacquireis，first，theknowledgeoflanguagestructures,andsecond，theabilitytousingthemindifferentsituationstoexpressideas.Acommunicativesyllabusaimsatthelearner’scommunicativecompetence.Itteachesthelanguageneedtoexpressandunderstanddifferentkindsoffunctions，andemphasizestheprocessofcommunication.TherearetencomponentsofacommunicativesyllabusproposedbyYaldcn.FullycommunicativeSyllabus完全的交际教学人纲Taskcd-bascdSyllabus任务型教学大纲Thefullycommunicativesyllabusstressesthatlinguisticcompetenceisonlyapartofcommunicativecompetence.Ifwefocusoncommunicativeskills，mostareasoflinguisticcompetencewillbedevelopednaturally.Therefore,whatweshouldteachiscommunicationthroughlanguageratherthanlanguageforcommunication.Itissuggestedthatfullycommunicativeteachingshoulddoawaywithwell-plannedsyllabuses.Whatshouldbedecidedistheproblemofcommunicationtobesolved,andtheteachershouldinvolvehisstudentsintoactivitiesinwhichtheyimitatehisuseoflanguageconsciouslyorunconsciously.Iftheteachercanwelldirectthisprocess，languagelearningwilltakecareofitself.Task-basedsyllabusesarcmoreconcernedwiththeclassroomprocesseswhichstimulatelearningthanwiththelanguageknowledgeorskillsthatstudentsaresupposedtomaster.Thesesyllabusesconsistofalistofspecificationofthetasksandactivitiesthatthelearnerswillengageinclassofthetargetlanguage.Belowaresixprinciplesthatteacherscanfollowwhendesigntasks:(1)ataskshouldhaveaclearpurples(2)ataskshouldhavesomedegreeofresemblancetoreal-worldevents(3)ataskshouldinvolveinformationseeking，processingandconveying(4)ataskshouldinvolvethestudentsinsomemodesofdoingthings(5)ataskshouldinvolvethemeaning-focuseduseoflanguage(6)ataskshouldendwithatangibleproduct明结果CurrenttrendsinsyllabusdesignTheco-existenceoftheoldandthenewTheemphasisonthelearningprocessTheinclusionofnon-linguisticobjectivesinsyllabusItincludessomenon-linguisticobjectivessuchaslearningstrategicsandaffectivecultivation(例如信心，兴趣等)Theemergenceofthemulti-syllabusLanguagecoursereflectdifferentprioritiesinreachingratherthanabsolutechoices\n11.5ContrastiveAnalysisandErrorAnalysisNativelanguageplaysanimportantroleintheprocessofsecondlanguageacquisition.Whenthenativelanguageinfluencestheacquisitionofthetargetlanguage,[languagetransfer]迁移happens.Forexample,thestudents’learnedknowledgeandskillsinnativelanguagecanbetransferredtothesecondlanguage.Whenthetwolanguagesaresimilarinstructure,thenthenativelanguagefacilitatesthetargetlanguagelearning,wecallitapositivetransfer积极迁移(orFacilitation便利性)；whenthetwolanguagesaredifferentinstructures,thenthenativelanguageinterferewiththetargetlanguagelearning,wecallitanegativetransfer消极迁移(orInterference干扰).11.5.1ContrastiveAnalysis(CA)对比分析Contrastiveanalysis!awayofcomparinglanguagesinordertodeterminepotentialerrorsfortheultimatepurposeofisolatingwhatneedstobelearnedandwhatdoesnotneedtobelearnedinasecondlanguagelearningsituation.Thegoalofcontrastiveanalysisistopredicthatareaswillbeeasytolearnandwhatareaswillbedifficulttolearn.ProblemswithCAContrastiveanalysishelpsustounderstandlanguagelearningandteachinginmanyways,butithassomeproblems:①：Differencesbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagecanbedefinedlinguistically,butsometimes,difficultiesmayarisefrompsychologicalaspect.Linguisticallydifficultitemsmaynotbepsychologicallydifficult.②：Contrastiveanalysiscannotpredictallerrors.③：Contrastiveanalysisfailstopredictdifficulties,andsomepredicteddifficultiesdon’tseemtobedifficultactually.11.5.2ErrorAnalysis(EA)ClarificationoftermsError错误isthegrammaticallyincorrectform.Itarisesfromthelearners’lackofknowledgewhichrepresentsalackofcompetence.不会Mistake失误appearswhenthelanguageiscorrectgrammaticallybutimproperinacommunicationalcontext.Mistakesoftenoccurwhenlearnersfailtoperformtheircompetence.会，用错Lapsereferstoslipsofthetongueofpenmadebyeitherforeignlanguagelearnersornativespeakers.口误，笔误ClassificationofErrorsIntermsofsourceoferrorsInterlingualerrors际1昔误:(ortransfererrors):occurewhenthelearnermisusesanitembecauseitsharesfeatureswithaniteminthenativelanguage.Forexample,thelearnerutilizessomeLIfeaturesratherthanthatofthetargetlanguage.IntralingualerrorslAl错误(ordevelopmentalerrors):areerrorswithinthetargetlanguageitself，suchasovergeneralization，whichariseswhenthelearnerappliesaruleinasituationwheretheruledoesapply.IntermsofthenatureoferrorsExplanationandexampleType(l)Theabsenceofanitemthatmustappearinawell-formedutterance:e.g.Shesleeping.Omissions省略错误(2)Thepresenceofanitemthatmustnotappearinwell-formedutterances:e.g.Heiswordsinafactorynearby.Additions添加错误(3)Theuseofatensemarkertwiceinonesentence:e.g.Wcdidn’twentthere.Doublemarkings双重标记错误(4)Theuseofthewrongformofthemorphemeorstructure:e.g.ThedogeatedthechickenMisformations形式错误(5)Theincorrectplacementofamorpheme(group)inanutterance:e.g.WhatJohnisdoing?Misorderings顺序错误\nTheprocedureofEA\nStepone:Recognition识别错误Ifthesentenceproducedbythelearnerisgrammaticallyincorrect，errorsoccur;Ifit’sgrammaticallycorrect,butisusedinappropriatelyinthecommunicativecontext，thenmistakesoccur.Steptwo:Description描述错误Iftheerroneoussentenceisintelligible，wecompareitwiththecorrectsentenceproducedbyanativespeakerandlisttheerrorsandmistakes.Ifthemeaningofthesentenceisnotclear,wemayrefertothelearner’snativelanguagetofindoutwhathemeansandcarryoutacontrastiveanalysisStepthree:Explanation解释错误Whenanerrorisrecognizedanddescribed,wcthentrytoexplainwhytheerrorhappened.Thatistosay，wcmakehypothesisaboutthepsychologicalprocesseswhichhavecausedthelearnertocommittheerror.TheproblemswithEAItisinadequatetorelyonerrorstostudyhowtargetlanguageislearned.Itisdifficulttodeterminewhatanerroris.Erroranalysisoverstressesproductiondataandfailstoaccountforerroravoidance.11.6TestingIn11.4,wementionedtwokindsofevaluation:externalevaluationandinternalevaluation.Theinternalevaluationisnecessarilyconnectedwiththeuseoftests—anyprocedureformeasuringability，knowledge，orperformance.11.6.1Twodifferentapproachestotesting1.Psycholinguistic-stmcturalapproach2.Psycholinguistic-sociolinguisticapproach.11.6.2IVpesoftestAptitudetest学习潜能测试Aptitudetestsattempttomeasurethelearner’saptitudeornaturalabilitiestolearnlanguages•测试学习者学习语言的潜能或者天分Thistypeoftestusuallyconsistsofsomedifferenttestswhichmeasurerespectivelytheabilitytoidentifyandremembersoundpatternsinanewlanguage,etc.Inordertoassesstheseabilities，artificiallanguageareoftenemployedProficiencytest水平测试Thepurposeofproficiencytestsistodiscoverwhatthetesteealreadyknowsaboutthetargetlanguage.Proficiencytestsarenotconcernedwithanyparticularcoursebutthelearner’sgeneralleveloflanguagemastery.AnexampleofproficiencytestsistheAmericanTOEFL.Achievementtest成绩测试Achievementtestsassesshowmuchalearnerhasmasteredthecontentsofaparticularcourse.Clearly,theitemsinsuchtestsshouldbebasedonwhathasbeentaught.Themidtermandfinalexamsheldinschoolsandcollegesaretypicaltestsofthiskind.Diagnostictest诊断测试Diagnostictestsarcdesignedtodiscovermainlywhatthetesteedoesnotknowaboutthelanguage,c.g.adiagnosticEnglishpronunciationtestmaybeusedtoshowwhichsoundsastudentisandisnotabletopronounce.Atestofsuchkindcanhelptheteachertofindoutwhatiswrongwiththepreviouslearningandwhatshouldbeincludedinthefuturework.11.6.3RequirementsofagoodtestValidityandreliabilityarethetwobasicrequirementsforagoodtest，aswasproposedbyR.Lado.Validity效度isthedegreetowhichatestmeasurewhatismeantto.Ifthecandidatesknowsomeitemsbeforetheexamthevaliditywillbereduced.Therearefourkindsofvalidity.(1)Contentvalidity内容效度referstowhichthetestadequatelycoversthesyllabusaretobetested测i式在何种程度上覆盖了教学大纲要求的闪容(2)Constructvalidity编制效度requiresthetesttoprovethetheoreticalconstructwhereuponitisbased如果测试与它的基本理论想温和那么它就具有编制效度(3)Empiricalvalidity实证效度demandstheresultsofthetesttocorrelatewithsomeexternalcriteria.如果测试结果与一些外部标准相关，那么它具有实证效度(4)Faccvalidity卷面效度isbasedonthesubjectivejudgmentofanobserver，unliketheotherformsofvalidity.Ifthetestappearstobemeasuringwhatitintendstomeasure，thetestisconsideredtohavefacevalidity.Reality信度canbedefinedasconsistency.Ifatestproducesthesameresultswhengiventothesamecandidatestwiceinsuccessionorgradedbydifferentpeople,itisregardedashavingahighdegreeofreliability.Therearetwokinds\nofreality.Realitycanbeaffectedbytwokindsoferror.Theextrinsicsourcesoferror夕卜在错：误来源:consistofthevariabilityofthetestersandtestees,andthevariabilityofthetestsituation.Theintrinsicsourcesoferror内在错误来源arewithinthetestitself.Theseoccurwhenthereisalackofstabilityorequivalence.(1)stabilityreliability稳定性信度isestimatedbytestingandretestingthesamecandidatesandtencorrelatingtheirscores.(2)Equivalencereliability等值信度meansthatameasuringdeviceisequivalenttoanotheriftheyproducethesameresultswhenusedonthesameobjectsandsubjects.11.7CorpusLinguisticsandLanguageTeaching语料库语言学和语言教学Languagecorporacansupplyauthentic，naturalandtypicalmaterialsanddataforlanguageteaching.Thetwomostimportantfactorsinacorpusarethesizeandtypeoftextsselected.Typesofcorpora(intermsoffunction，therearefourtypesofcorpora)Generalcorpora一般语料库：Itisacollectionofmaterialswhichisbroadlyhomogeneous，notspecifictoaspecializedarea.Specializedcorpora专门语料库：Itisusefulforlanguageforspecificpurposes,suchastechnical,dialectal，etc.Samplecorpora样本语料库：ItisakindofMonitorcorpora监控iff料库：Thiskindofcorpusisgigantic.Itgenre-basedcorpus.Itisacollectionofshortextractshasthecapacitytoholdastateofthelanguageforresearchrandomlyselectedfromallkindsofgenres.purposes.TypesofInformationCorporacanProvideFrequencyinformation频度信息.BearinginmindtheGrammaticalinformation语去信磨、.Whatthecorporashowusknowledgeoffrequencyofcertainlanguageitemsandaboutgrammarisfarmorecomplicatedthanwhatgrammarstructures，wecandecidewhattoteachandwhattobookstellabout.focusoninthelanguageclassroom.Contextandco-contextinformation语境和上下文信Collocationandphraseologyinformation搭配和同定用法信息.Whenwecannottellapartthedifferencesbetween息、.Corpuswillhelpusremembercollocationswherewordswordsorphaseshavingsimilarmeaning，wecanlookarefrequentlyusedtogether.atthecontextorco-contextinwhichtheyareused，thenwcwillbeclearofthedifference.Pragmaticsinformation语用信息.Informationfromcorporacantellushowlanguageisactuallyusedincommunication.EndofChapter11