语言学考试期末复习大纲 8页

thenumberofwordsinalanguageisrelativelyfinitebuttheirpossiblecombinationisinfinite.Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Linguisticisthesystematic(orscientific)studyoflanguagePhonetics发音学，语音学isthescientificstudyofspeechandisconcernedwithdefiningandclassifyingspeechsounds.Phonology音位（系）学isthedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.Morphology形态学语法isthestudyoftheformationofwordsorthestudyoftheinternalstructuresoftheformofwords.Syntax句法isthestudyofthearrangementsofwordsinasentence.Semantics语义学isthestudyofthemeaningoflanguage.Semanticfield语义场referstotheorganizationofrelatedwordsandexpressionsintoasystemwhichshowstheirrelationshiptooneanother.比如杯子，大杯子放在一起就是语场Synonymsarewordsthatarecloseinmeaning.Antonymy:oppositenessofmeaningMeronymy部分整体关系：part/wholerelationship.Hyponymy上下义关系referstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword（E.g.Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,carnation,lily）Homonymy:同音异义wordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.E.g.ball.Polysemy:多义性thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.E.g.tableLanguagefunction:谁提出的：Finch1.Physiologicalfunction生理功能2.Phaticfunction寒暄功能3.Recordingfunction记录功能4.Identifyingfunction辨别功能5.Reasoningfunction推理功能6.Communicatingfunction交流功能7.Pleasurefunction娱乐功能MetafunctionsofLanguage纯理功能Ideationalfunction（概念功能）Interpersonalfunction（人际功能）Textualfunction（语篇功能）SomeImportantDistinctionsonLinguisticsLangueandParole语言和言语（语言是抽象的系统，言语是具体化的）PrescriptiveandDescriptive描述性和规定性linguisticsisdescriptive,SynchronicandDiachronic共识性和历时性\nSpeechandWriting口语和书面语SyntagmaticandParadigmatic（横）组合和（纵）组合P33CompetenceandPerformance语言能力（内置规则）和语言行为（说话）FunctionalismandFormalism语言功能主义和语言形式主义HowtodefineLangueandparole,Competenceandperformance?Saussuremadethedistinction:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflanguageinactualuse.Chomskydefinescompetenceastheabstractidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.SaussureChomskyDefinitionlanguecompetenceparoleperformanceDifferenceSociologicalviewPsychologicalviewSimilarityLinguistsshouldstudyabstractlangueorcompetence,notparoleorperformance,whichistoovariedandhaphazard.ModernLinguisticVS.TraditionalGrammarModernlinguisticsisdescriptivenotprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsregardthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.Modernlinguisticsisusuallysynchronicratherthandiachronic.UseoflanguagePragmatics语用学Anthropologicallinguistics人类语言学psycholinguistics-therelationshipbetweenlanguageandthemind心里语言学sociolinguistics-therelationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety社会语言学appliedlinguistics-thestudyofapplicationsoflinguisticfindings,suchastolanguagelearningandteaching应用语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Computationallinguistics计算语言学Thehistoryoflinguistics1：ThestructurallinguisticsSaussure2：MentalisticlinguisticsNoamChomsky3：FunctionallinguisticsM.A.KHalliday1：AccordingtoSaussure’sidea:Languageisasystem.LanguageisaformInfluencedbyhisideasthereappeareddifferentstructurallinguistssuchasthe“PragueSchool”,the“CopenhagenSchool”ThemostinfluentialstructurallinguistwastheAmericanlinguistL.BloomfieldHebelievedthatthetaskforlinguististodescribeallthelanguagematerialsobservableobjectivelyandsystematically.Languageformsorstructuresshouldbethefocuswhilethemeaningisneglected.2：Chomskyrejectedthestructuralapproachtolanguagedescription.\nLanguageisasystemthatrelatesmeaningtosubstance.Languageisamentalphenomenon.Languageisinnateandhuman-specific.Languageisuniversal.3:Thefunctionalistslookatlanguagefromafunctionalpointofview.Theyaremoreconcernedwithwhatspeakersdowithlanguage.NoamChomsky,bornin1928,Philadelphia,US,HewastheAmericanlinguistandpoliticalactivistwhofoundedtheTransformational-GenerativeGrammar.Healsomadedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.FerdinanddeSaussurewasaSwisslinguistwhoseideasonStructureinlanguagelaidthefoundationformuchoftheapproachofthelinguisticscienceinthe20thcentury.In1916hisstudentspublishedabook“CourseinGenerallinguistics”,inwhichhemadeanimportantdistinctionbetweenlangueandparole.M.A.K.HallidaywastheBritishlinguistwhoviewedlanguagebasicallyasasocialphenomenon.AccordingtoHalliday,languageplaysthreemetafunctionssimultaneously:(i)Theideationalfunction---Asymboliccodetorepresenttheworld(ii)Theinterpersonalfunction---Amediumtogetalonginacommunity(iii)Thetextualfunction---Toorganizemessagestoformatext非常重要articulatoryphonetics发音语音学Itistheprimaryconcerninlinguistics.Voiced浊音&Voiceless清音voiced,consonants:[d,b,g,dV,m,n,ŋ,T,z,V,l,r,w,j].Englishhasmorevoicedthanvoicelesssounds.Vowels:元音Intheproductionofthem,theairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenose,orthemouth.Consonants:Intheproductionofthem,itissomehowobstructed.HowdoweclassifytheEnglishconsonants?1：Mannerofarticulation(发音方式）2：placesofarticulation(发音部位）1：Thewayinwhichaspeechsoundisproducedbythespeechorgans.Therearedifferentwaysofproducingspeechsounds.Withconsonantstheairstreammaybestoppedandreleasedsuddenly(astop),e.g./t/allowedtoescapewithfriction(africative),e.g./f/stoppedandthenreleasedslowlywithfriction(anaffricate),/tÚ/Thevocalcordsmaybevibrating(avoicedspeechsound)ornot(avoicelessspeechsound).Withvowels,inadditiontothepositionofthetongueinthemouth,thelipsmayberounded(收圆）,e.g.for/u/,/u:/\nSpread（展开）,e.g.for/i/,/i:/classifiedintothefollowingtypes:Plosives:[p][b][t][d][k][ɡ]Nasals鼻音:[m][n][ŋ]Fricatives摩擦音:[f][v][s][z][ø][T][h]Affricates:塞擦音[tF][dV]Approximants无擦通音:Liquids:[l][r]Glides:[j][w]Trills&Taps:[r]2：placesofarticulationcanbeclassifiedintothefollowingtypes:Bilabial双唇塞音:[p],[b],[m]Labiodental:唇齿音[f],[v]Dental:齿音[ø],[T]Alveolar齿槽音:[t],[d],[n],[s],[z],[l],[r]Palatal:上颚音[j,F,V,tF,dV]Velar:软腭音[k],[g],[ŋ],[w]Glottal:喉音[h]Inwhatwaysdovowelsdifferfromeachother?1.Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,thereare:open,,semi-open,semi-close&closevowels.2.Accordingtotheretractionandextensionofthetongue,vowelscanbedistinguishedas:backvowels,central&frontvowels.3.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,thereare:rounded&unroundedvowels.4.Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,thereare:long&shortvowels.重要：转换生存语法谁提的TransformationalgenerativeGrammar(TG）：ChomskyItisatheoryofgrammarincludingphonology音位学andsemantics语义学,butSyntaxisitscorecomponent.Itstwomainaspects:1.generativeaspect(Thismeansthatagrammarmust‘generateallandonlythegrammaticalsentencesofalanguageand2.transformationalaspect.(Thisrefersactuallytoakindofprocessthattransformsonesentenceintoanother.)重要Deepstructureistheabstractstructureandcanbesaidtobethepropositionalcoreofthesentence.isitsbasicstructurebothsemantically语义andsyntactically句法.Fromitwecanderivesurfacestructure.Itshowsthebasicformofsentencewithallthenecessaryinformationtoderiveawell-formedsentence,andtogiveitaphonologicalrepresentationandsemanticinterpretation.\nItisgeneratedbyphrasestructurerules.Surfacestructureistheactuallyproducedstructure.istheformthatpeoplecanactuallysay.Theyaretheresultoftheoperationoftransformationsondeepstructure.Surfacestructuremustundergophoneticinterpretationinordertocorrespondtoitsgeneralsense,e.g.turning“be+en+V”into“hasbeenrepaired.”Semantics语义学7个types：conceptualmeaning概念意义（字典中的）connotativemeaning内涵socialmeaning社会affectivemeaning情感reflectivemeaning反映Thisisthemeaningwhenweassociateonesenseofanexpressionwithanother.E.g.“dear”incertaincontextisusedinthesense“expensive”butalsoalludesto“beloved”collocativemeaning组合Thisreferstowhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.E.g.“pretty”and“handsome”Bothwordsshareasimilarconceptualmeaning“good-looking”,theyhabituallycollocatewithdifferentsetsofnouns,suchasprettygirlandhandsomeboy.thematicmeaning主位Themeaningdifferencebetween“tomorrowIplantohaveanouting”and“Iplantohaveanoutingtomorrow”isinthattheyfocusondifferentaspectsandtendtooccurindifferentcontexts.从内涵意义到最后一个都属于联想意义associativemeaning.语义三角SemantictrianglesuggestedbyOgdenandRichards.它属于传统approachThought/conceptSymbol/Form…………………referent参考对象，所指事物Problem:Thelinkbetweenthesymbolandtheconceptremainsunclarified.3个approachestomeaningTheTraditionalApproachTheFunctionalApproachThePragmaticApproachSemanticfield语义场Semanticrelationsbetweenlexemes词位，词素SynonymyandAntonymy同义词和反义词MeronymyandHyponymy部分整体关系，上下义关系PolysemyandHomonymy多义性，同音异义Semanticanalysis语义分析Componentialanalysis成分分析ComponentialanalysisdefinesthemeaningofalexicalelementintermsofSEMANTICCOMPONENTS.E.g.“man”isanalyzedas\n+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE.Predicationanalysis述谓分析Predicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Itconsistsofarguments中项(logicalparticipants)andpredicate谓语(arelationalelement).Isthebabysleeping?Itspredicationcanbewrittenas:BABY(SLEEP)Tautology&Metaphor赘述&隐喻。例(1)Hungrypeoplearehungry.(2)Abachelorisunmarried.(3)Thisorphanhasnofather.&（1）Themanisatiger.Pragmatics语用isthestudyoflanguageusagefromafunctionalperspectiveandisconcernedwiththeprinciplesthataccountforhowmeaningiscommunicatedbythespeaker(writer)andinterpretedbythelistener(reader)inacertaincontext.Mike:Whathappenedtothatbowlofcream?Annie:Catsdrinkcream.Semantically,Annie'sreplycanbeparaphrasedas"Domesticfelinesconsumetheliquidfatofmilk,"butpragmatically,Annieprobablyimplies"Thatbowlofcreamwasprobablyeatenbyourcat."Inotherwords,semanticsfocusesonthemeaningthatcomesfromlinguisticknowledge,whilepragmaticsconcentratesonthoseaspectsofmeaningthatcannotbepredictedbylinguisticknowledgealoneandtakesintoaccountourknowledgeaboutthephysicalandsocialworld.SpeechActTheory语言行为理论Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.Itmeans:Weareperformingactionswhenwearespeaking.threeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:Locutionaryact(言内行为),Illocutionaryact(言外行为),（语用最感兴趣）Perlocutionaryact(言后行为).Locutionaryact:说出词，短语，和分句的行为，是通过句法，词汇和音位来表达字面意思theactofsaying,theliteralmeaningoftheutterance;Illocutionaryact:表达说话者的意图行为，说某话时所实施的行为theextrameaningoftheutteranceproducedonthebasisofitsliteralmeaning;Perlocutionaryact:讲某些话导致的行为，话语所产生的后果或所引起的变化theeffectoftheutteranceonthehearer,dependingonspecificcircumstances.IndirectSpeechAct间接言语行为说话者不按字面进行意谓的言语行为，比如说问：“你够的着盐么？”实际想让别人帮忙拿重要：合作原则和礼貌原则CooperativePrinciplePolitenessPrinciple（1）ThemaximofQuality说话不要妄言ThemaximofQuantity提供的信息不能多也不能少ThemaximofRelevance说有关的ThemaximofManner表达情感（2）MaximofTact得体MaximofGenerosity慷慨MaximofApprobation表扬MaximofModesty谦逊\nMaximofAgreement一致Maximofsympathy同情Languagevarieties语言变体方言和语言的区别DialectVSlanguage1.Dialectisavariationoflanguagedifferentenoughtobeclassedasaseparateentity,butnotdifferentenoughtobeclassedasaseparatelanguage.2.Sometimesadialectrisesinstatusandbecomesthestandardvarietyofacountry.3.Whenthespeakersoftwodialectsbelongtotwocountries,itismorelikelythatthedialectsbecometwolanguages.方言有哪几类RegionalDialects地域方言SocialDialect（varioussocialgroupsorclasses.）StandardDialect标准（basedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednative）Register语域（和不同的人说话用不同的口气，在不同的场合用不同的语气说话）受到3个限制determinetheregister:i.Fieldofdiscourse话语范围(语场)ii.Tenorofdiscourse话语基调(语旨)iii.Modeofdiscourse话语方式(语式)如何受制，如何影响Thethreevariablesarethefeaturesofthecontextofsituationwhichdeterminecollectivelythefeaturesoflanguageappropriatetothesituation,i.e.register.Languageandculture。Wardaugh。。。。Kinshipsystem。secondlanguageacquisition(SLA)特征1：influenceofthefirstlanguage★（语言迁移languagetransfer)2：anaturalsequenceofdeveiopment自然发展顺序（和第一语言学习遵循相同顺序）Agoodtestshouldtakethreefactorsintoaccount:Validity,Reliability&EfficiencyErrors：语言能力的欠缺，自我不能修正Mistakes：说话错误，能自我修正Interlingualerror中介语错误:语言迁移中的错误，和母语有关Intralingualerror语内错误:和母语没关系e.g.*SheisreadsfromSheisreadingShereads.a)Shedidn’twentback.Thiserrorbelongstointralingualtransfer.Thecausefortheerroristhelearner’sovergeneralizationoftherulefornegationbyinsertingdidn’t.Obviously,thelearnerfailstochangethepastformwentintoitsbaseformgo.b)Dosheworksinfactory?Thecauseforthemisuseofdoisdubious.Theerrormaybelongtointralingualtransfercausedbythelearner’sovergeneralizationoftheinsertionoftheauxiliaryverbdotoformayes-noquestion.Thelearnerfailstodifferentiatethethird-personsingularformandtheothernumberforms.Theomissionofthedefinitearticletheintheprepositionalphrase“in(the)factory”belongstointerlingualtransfer,asthelearnerhasmistransferredtheChineseconstruction(在工厂里)intoEnglish.\nc)Workssheinthefactory?Theerrorisduetointralingualtransfer.Itiscausebythelearner’soverextensionoftherulestochangesuchsentencesas“Sheisinthefactory”and“Shehasafactory”intoyes-noquestionsbyinvertingthesubjectandthelinkingverbbeorthepossessiveverbhave(orhas).d)Theseflowerneedbadlywateringnow.Theerrorbelongstobothinterlingualtransfer.Thecauseforthemisuseofthesingularformflowerforthepluralformflowersisthelearner’smistransferoftheChinesemorphologicalrule..e)Heisoneofthegreatestalivenovelist?Theerroralsobelongstointralingualtransfer.Thecauseforthiserroristhelearner’sfailuretodifferentiatethepredicativeadjectivealivefromitssynonymousattributiveadjectiveliving.f)Ispottedthetwoaircraftfromadistance.Itmaybeduetoeitherintralingualtransfe.Asanintralingualtransfer,theerrormaybecausedbythelearner’sfailuretodifferentiatethecollectivenounaircraftfromitscorrespondingcountnounairplane(s)byoverextendingoftheruleofnominalmodification.