(剑桥经典·哲学)【哈曼】哲学和语言学论文集 292页

\nCAMBRIDGETEXTSINTHEHISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYJOHANNGEORGHAMANNWritingsonPhilosophyandLanguage\nCAMBRIDGETEXTSINTHEHISTORYOFPHILOSOPHYSerieseditorsKARLAMERIKSProfessorofPhilosophy,UniversityofNotreDameDESMONDM.CLARKEProfessorofPhilosophy,UniversityCollegeCorkThemainobjectiveofCambridgeTextsintheHistoryofPhilosophyistoexpandtherange,varietyandqualityoftextsinthehistoryofphilosophywhichareavailableinEnglish.Theseriesincludestextsbyfamiliarnames(suchasDescartesandKant)andalsobylesswell-knownauthors.Whereverpossible,textsarepublishedincompleteandunabridgedform,andtranslationsarespeciallycommissionedfortheseries.Eachvolumecontainsacriticalintroductiontogetherwithaguidetofurtherreadingandanynecessaryglossariesandtextualapparatus.Thevolumesaredesignedforstudentuseatundergraduateandpostgraduatelevelandwillbeofinterestnotonlytostudentsofphilosophy,butalsotoawideraudienceofreadersinthehistoryofscience,thehistoryoftheologyandthehistoryofideas.Foralistoftitlespublishedintheseries,pleaseseeendofbook.\nJOHANNGEORGHAMANNWritingsonPhilosophyandLanguageTRANSLATEDANDEDITEDBYKENNETHHAYNESBrownUniversity\nCAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESSCambridge,NewYork,Melbourne,Madrid,CapeTown,Singapore,SãoPauloCambridgeUniversityPressTheEdinburghBuilding,CambridgeCB28RU,UKPublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyCambridgeUniversityPress,NewYorkwww.cambridge.orgInformationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9780521817417©CambridgeUniversityPress2007Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexceptionandtotheprovisionofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.Firstpublishedinprintformat2007ISBN-13978-0-511-34192-2eBook(MyiLibrary)ISBN-100-511-34192-XeBook(MyiLibrary)ISBN-13978-0-521-81741-7hardbackISBN-100-521-81741-2hardbackCambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracyofurlsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication,anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,accurateorappropriate.\nContentsIntroductionpagexChronologyxxixFurtherreadingxxxiiNoteonthetext,translation,andannotationxxxviTwodedications,fromSocraticMemorabilia()EssayonanAcademicQuestion()MiscellaneousNotesonWordOrderintheFrenchLanguage()CloverleafofHellenisticLetters()AestheticainNuce()TheLastWillandTestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Cross()PhilologicalIdeasandDoubts(writtenin)TotheSolomonofPrussia(writtenin)NewApologyoftheLetterh()GolgothaandSheblimini!()v\nContentsMetacritiqueonthePurismofReason(writtenin)FromDisrobingandTransfiguration:AFlyingLettertoNobody,theWellKnown()IndexofbiblicalpassagesIndexofnamesvi\nIntroductionJohannGeorgHamann(–)isprominentinthehistoryofGer-manliterature,beingknownaboveallforanidiosyncraticandsometimesbizarrestylethatwasintransigentlyatoddswiththeaestheticsofhistimeandwhichfascinatedandsometimesinfluencedwritersofthenineteenthcentury.HeisoneofthemostinnovativefigureswithinLutherantheol-ogyandarguably“themostprofoundChristianthinkeroftheeighteenthcentury”;hisinsistenceonthehistoricaltruthoftheBibleledhimtoaradicalrethinkingofthenatureofbothhistoryandtruth.Finally,heisaphilosopherwhowrotepenetratingcriticismsofHerder,Jacobi,Kant,andMendelssohn;whogavephilosophicalattentiontolanguageinawaythat,attimes,seemsstrikinglymodern;butwhoseownphilosophicalpositionsandargumentsremainelusive.Hamannwasaminorcivilservantformostofhisadultlife,workinginKonigsbergaspartofthewidelyhatedtaxadministrationofFrederick¨theGreat.Heneverattainedanysortofsignificantprofessionalsuccess;friendshadtointervenetopreventthesaleofhislibraryandtofundtheeducationofhischildren.Ontheotherhand,hehadthefreedomofhisfailureinasmuchashewasnotobligedtomeettheexpectationsofanyparticularaudience.Heexercisedhisfreedominseveralrespects:todeveloparebarbativeandenigmaticstyle,torejectbasicassumptionsofhiscontemporaries,andtorangefreelyacrossdisciplines.Hamann,however,wasnotmerelymovingacrossdisciplinesbutfind-inghisdeepestthemesreiteratedinavarietyofmaterial:ancientandHendrikKraemer,asquotedbyJamesC.O’Flaherty,“SomeMajorEmphasesofHamann’sTheology,”HarvardTheologicalReview:(January),.vii\nIntroductioncontemporary;sacredandsecular;historical,political,economic,theo-logical,literary,andjournalistic;andinawiderangeoflanguages.Someofhismostprofoundwritingwascomposedattheintersectionofphilol-ogy,theology,andphilosophy.Oftenhehasbeenconsideredfromonlyoneofthoseperspectives,whichisnotonlyinadequatebutalsoironicinsofarashisownemphasiswasonunity.ThepowerfulcriticismwhichHamannmadeinoppositiontohisagewasatoncestylistic,theological,andphilosophical.HamannandliterarystyleHamannformedhisstyleafterexperiencingareligiouscrisis.In,whileworkingforafirmrunbythefamilyofafriend,hewentonabusinesstriptoEngland,wherehewasnotsuccessful,eitherprofession-allyorpersonally.Aftersomemonthshebegantodespairofthelifehewasleading;thisledtoareligiouscrisisinwhichherecoveredandradicalizedtheChristianfaithofhischildhood.WhenhereturnedtoKonigsberg,hisfriendsKantandJohannChristophBerenssoughtto¨redirecthimtowardhisprevious,moresecularandEnlightened,orien-tation,suggestingthathetranslatearticlesfromtheEncyclop´edie.Afteraninitialeffort,Hamanngaveupandbeganhisownwritingcareerinearnest.ThestylehecultivatedwastheoppositeofthatoftheEncyclop´edie,obscureratherthanperspicuous,personalandevenprivateratherthandisembodiedandanonymous,eruditeandsometimesobsceneratherthanpoliteandcomplaisant.ThestylewasareproachtothelanguageusedbyEnlightenmentwriters;itwasacritiqueoftheirlanguagebymeansofhislanguage.Forexample,thefirstdedicationofSocraticMemorabilia()isaddressedtothe“public,”butitisfarfromingratiatingitselfwithapotentialaudience;rather,itpresentsthepublicasaphantomandanidol,afraudperpetuatedbytheculturedeliteandnodifferentfromthefraudattemptedbytheprophetsofBaalorthepriestsofBel.Throughouthiscareer,Hamannhadanextraordinarysensitivitytothekeywordsofhisage–like“public”–whichhefoundevasive,obsequious,andself-contradictory.Theword“public”seemstoimplytheexistenceofsuchanentity,butwhoisthepublic,andhowdothemanyvoicesofpeoplebecomethesinglevoiceofthepublic?Afterparodyingaflatteringappealviii\nIntroductiontothisputativepublic,whichconcludeswithascatologicalclassicalallu-sion,Hamannaddsaseconddedicationtotwofriends.Fromthisbookonwards,hisstylemakesuseofparody,localreferents,biblicalquotations,obscenity,andwide-rangingallusions.Thestyleisnotpolite;Hamannwritesthatitisnotmadefortaste.Hamann’sparodyismotivatedbyadesiretorefuseclaimsimplicitinotherwaysofwriting.Heisneverhappierthanwhenusingittoshow,orimply,thatareasonablepositionsetoutinareasonablestyleisactuallyafanaticalandmysticalone–whereallthreeadjectives,“reasonable,”“fanatical,”and“mystical,”werestronglychargedkeywordsofthetime.InthededicationtoSocraticMemorabilia,faithinapublicisequatedtofaithinBaal.WhenHamannbegan,inthelastpartofhislife,towriteaboutphilosophicaltextsdirectly,heappliedananalogousskepticismtophilosophicalterms.Theterm“metaphysics,”forexample,isalinguisticaccidentthathasinfectedthewholestudy.Aprepositionwhichshouldindicate,empiricallyandspatially,thestandardpositionwithinhiscor-pusofonebookofAristotle’srelativetohisPhysicshascometomean,abstractlyandtranscendentally,thatsomethinggoes“beyond”physicsandissometimesallegedtosecurethevalidmeaningofthemerelyphys-ical.ForHamannthis“beyond,”likethe“public,”hasbecomeanobjectofsuperstitiousvenerationdisguisedasreasonableness.Kant,forexample,intheCritiqueofPureReason,referstoa“tran-scendentalobject,”whichheglossesas“asomething=,ofwhichweknow,andwiththepresentconstitutionofourunderstandingcanknow,nothingwhatsoever.”InhisMetacritiqueonthePurismofReason(),HamannrespondstoKant’sclaimbypresentingthisequationaseverybitasmysticalandsuperstitiousasthescholasticphilosophycondemnedbythephilosopheHelvetius(seep.´below):Moresophisticateddiscussionsofpublicdiscoursehadtowaittwentyyears;seetheessaysbyKlein,Bahrdt,Moser,andFichteonthepublicuseofreasoncollectedinJamesSchmidt,ed.,WhatisEnlightenment?:Eighteenth-CenturyAnswersandTwentieth-CenturyQuestions(Berkeley,CA,),aswellasthemorefamousessaysbyKant(onwhichseeespeciallyOnoraO’Neill,“ThePublicUseofReason,”ConstructionsofReason(Cambridge,),–).Parodiesofdedicationstothepubliccontinuedintothenineteenthcentury;cf.thededicationtoE.T.A.Hoffmann’sLifeandOpinionsoftheTomcatMurr().“Thehereditarydefectandleprosyofambiguityadherestotheveryname‘metaphysics’...thebirthmarkofitsnamespreadsfromitsbrowtothebowelsofthewholescience”(p.).ix\nIntroductionThroughthislearnedtroublemakingitworksthehonestdecencyoflanguageintosuchameaningless,rutting,unstable,indefinitesomething=thatnothingisleftbutawindysough,amagicshadowplay,atmost,asthewiseHelvetiussays,thetalismanandrosaryofa´transcendentalsuperstitiousbeliefinentiarationis,theiremptysacksandslogans.Removedfromtheircontextandthesysteminwhichtheymakesense,Kant’swordsinvitethescornwhichEnlightenmentfigureshaddirectedagainsttheiropponents.Hamannseekstoundercutthegroundbywhichreasonandfaitharecontrasted,sothatneitherreceivesaspecialstatus.Kant’sargumentsarenotansweredbyHamann(andmaynothavebeenunderstoodbyhim).Parodydoesnotmakeargumentsorrespectthem;itproceedsbyexaggeration,ironicjuxtaposition,andmisapplication.ThisservesHamann’spurposesinceheisnotinterestedinrebuttingaphilosophicalstancewithphilosophicalarguments,butratherinusingmockerytodenyaphilosophicalproblemitsstatusasaproblem,tobefreedfromitsgrip.FromtheearlySocraticMemorabiliatothelateMetacritique,aconsis-tenttargetofHamann’sparodiesisthecontrastbetweenreasonontheonehandandmysticism,superstition,faith,andprejudiceontheother.Anotheristhecontrastbetweentheabstractpurityofphilosophyandtheembodiedhistoryoflivedexperience.IntheMetacritique,Hamannobjectstothethreefoldpurism,asheseesit,ofKant’svainefforttomakereasonfreefromhistory,experience,andlanguage.Inthefollowingexample,hemocksfirstthemysticismandthenthesexualsterilityoftheanalysisofpurereason(seepp.–below):Iwouldopentheeyesofthereaderthathemightperhapssee–hostsofintuitionsascendtothefirmamentofpureunderstandingandhostsofconceptsdescendtothedepthsofthemostperceptiblesensibility,onaladderwhichnosleeperdreams–andthedanceoftheMahanaimortwohostsofreason–thesecretandvexingchronicleoftheircourtshipandravishing–andthewholetheogonyofallthegiantandheroicformsoftheShulamiteandmuse,inthemythologyoflightanddarkness–totheplayinformsofanoldBaubowithherself–inauditaspeciesolaminis,asSaintArnobiussays–andofanewimmaculatevirgin,whomaynothoweverbeaMotherofGodforwhichSaintAnselmtookher–.x\nIntroductionTheoldwomanBaubo,accordingtoArnobius,wasabletocheerDemeterafteralongperiodofmourningbyexposingherselfandcausingthegod-desstolaugh,an“unusualformofconsolation,”whichHamanncomparestoKant’sphilosophy.HethencontrastsitwiththeVirginMary,whomProtestantsdonotbelievewasimmaculatelyconceived;whyshouldrea-sonbemoregreatlyprivileged?HamanndelightsinassociatingKantwithJewishmysticismandCatholicsexuality.TocomplainthatthemockeryisunfairtoKantistomissHamann’spoint:itisnotthatparticularphilo-sophicalargumentsneedtoberefutedbutthatthemotivationbehindthem(adesireformathematicalcertainty,HamannallegesinKant’scase)standsinneedofscrutinyandexposure.IntheMetacritiqueasinallhisparodies,Hamanncultivatesadelib-erateimpurity.Ifphilosophydesirestobecomeindependentofhistoryandtradition,hewriteswithcontinualreferencestohistoricaltradition;ifitisconcernedwithtruthsthatareindependentofexperience,heinsertsthebodyandallitsfunctions;ifphilosophyistobereasonable,abstract,andtransparent,hisstylewillbeobscure,weightedwithcon-cretedetails,strange;inhisprosethefactoflanguage,especiallyinitsnon-representationalaspects,iscentrallyobtruded.Parodyisparasitic,dependentonotherpeople’swordstomakeitspoints,andsoHamann’sessaysquoteoralludetoothertextswithgreatfrequency.Inadditiontothesetextualreferences,however,hisessaysalsointroducemanypersonalandlocalones.TheSocraticMemorabilia,forexample,isprefacedbytwodedications:thefirstparodiescontemporaryappealstothe“public”whilethesecondisaddressedtotwospecificfriends,KantandBerens.Themotiveforintroducingcontingentfactsofhispersonalbiographyhasbeencalled“metaschematism”(awordHamannderivedfromCorinthians:).JamesC.O’Flahertydiscussesitinthisway:ForHamanntometaschematizemeanttosubstituteasetofobjec-tiverelationshipsforananalogoussetofpersonalorexistentialrela-tionshipsorthereverse,inordertodetermine,throughtheinsightbornoffaith,theircommonmeaning...ThusHamann’sliterarymethodrequiresdirectpersonalinvolvementandindirectcommu-nication...IntheMemorabiliaHamannisineffectsaying:myrelationshiptoBerensandKantastypicalrepresentativesoftheJamesC.O’Flaherty,Hamann’sSocraticMemorabilia(Baltimore,MD,).xi\nIntroductionpresentrationalisticageisessentiallythesameasthatofSocratestotheSophistsoffifth-centuryAthens.Therefore,IwilltranslateourpersonalrelationsintotheobjectivehistoricalrelationsofSocratesinordertobringmyadversariestoafullawarenessoftheirtruesituation.Metaschematismisanextensionoftypology,thepracticeofreadingtheBibleinsuchawaythatpeopleandeventsoftheNewTestamentareforeshadowedorfiguredbythoseoftheOld.ForHamann,typologydidnotcometoanendwiththeearlyChristianChurchandisnotlimitedtobiblicalsources;thepresentcontinuestobemadelegiblebyreferencetothepast,andonlyinthisway.Past,present,andfutureareinthissenseboundtogetherandmutuallyilluminatedbyprophecy(athemeofAestheticainNuceandthesecondCloverleaf,morefullydevelopedintheconclusionofthefirstversionofDisrobingandTransfiguration).Hamann’swritingshaveapeculiartexture,beingmadeupofsustainedandparodicallusionstotheparticulartextsheisinvestigating,biblicalquotations,referencestoancienthistoryandliterature,aswellasitemsofrecenthistoryandpersonalbiography.Thestylebelongsinparttothe“traditionoflearnedwit,”exuberantdemonstrationsoflearningthathadcharacterizedproseoftheearlymodernperiod.ByHamann’stime,however,literaryaestheticsabandonedthecopiaofsuchwritinginfavorofatransparentandperspicuousstyle.Literaturethatvaluedclarityandimpersonaldemonstrationwasnotinterestedintheviewsofpastauthorities,anditdisdainedpersonalidiosyncrasy.Hamann’sresponsetoanaestheticwhichmadeirrelevantthelearningofthepast,theauthorityofScripture,andpresentbiographywastowriteinastyleinwhichthesehadcontinual–althoughindirect–relevance.Hehasoftenbeenfoundobscure.Hehimself,metaschematicallyiden-tifyinghisstylewithSocrates’,describeditasagroupofislandslacking“thebridgesandferriesofmethodnecessaryfortheircloseassociation”(p.).Theobscurityofthewritingisnotgenerallyresolvedonlybypro-vidingfurtherinformation,anecessarybutnotasufficientstep;toreadHamannmeanstoconsiderthemanypossiblewaysbywhichthisinfor-mationisrelatedtohistext,whetherbyparody,irony,analogy,typology,orothermeans.Cf.D.W.Jefferson,“TheTraditionofLearnedWit,”EssaysinCriticism:(),–.xii\nIntroductionHamannandtheologyHamann’sstylehastheologicalandphilosophicalimplications,justashistheologyhasstylisticandphilosophicalones,andhisphilosophystylisticandtheologicalones.Theologyisgrammar,accordingtoHamann,whotooktheequationfromLuther.TwoLutheranemphasesinparticulararestronglymarkedinhiswriting.Thefirstisathemefoundinallhiswritings,kenosis,theself-renunciation,self-emptyingofGod.ThisistheparadoxinChristianitywherebypowermanifestsitselfinpowerlessness,asomnipotenceinthehelplessnessofaninfantordivinitytorturedandkilledasacriminal.ThebiblicalsupportcomesmainlyfromtheSer-monontheMountandotherparables(“sothelastshallbefirst,andthefirstlast”)andthekenotichymn,so-called,ofPhilippians,oneofHamann’sbase-texts.ItisoneofthemaincurrentsofinterpretationofChrist’scrucifixionandmarksespeciallytheLutheran(andAugustinian)tradition.Hamann’sownstyleiskenoticinsofarasitcultivatesdespisedforms,makesrudereferences,andplacesunreasonabledemandsonreaders;ataperiodwhengoodtastewasveryhighlypraised,towriteinbadtastecouldbekenotic.HamanntakesasthepreeminentexampleofakenoticstylethatoftheNewTestament.InthefirstoftheCloverleafofHellenisticLetters,hedefendstheGreekoftheNewTestamentforthesamereasonsitwasascandaltoliterarymenofhistime:itsimpurity,asinthetracesofAramaicaudibleinitsidiom;itslackofornamentandrhetoric;itslowlinessandevendegenerateconditionrelativetoAtticstandards.IntheNewApologyoftheLetterh,Hamannarguesevenaboutorthographyintheseterms,whichgivehimgroundstodefendauseless,redundant,andtraditionalelementofspelling.Moreover,forHamannkenosisisaprincipleofcritiquequitegenerally.HiswasauniquevoiceinsistingthatFredericktheGreatwasatyrantandthatthephilosophicalactivityoftheBerlinEnlightenmentwasawayofjustifyingFrederick’sdespotism.Thecontrastbetween“Fritzinthepur-plecradle”(FredericktheGreat)and“Fritzinpraesepio”(Fritz,anaverageGerman,inacradle)organizeshisessays(seep.).TotheSolomonofSeeMiscellaneousNotesonWordOrderintheFrenchLanguage,p.,below;thequotationfromLutherismediatedthroughaneighteenth-centuryLutherantheologian.InalettertoFriedrichHeinrichJacobi(Briefe,vol.,p.),Hamannasks,“Doyounowunderstandmylanguage-principleofreasonandthatwithLutherIturnallphilosophyintoagrammar?”(FritzMauthnergivesthispassageasanepigraphtothefirstsectionofhisBeitr¨agezueinerKritikderSprache,).xiii\nIntroductionPrussiaisanuncompromisingindictment,andanoccasionallyscurrilousone,ofFredericktheGreatandtheculturewhichsupportedandwassup-portedbyhim.Thetitle“GolgothaandSheblimini!”(Hamann’srebuttaltoMosesMendelssohn’sJerusalem)setsupthesamecontrast:“Golgo-tha”isCalvary,whereChristwascrucified,and“Sheblimini!,”Hebrewfor“Sitthouatmyrighthand”(seePsalms:andHebrews:),istakenasthecommandbywhichChristwasexalted.HamannbelievesthatMendelssohn’sargumentsforreligioustolerationandnaturallawwerecomplicitwiththemachineryofFrederick’sabsolutiststate–andnotjustMendelssohn’sarguments,butthoseoftheBerlinEnlightenersgenerally,allofwhomHamannsuspectedofseekingtogiveablankchecktosecularpower.ThroughouthiscareerlanguagewasHamann’sgreattheme.OnAugust,,hewrotetoJohannGottfriedHerder,“IfIwereonlyaseloquentasDemosthenes,Iwouldneedtodonomorethanrepeatonephrasethreetimes:reasonislanguage,
o´γoς;onthismarrowboneIgnawandwillgnawmyselftodeathoverit”(Briefe,vol.,p.).Hamann’sunder-standingoflanguagewasalwaystheological.Inhisearlierwritings,hewasconcernedtoemphasizethemanyanddiversephenomenainvolvinglan-guage,denyingprimacytoitsfunctionofcommunicatingpropositions.Heemphasizedlanguage,includingthelanguageofnature,asthemeansofGod’srevelationtohumankind.Inhislaterwriting,hebegantounder-standlanguageinsacramentaltermsthatwerecloselyinformedbytheLutherandoctrinesometimesknownas“consubstantiation”(thoughthetermiscontested).UnlikemembersoftheCatholicandCalvinistconfes-sions,LutherhadinsistedthatboththebodyandbloodofChristandthebreadandwineoftheelementswerepresentintheEucharist,notonlyoneortheother.ForHamann,thisbecameameansofdistinguishing“FurtherunderlyingthesubordinationofphilosophytopoetryisHamann’sbasicconviction...thatfromthebeginningsofhumanity‘everyphenomenonofnaturewasaword,’aconvictioncan-celinganyphilosophicalpretensionstobeingabletodistinguishbetweensign(spirit)andsignified(nature),”DanielO.Dahlstrom,“TheAestheticHolismofHamann,Herder,andSchiller,”inKarlAmeriks,ed.,TheCambridgeCompaniontoGermanIdealism(Cambridge,),.Althoughthereweremanygradationsamongthethreepositions,Catholicsmaintainedthedoctrineoftransubstantiation(thesubstanceoftheEucharistwaswhollyconvertedtothebloodandbodyofChrist,thoughtheappearanceofbreadandwineremained),Lutheranssubscribedtowhatiscommonlycalled“consubstantiation,”andCalvinists,atleastoftheZwinglianvariety,tooktheEucharisttobesymbolicandmemorial.DespiteattemptsatrapprochementbetweenLutheransandCalvinists,Luther’sinsistenceonthispositioncreatedarupturebetweentheconfessionsthatwasneverbridged.xiv\nIntroductionkindsofwriting.Letterandspiritmustbothbepresent,bodyandsymbolmustco-inhere,ifanutteranceistobeauthoritative(thatis,aMachtwort,whichtransformselementsintoasacrament).Hamannisoftenseenasaproponentofholism,andthisisanadequatedescriptionsolongasitisseenintheappropriatecontext.AtleastsinceAugustine,Christianityhasinsistedonthevalueoftheletter(incontrasttotheallegorizingoftheGreeks)andonthevalueofthespirit(incontrasttothelegalismoftheJews).Apeculiarrichnessresultedfromthepresenceoftwodistinctsystemsoftruthobligation,andHamannsoughttopreservethis,insistingontheunityofletterandspiritagainstwhathetooktobetheimpoverishingdiscourseofEnlightenmentphilosophy.Furthermore,holismispresentaboveallintheincarnationofChrist,whouniteshumananddivineattributes.Hamann,likeLuther,invokesthedoctrineofthecommunicatioidiomatum,wherebytheattributesofeachofthetwonaturesaresharedbytheotherinChrist.Hamannextendstheprinciple,seeinginlanguagetheinterrelationofhumananddivinegenerally.Hamann’sholism,then,hasaprimarytheologicalorientationwhichliesbehindhisrejectionoftheoppositionbetween,andeventhedualismof,faithandreason,idealismandrealism,objectivityandsubjectivity,bodyandspirit.Bythes,Hamannformulatesthisrejectionofoppositesinanotherway,in“theoneimportantexceptiontoHamann’sgeneralrefusaltoappealtoametaphysicalprinciple,”thecoincidentiaopposi-torum,theunionofopposites(astheyareexperiencedbyus)inGod.Hamannbelievesthathumanknowledgeispiecemeal,contradictory,andnotresolvablebyphilosophicalanalysis.HolismmotivateshisattacksonMendelssohn’sandKant’sphiloso-phies.ToMendelssohn’sargumentthatactionsandconvictionsmustbetreatedindependently,Hamannrepliesthat“actionswithoutconvictionsandconvictionswithoutactionsareacleavingofcompleteandlivingdutiesintotwodeadhalves”(p.),resultinginthedeadbodyofthestateandascarecrow-ghostofachurch.OfKant’sdistinctionoftheInPoetryandTruth(–),GoetheinfluentiallycharacterizedHamann’swritings:“Theprinci-pleunderlyingallofHamann’sutterancesisthis:‘Everythingahumanbeingsetsouttoaccomplish,whetherproducedbywordordeedorotherwise,mustarisefromthesumofhiscombinedpowers;anythingisolatedisanabomination.’”InGoethe’saccount,however,Hamannisinterestedonlyintheunityofself,andthetheological,political,andsocialdimensionsofunityareoverlooked.FullydiscussedinFriedemannFritsch,CommunicatioIdiomatum:ZurBedeutungeinerchristolo-gischenBestimmungf¨urdasDenkenJohannGeorgHamanns(Berlin,).JamesC.O’Flaherty,JohannGeorgHamann(Boston,MA,),.xv\nIntroductionsensibilityandtheunderstanding,Hamannasks,“Towhatendissuchaviolent,unjustified,willfuldivorceofthatwhichnaturehasjoinedtogether!Willnotbothbrancheswitherandbedriedupthroughadichotomyandruptureoftheircommonroot?”(p.).HamannandphilosophyHamann’sownphilosophyhassometimesbeencalledfideistorirrational-ist.Inparticular,olderscholarshipoftenrepresentedhimasamemberofaGermanCounter-Enlightenment,alongwithHerder,Jacobi,andsometimesJustusMoser,figuressupposedtobeunitedinrejectingthe¨claimsofreasonandthemethodsofscience.However,ashistorianshavebecomeskepticalabouttheutilityofthephrase“TheEnlighten-ment,”theclaimsof“TheCounter-Enlightenment”toacoherentpro-gramhavecometoseemevenmoreexiguous.HamannisperhapsthefiguremostuncompromisinglyatoddswiththeEnlightenment,butevenhehasbeendescribedasradicalizing,ratherthanrejecting,theEnlight-enment.Moreover,HamanncouldbeasabsoluteinhiscriticismofHerderorJacobiashewasindissentingfromKantorMendelssohn,asdemonstratedbyhisthreeessaystranslatedbelowonHerder’streatiseontheoriginoflanguage(TheLastWillandTestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Cross,PhilologicalIdeasandDoubts,andTotheSolomonofPrussia).ThefundamentaldividebetweenHamannandJacobimakesclearhowinadequateitistoregardHamannasaphilosopherofirrationalismoranadvocateoffaithopposedtoreason.InDavidHumeonFaith,orIdealismorRealism:ADialogue(),JacobidefendedhimselfagainstthechargeofirrationalismbyinvokingHumetoinsistontheneces-saryprimacyoffaith(orbelief,asthesamewordinGerman,Glaube,canmeaneither).InalettertoJacobiwrittenfromApriltoMay,LewisWhiteBeck,EarlyGermanPhilosophy(Cambridge,MA,),–;IsaiahBerlin,“TheCounter-Enlightenment,”inPhilipP.Wiener,ed.,DictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas(NewYork,),vol.,pp.–.“Centralelementsusuallyidentifiedwiththecounter-EnlightenmentwereinfactfundamentaltotheEnlightenmentitself,”writesJonathanB.Knudsen,JustusM¨oserandtheGermanEnlightenment(Cambridge,),.SeealsoJ.G.A.Pocock,“EnlightenmentandCounter-Enlightenment,RevolutionandCounter-Revolution:AEuroscepticalEnquiry,”HistoryofPoliticalThought:(Spring),–andtheessaysinJosephMaliandRobertWokler,eds.,IsaiahBerlin’sCounter-Enlightenment(Philadelphia,PA,).IhavedrawnonanunpublishedpaperofJamesSchmidt,“TheIdeaofCounter-Enlightenment:ACritiqueofIsaiahBerlin.”SeeOswaldBayer,ZeitgenosseimWiderspruch:JohannGeorgHamannalsradikalerAufkl¨arer(Munich,).xvi\nIntroduction,HamannisrelentlessinattackingwhathetakestobeJacobi’serrors–reducingbeingtoapropertyoranobjectratherthanunderstand-ingitasthegeneralrelationinwhichweareenmeshedpriortocognitiveacts;takingfaithasaself-evidentpartofhumanexperiencebutthenattemptingtodefenditbyargumentsfromSpinozaandHume;distin-guishingfaithfromreasonandrealismfromidealismalthoughthosedis-tinctionshavenobasisinexperience.Theirrationalistorfideistphiloso-pherattemptstoclosethegulf(or,asLessingcalledit,the“uglybroadditch”)thathasopenedupbetweenfaithandreason,whiletherationalistorskepticphilosopherisintentonpreservingthedistancebetweenthem,butbothrecognizethegulf.ForHamann,ontheotherhand,“itispureidealismtoseparatefaithandsensationfromthought”;nospecialfacultyforfaithshouldbeimputed,whichcouldthenbefoundinoppositiontothefacultyofreason.Jacobi,fromHamann’sperspective,hasbeenbetrayedbyhisinitialjargonintoinvestingmetaphysicalwraithswithrealsub-stance.Itmakesnosensetoisolatecertainfeaturesfromreality,combinethemintoalargerabstraction,andthenattempttoinferrealityfromthatabstraction.Jacobi’sfaiththenbecomesadesperatewayoutof“theimpos-siblesituationofhavingtoretrieveexistenceingeneraloutofthoughtingeneral”insteadofaroutineandordinarypartofdailyexistence.OccasionallyWesternthinkershavelaunchedlinguisticcritiquesofphilosophy(asdonebyValla,Lichtenberg,Maimon,Mauthner,andWittgenstein),anditispossibletoseeHamannassuchafigure.Yetherarelyengageswiththedetailsandimplicationsofaspecificvocabularyandisnotinterestedtoofferimprovementsorthinkthroughtheconse-quencesofanalternativevocabulary.ForthemostpartHamannpreferstoofferametacritiqueinstead,thatis,heseekstoisolatewhatheconsiderstoHamann,Briefe,vol.,pp.–.Ibid.,p..GeorgediGiovanni,introductiontoFriedrichHeinrichJacobi,TheMainPhilosophicalWritingsandtheNovelAllwill(Montreal,),.InadditiontodiGiovanni’svaluablediscussionofthisletter(seeespeciallypp.–and–ofhisintroduction),seeRenateKnoll,“HamannsKritikanJacobimitJacobisBriefenvom.,.und..undHamannsBriefenvom.,.und..,”inBernhardGajek,ed.,JohannGeorgHamann,ActadesInternationalenHamann-ColloquiumsinL¨uneburg(Frankfurt,),–.SeeLorenzoValla’sattackonAristotleintheDialecticaedisputationes,discussedforexamplebyBrianP.CopenhaverandCharlesB.Schmitt,RenaissancePhilosophy(Oxford,),–;theaphorismsbyLichtenbergonlanguagetreatedbyJ.P.Stern,Lichtenberg:ADoctrineofScatteredOccasions(Bloomington,IN,),–;SolomonMaimon,“ThePhilosophicalLanguage-Confusion,”inJerePaulSurber,ed.andtr.,Metacritique:TheLinguisticAssaultonGermanIdealism(Amherst,NY,),–;andFritzMauthner,Beitr¨agezueinerKritikderSprache,discussedforexamplebyGershonWeiler,Mauthner’sCritiqueofLanguage(Cambridge,).xvii\nIntroductionbetheprotonpseudos,theinitialandfundamentalerror,ofaphilosopher.Hedoessobyusingexaggerationandgrotesqueparodytorenderfoolishwhathetakestobetheinitialimpulsebehindaphilosophicalproblem.InthecaseofKant,forexample,HamannbelievesthatwhatmotivatestheCritiqueofPureReasonisnomorethanprejudiceinfavorofmath-ematicsandapredilectionforpurity.Mathematicsmayyieldcertainty,buttofavoritrelegateshumanreasontoapositioninferiortothe“infal-libleandunerringinstinctofinsects”(p.).Whyshouldphilosophybeconcernedwithcertainty?ThislinguisticassaultonphilosophyiscarriedoutinHamann’sdistinc-tivestyleofparody.Hamannbelievesthatphilosophydealswithunrealproblemscreatedbythemisapplicationoflanguage(“languageisthecenterpointofreason’smisunderstandingwithitself,”p.);hisobject,therefore,isnottorefuteaphilosophicalpositionbuttoexposeandmakeridiculousitspretensions.Inthissense,his“metacritique”mayhavemoreincommonwithAristophanes’mockeryofSocratesthanwithphilosoph-icaltexts.Itispossible,ofcourse,toimaginefullerrebuttalsofKantandMendelssohnandothersalongthelineswhichHamannhassketched,bytracingmorepreciselyandsystematicallythephilosophicalimplicationsofwhathesawastheimpuritiesofhumanexistence–thatwespeakalanguagewedidnotinvent,inheritahistorywedidnotmake,andliveinabodywedidnotcreate–andsuchrebuttalswouldsoonbeoffered,andthesewould,intheirturn,besubjecttofurtherrefutationsandrestate-ments.However,Hamannalwaysrefrainedfromdoingso.ShouldHamannthenbeconsideredaphilosopheratall?Hescarcelydevelopshissuggestiveremarksaboutreason,language,sociability,andhistory,andnowheredoeshedemonstrateatalentforconsecutivelogicalthought.However,ratherthantakehimasaconfusedprecursorofphilo-sophicalthemesandargumentstocome,itdoesmorejusticetohimtorespecthisantagonismtophilosophicalabstractionandargumentation.Jacobi,whointroducedtheterm“nihilism”intotheEuropeanlanguages,foundskepticismphilosophicallythreateningandattemptedtorebutit.Hamannhadnosuchanxiety;skepticismdidnotpresentworrisomeOneighteenth-centuryskepticismanditsperception,seetheessaysinRichardH.Popkin,EzequielDeOlaso,andGiorgioTonelli,eds.,ScepticismintheEnlightenment(Dordrecht,).SeealsoJohnChristianLaursen,“SwissAnti-skepticsinBerlin,”inMartinFontiusandHelmutHolzhey,eds.,SchweizerimBerlindes.Jahrhunderts(Berlin,),–,andtheessaybyRichardH.PopkinonskepticisminKnudHaakonssen,ed.,TheCambridgeHistoryofEighteenth-CenturyPhilosophy(Cambridge,),–.xviii\nIntroductionargumentsthatneededtoberebutted.Hamann,afterall,wasnottemptedtofindfirstprinciplesonwhichtogroundknowledgewithcertainty,nordidfaithandreasoncollideinhisunderstanding.Sincehedidnotseehimselfasconfrontedbyphilosophicaldifficulties,hewasnottemptedtofindawayoutofthem,forexamplebymakingcovertappealstounavowedphilosophies,asingivingtocommonsenseanepistemologicalstatusitcannoteasilybear,orinappealingtotheauthorityofeverydayexperiencethatistakentobeincipientlyorinherentlyphilosophical,orinmakingaleapoffaith.Itisoftendifficult,especiallywhenconfrontedwithmat-tersofgreatimport,torefrainfrommakingorimplyingphilosophicalstatements,andHamannisanunexcelledguidetothistherapy.TheessaysThisselection,emphasizingtheessaysonlanguage,ismadeupoftwelveofHamann’swritings,tencomplete,andtwoinpart,spanningmorethantwenty-fiveyearsofhislife.Histwomostsustainedphilosophicalessays(theMetacritiqueonthePurismofReason,aresponsetoKant,andGolgothaandSheblimini!,aresponsetoMendelssohn)havebeenincludedentire.Thetwelvepiecesfallbroadlyintothreeperiods.TheearlyperiodisrepresentedbythetwodedicationstoSocraticMemorabilia()andseveralessaysfromhiscollectionCrusadesofaPhilologist(theAes-theticainNuce,hismostfamousandinfluentialwork,andthreeessaystacklingmorenarrowlylinguistictopicswhichnonethelessprovidehimwithanopportunitytobeginhisassaultonfundamentalassumptionsofhiscontemporariesaboutthenatureoflanguage).AsecondperiodbeginsadecadelaterwiththethreeessayshewroteinresponsetoHerder’sprize-winningessayontheoriginoflanguage().Inthem,asalsoinanessayopposingaspellingreform,NewApologyoftheLetterh(),Hamanndeepenshisreflectionsonlanguage,hiscentraltheme,andtiesthemmoreaggressivelytopolitics;becauseofhismockingoppositiontoFredericktheGreat,someoftheessayscouldnotbepublished.Afinalperiodcanbedatedfromhisintensivere-readingofLutherinandincludesthreeworks,hismostprofound:theMetacritique(),Golgo-thaandSheblimini!(),andDisrobingandTransfiguration().Thelastworkexistsintwoversions;theconclusionofthefirstversionhasbeentranslatedhere.xix\nIntroductionThefirstextractinthisselectioncomesfromHamann’sSocraticMem-orabiliaof,theworkwhichinauguratedhiscareer.InitherecoveredSocrates’traditionalroleasdefenderoffoolishnessagainsttheworld’swisdom(ErasmushadalignedSocrateswithChrist),pittingthisimageagainstonewhichmanyEnlightenmentwritersfavored,Socratesasasupremerationalist.Thetwodedicationstothisworkaretranslated,thefirstaddressingandguyingthe“public”andthesecondmetaschematicallyequatingHamann’sfriendsKantandBerenswiththesophistsofSocrates’Athens.AmongthethemesbeingdevelopedinthisworkHamanntreatslanguage,implicitlyinhisclaim“tohavewrittenaboutSocratesinaSocraticway”(p.)andexplicitlyinhiscomparisonofcoinsandwordsasthingsthathavetheirvaluerelationallyratherthanintrinsically(see,forexample,Werke,vol.,pp.–).Hamanncontinuestopondertherelationalnatureoflanguageinmostofhissubsequentwritings.IntheyearsimmediatelyafterSocraticMemorabilia,hewritesanumberofshortpiecesonliteraryandphilologicaltopics,collectingthemandaddingafewmoreinCrusadesofthePhilologist,wherethetitlerefers“tothezigzagsalliesoftheTeutonicKnightspastthemegalithsscatteredthroughouttheBalticareainorderthattheymightavoidparticipatinginanactualcrusade.”Thecollectionconsistedofthirteenessays,fourofwhicharetranslatedhere.Thefirstofthese,EssayonanAcademicQuestion,wasprovokedbythetopicwhichtheBerlinAcademysetfortheprizeessayof,onthemutualinfluenceoflanguageandopinions(thecontestwaswonbyJohannDavidMichaelis,aphilologistofOrientallanguageswhowastobecomeHamann’sparticularbˆetenoire).HamannobjectstotheevasivenessoftheAcademy’squestion,whichhebelieveswassetoutinfashionableandvaguetermsinordertopromotetheinfluenceoftheFrenchlanguageandFrenchopinion(thepubliclanguageoftheAcademy,likethatofFredericktheGreat,wasFrench).Thenextessay,MiscellaneousNotesonWordOrderintheFrenchLanguage,beginswithanallusiontoFriedrichCarlvonMoser’sMasterandServant(),aworkofpoliticaltheorymuchinfluencedbytheFrenchwritersofthetime.Thebulkoftheessayisdevotedtoadiscussionoftherelationbetweenmoneyandlanguageandbetweenwordorderandthought;thelatterquestionwasForthefullrangeoftheSocratesreceptionintheeighteenthcentury,seeBennoBohn,¨SokratesimachtzehntenJahrhundert(Neumunster,¨[]).O’Flaherty,JohannGeorgHamann,–;cf.JosefNadler,JohannGeorgHamann–:DerZeugedesCorpusMysticum(Salzburg,),.xx\nIntroductionpartofawidecontemporarydebateoriginatinginFranceonthe“naturalorderofthought.”Bothessaysaresignificantfortheirexplorationofthepoliticaldimensionoflanguage,andinparticularforintroducingandscrutinizingthetheoreticalgroundingofwhatwouldbecomelinguisticnationalism.ThethreelettersthatmakeupCloverleafofHellenisticLettersarecon-cerned,respectively,withthelanguageoftheNewTestament,thevalueofGreekliterature,andthelanguageoftheHebrewBible.ThefirstletterrevisitsanolddebateonthequalityoftheGreekoftheNewTestament,whichincomparisonwithAtticGreekseemsbarbarousanddebased.Hamanndefendsitforthesamereasonsothershadcondemnedit;itslowlinessisevidenceofdivinepurpose.Moreover,itsGreekbearstracesofthelanguagesoftheJewsandtheRomans,anditshybridandimpurestateissuperiortomerepurity.Thesecondletterconsidersthepoets,philosophers,andhistoriansofancientGreece,findingthatitisonlythroughakindofprophecythattheymaybeunderstoodandenablethepresenttobeunderstood,thatis,onlythroughunderstandingtheconnec-tionofpast,present,andfuture.ThethirdletterrespondstoMichaelis’OpinionontheMeansUsedtoUnderstandtheDefunctHebrewLanguage().Withoutventuringtocontradictthebook’spreciseclaimsaboutHebrewandArabic,Hamannattacksitsphilologymorebroadly,deny-ingitsclaimtoreadtruthfullyoringoodfaith.HamannsharesNietzsche’sintenseambivalencetowardphilologyasatoncetruth-denyingandtruth-giving.TheAestheticainNuce,thelastofthefourworkstranslatedfromtheCrusades,continuestoattackMichaelis,opposingtohisrationalistcriticismoftheBibleanewaesthetics,elementsofwhichwouldbefoundcongenialbyRomanticwriters:poetryhasapriorityoverprose,emotionsandimageslosetheirprimordialforcewhentheyaresubjecttoabstraction,the“oriental”styleoftheBibleissuperiortotheetiolatedgoodtasteoftheFrench,mimesishasasitsproperobjectthedivinecreativeprocessandnotmerecreatedthings,andsoon.Thesepropositions,aspropositions,hadbeenanticipatedbyotherwriters;Hamann’soriginalitylieselsewhere,Thepoeticsuperiorityofancientlanguagesovermodern,derivativeoneswasemphasizedbyJean-BaptisteDubosinandbecameacommonplace;Homer’sprimitivestylehadbeenpraisedbyThomasBlackwellandothersonthegroundsofitspassionatesuperioritytolaterrulesgoverningtaste;thebeliefthattheearlieststagesofalanguagearethemostvividandcomeclosesttobridgingspeechandactionisfoundinseveralauthorsoftheeighteenthcentury.xxi\nIntroductionintheweirdoriginalityofhisstyleandinthestatushegivestopoetryandartastheprimarymodeofhumanandChristianexistence.In,JohannGeorgHerderwontheprizeofferedbytheBerlinAcademyforthebestanswertothequestionoftheoriginoflanguage.Thetopichadbeendiscussedsinceantiquity,andformuchoftheeighteenthcenturyitwasdebatedwithaparticularintensity.Herder’sanswerwasresolutelynaturalist,whichelicitedseveralripostesfromHamann,includingthethreethataretranslatedhere:TheLastWillandTestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Cross,PhilologicalIdeasandDoubts,andTotheSolomonofPrussia.Hamann,despitehisfriendshipwithHerder,thoughtthatthedebatewasfoolishanditsterms(naturalvssupernatural)hope-lesslycompromised.Forhim,theproponentofthesupernaturalversionoftheoriginoflanguage(viz.,Sußmilch)hidesunderablanketandshouts¨“Here’sGod!,”whilethenaturalistHerderwalksontothestageandsays,“Look,Iamaman!”(Werke,vol.,p.).TheKnightoftheRose-Crossopensbyrejectingthispictureoftheworldinwhichnaturalandsuper-naturalaredividedandopposedtoeachother;itendsbyunitingthem,inaretellingofthebiblicalcreationstoryinwhichAdam’sdiscoveryoflanguagewas“asnatural,ascloseandeasy,asachild’sgame”(p.).PhilologicalIdeasandDoubtsproceedsbyparodyandpayscloseattentiontoHerder’sownwordsandarguments.(The“ideas”ofthetitletranslatesEinf¨alleandcouldalsoberendered“raids”or“incursions.”)HamannseizesontheweaknessesofHerder’saccountoftheoriginoflanguage–thecapaciousroleplayedbytheill-definedfacultyof“reflection,”theasocialandahistoricalanthropologywhichinvokes“freedom”and“rea-son”asconstanthumanqualitiesandwhichclaimsthatlanguagecouldbeinventedbyamaninisolation–andmakesthemappearridiculous.TotheSolomonofPrussia,writteninFrench,doesnotcontinuethepolemicwithHerder;instead,itaddressesFrederickdirectly,callingonhimtoemu-lateSolomon,expeltheFrench,recognizeHerder’sgenius,andrenewPrussia.Hamann’srageiscarefullycontrolledandsubordinatedthrough-outthisparodicaddress,whichstoodnochanceofbeingpublished.Hamann’sandHerder’sphilosophiesoflanguagehavebeenrepeatedlyexaminedinmodernscholarship,butunfortunatelynoconsensusaboutAllanMegill’sunpublishedPh.D.thesis,“TheEnlightenmentDebateontheOriginofLanguageanditsHistoricalBackground”(ColumbiaUniversity,),isavaluableandcomprehensivesurvey.SeealsoHansAarsleff,“PhilosophyofLanguage,”inHaakonssen,ed.,TheCambridgeHistoryofEighteenth-CenturyPhilosophy,–.xxii\nIntroductionthemhasemerged.Theirdifferenceshavebeendescribedindiverse,andsometimesinvidious,ways.Moreover,whilesomehistoriansempha-sizetheircontinuitywithpreviousthinkers,especiallyFrench,otherslargelyassimilatethemtotheGermanRomanticsofasubsequentgen-eration.Finally,neitherHamannnorHerderisparticularlyconsistent.Thetaskofclarifyingthe“linguisticturn”inGermanphilosophyattheendoftheeighteenthandthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyisobdurate.TheNewApologyoftheLetterhwaswritteninresponsetoanortho-graphicreformproposedinanappendixofChristianTobiasDamm’sObservationsonReligion().Damm,incommonwithanumberofeighteenth-centurywriters,worriedovertheirrationalspellingofGermanwords,inwhichletters(especiallytheletterh)donotalwayscor-respondtosounds.Hamannreactsstrenuouslytotheproposedrational-izedspelling,attackingDamm’sconfusedargumentsbutalsodefendingtheletteronreligiousgrounds(asJakobBoehmehadpreviouslyinter-pretedtheletter);Hamannthenaddsastatementspokeninthevoiceofhitself,oneofhismosteffectiveinstancesofafavoredrhetoricaldevice,prosopopoeia.TheessayhasbeenwelldescribedbyJonathanSheehan:Likeothergrammariansoftheeighteenthcentury,Hamannviewedthehasavisualrepresentationofthebodilyexpulsionofbreath.Unlikethesegrammarians,however,Hamanncherishedalanguagethatdidnotexistfortheclearexpressionofthoughts,andawritingexceedingitsfunctionasamirrorofspeech.Rather,writingwastopreservethespeechofGodor,evenmoreprecisely,thebreathofGod...Theh,furthermore,notonlyrepresentedthebreathbutwasitselftheverysignofsuperabundanceandoverflowinhumanlanguagethathearkenedtoGod’shiddenhand...[F]orHamann,theexcessofGod’screation“stilldisplaysitselfinnature,”andthusstillwaspresentinlanguageandtestifiedtothisoriginalactofcreation...Ratherthanjustreversingthetermsofthereformers,then,Hamann’stheologyofthehdisplacesthetermsbyaskingtheprincipalquestionatstake:whatislanguagefor?IanHackinghasawittyaccountofsomerecentpolemicsin“How,Why,When,andWhereDidLanguageGoPublic?,”inHistoricalOntology(Cambridge,MA,),–.JonathanSheehan,“EnlightenmentDetails:Theology,NaturalHistory,andtheLetterh,”Rep-resentations(Winter),–.xxiii\nIntroductionGolgothaandSheblimini!()isHamann’sresponsetoMendel-ssohn’sJerusalem,publishedtheyearbefore.Mendelssohn’spleaforreli-gioustolerationisdividedintotwoparts:inthefirsthalfheargues,fromwithintheframeworkofsocialcontracttheory,thatmattersofcon-sciencecannotberegulatedeitherbychurchorbystate;inthesecondherepresentsJewishdoctrineasthenaturalreligionofeternaltruthsandinterpretsJewishceremoniallawasaparticularlyvividwayofmotivatingrightactioninaccordancewiththosetruths.ThecarefuldistinctionsofMendelssohn’sargument–betweenactionsandconvictions,eternalandhistoricaltruths,churchandstate–arerejectedbyHamann,whoseesinthem“theserpent’sdeceptionoflanguage”(p.),a“cleaving”ofacom-pletewhole“intotwodeadhalves”(p.).IncontrasttoMendelssohn,heinsistsonthetemporaltruthsofhistory,uniqueandunrepeated,whichbecometruthsonlybytheauthorityofthetraditionwhichhaspreservedthem.TheMetacritiqueonthePurismofReason,Hamann’sresponsetoKant’sCritiqueofPureReasonandProlegomenatoAnyFutureMetaphysics,waswrittenin.HerderandJacobireaditinmanuscript;itwaspublishedposthumouslyin.HeobjectstoKant’sdivisionofknowledgeintosensibilityandunderstanding,andmoregenerallyofhisdualismofphe-nomenalandthenoumenal,onthegroundsthatsuchadivisioncannotbeovercometocorrespondwiththeunityofexperience.Thedualismisarbitrarilymadeandthenarbitrarilyovercome.Moreover,itbreaksthebondconnectingreasonandlanguage,takingreasontobeaprioriwhereasitisalwaysfoundinlanguageandhistoryandcanberepresentedaspriortothemonlybyanungroundedabstraction.DisrobingandTransfiguration:AFlyingLettertoNobody,theWellKnown()isbothadefenseofhiswritingandacontinuationofthedisagree-mentwithMendelssohn,whodiedearlyintheyearattheheightofthe“pantheismcontroversy”betweenJacobiandhimself.Itexistsintwoversions;inboth,HamannfirstrecallshisSocraticMemorabiliaandthendefendsGolgothaandSheblimini!againstahostilereview,indicatingthathenolongerneedstotemperhisremarksoutofconsiderationforhisFrederickC.Beiser,TheFateofReason:GermanPhilosophyfromKanttoFichte(Cambridge,MA,),–.BestrepresentedinEnglishbyGerardVall´ee,´TheSpinozaConversationsbetweenLessingandJacobi(Lanham,MD,),whichcontainsexcerptsfromMendelssohnandJacobi;themostfamouscontributiontothedebateisKant’sessay“WhatisOrientationinThinking?”xxiv\nIntroductionfriendshipwithMendelssohn.Theconclusionstothetwoversionsdiffermoresubstantially,thoughbotharecriticalofMendelssohn’sJerusalemandhisMorningHours().Theconclusionofthelesspolemicalfirstversionhasbeentranslatedhere.Hamann’sstrikingandprovocativesentenceshavealwaysattractedatten-tion,evenwhenreaderswerestymiedbytheessaysinwhichtheyappeared.NorisitimproperthatindividualstatementsbyHamann,readaphoristically,havearousedexcitement;hisstyleencouragesandocca-sionallydemandsit.Ontheotherhand,notallreadingsneedtotakethisform,andmytranslationandcommentaryisintendedtoencour-agefurtherreadingsbyremovingsomeoftheextrinsicobstaclestotheessays.Aquiringtherelevantinformation,however,isonlythefirststepinunderstandingwhyHamannwriteswhathewrites,howhemovesfromonethoughttoanother,whatmotivatesparticularreferencesandallusions.Thattaskisforreaders.xxv\nChronologyJohannGeorgHamannisbornonAugustinKonigsberg,the¨capitalofEastPrussia,toparentsofmodestcircumstancesandPietistorientation.FrederickIIbecomesKingofPrussia,attacksSilesia,andbeginstheWaroftheAustrianSuccession(–).Afterbeingtutoredathomeandattendingafewschools(includingtheKneiphofGymnasium),HamannenrollsattheUniversityofKonigsbergtostudytheology,laterswitchingto¨law.Foroverayear,HamanncollaborateswithfriendstoproduceDaphne,aweeklyliteraryjournalforwomen.Failingtotakeadegree,HamannleavestheuniversityandbecomesatutortothesonsofminornobilityinLivoniaandCourland.Heregularlyvisitshisfriendfromtheuniversity,JohannChristophBerens,inRiga.UndertakesasomewhatobscuremissiontoLondonasanagentoftheBerensfamily’sfirm.EnroutetoLondon,hevisitsBerlin(meetingMendelssohnandotherfiguresoftheBerlinEnlightenment)andothercitiesinGermanyandtheNetherlands.FrederickIIinvadesSaxony,andtheSevenYearsWarbegins.ArrivinginLondon,hefailstodeliveramessagetotheRussianEmbassy.Hespendsthenextmonthsaccumulatingdebtand,accordingtohissubsequentaccount,livesalifeofdissipation.AloneinLondon,HamannundergoesaspiritualcrisisandrecovershisChristianfaithinaradicalizedform.Hereadsthexxvi\nChronologyBibleinitsentiretyandinBiblicalReflectionswritesacommentaryonitspersonalmeaningforhim.HereturnstoRigainJuly,stayingwiththeBerenses;hefellinlovewithbutwasrefusedpermissiontomarryhisfriend’ssister.HamannreturnstoKonigsberg,livinginhisfather’shouse.¨SocraticMemorabiliaispublished.CrusadesofthePhilologistappears;itincludestheessaysEssayonanAcademicQuestion,MiscellaneousNotesonWordOrderintheFrenchLanguage,CloverleafofHellenisticLetters,andAestheticainNuce,mostofwhichwerepublishedpreviously.WiththepeasantwomanAnnaReginaSchumacher,whowascaringforhisfather,Hamannbeginsadevotedandintimaterelationshipthoughtheynevermarry.Theyhavefourchildren(theoldestinandtheyoungestin).HeworksbrieflyforthemunicipalityofKonigsbergandthenfortheDepartment¨ofWarandCrownLandsforPrussia.Hamannresignsinordertocareforhisailingfather(whodiesin);hetutorsandbecomesthefriendofJohannGottfriedHerder.FromthesummerandoverthenextyearshetravelsandseeksemploymentoutsideofPrussia.Toincreasetheefficiencyoftaxrevenue,FrederickIIcreatesanewfinancialministry,theGeneralExciseAdministration,asataxfarmingagency;itisrunbyaconsortiumofFrenchmen.ReturningtoKonigsberg,Hamannfindsajobasclerkand¨translatorfortheGeneralExciseAdministration.Herder’sEssayontheOriginofLanguageispublished;HamannwritesinresponseTheLastWillandTestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Cross,PhilologicalIdeasandDoubts,andTotheSolomonofPrussia(thelattertwowerenotpublished).FirstpartitionofPoland.NewApologyoftheLetterh.HamannrespondstoHerder’sOldestDocumentoftheHumanRacewithOntheMostRecentInterpretationoftheOldestDocumentoftheHumanRace.HamannwritesonmysteryandreligioninHierophanticLettersandonmarriageandsexualityinEssayofaSibylonMarriage.HamannispromotedtoSuperintendentoftheCustomsWarehouse.xxvii\nChronologyHamanntranslatesHume’sDialoguesconcerningNaturalReligion.HamannreadsKant’sCritiqueofPureReasoninproofsandwrites,butdoesnotpublish,areview.Hamann’sincomeisreducedafterareformoftheperquisitesofhisjob.HeentersintocorrespondencewithFriedrichHeinrichJacobi.Mendelssohn’sJerusalem,oronReligiousPowerandJudaism.MetacritiqueonthePurismofReasoniswrittenbutnotpublished;GolgothaandSheblimini!ispublished.DisrobingandTransfiguration.Hamannisdischargedbyhisemployersafterpetitioningforaleave.HevisitsMunsterattheinvitationofPrincessGallitzin¨andalsovisitsJacobiandothers.HamanndiesinMunster.¨xxviii\nFurtherreadingStandardeditionsandcommentariesJosefNadler’seditionofHamann’swritings(S¨amtlicheWerke,vols.,Vienna,–)andWaltherZiesemerandArthurHenkel’seditionofHamann’sletters(Briefwechsel,vols.,Wiesbaden/FrankfurtamMain,–)arethestandardeditions.Vol.ofNadler’sWerkeincludesanindexwhichalsoservesasaglossaryandcommentary.Ofthefivevol-umesthatwerepublishedintheseriesHamannsHauptschriftenerkl¨art(Gutersloh,¨–),threearerelevanttoessaysincludedhere:vol.,ontheSokratischeDenkw¨urdigkeiten(ed.FritzBlanke,);vol.,cov-eringHamann’sessaysontheoriginoflanguage(ed.ElfriedeBuchsel,¨),andvol.,onGolgathaundScheblimini!(ed.LotharSchreiner,).ThecommentarybySven-AageJørgensenontheSokratischeDenkw¨urdigkeitenandtheAestheticainNuceisvaluable(Stuttgart,),asisthecommentaryonAestheticainNucebyHans-MartinLumppinPhilologiaCrucis(Tubingen,¨).Threefurthereditionsgiveessen-tialcommentaryonessaysincludedinthisselection:KarlheinzLohrer’s¨KleeblatthellenistischerBriefe(FrankfurtamMain,);OswaldBayer’sedition,commentary,anddiscussionoftheMetakritik¨uberdenPurismusderVernunftwhichappearsinhisVernunftistSprache(Stuttgart,);andReinerWild’s“MetacriticusBonaeSpei”:JohannGeorgHamanns“FliegenderBrief”(FrankfurtamMain,).TranslationsHamannseemstohavemadeasingleappearanceinEnglishinthenine-teenthcentury;mostofhisearly(pre-conversion)essayontheFrenchxxix\nFurtherreadingpoliticaleconomistPlumarddeDangeulwaspublishedinFredericH.Hedge,ed.,ProseWritersofGermany(Philadelphia,).Awideselec-tionfromboththewritingsandthelettersofHamann,mainlyintheformofextracts,wastranslatedbyRonaldGregorSmithinJ.G.Hamann:AStudyinChristianExistentialism(NewYork,).AtranslationwithafullcommentaryontheSocraticMemorabiliawasmadebyJamesC.O’FlahertyinHamann’sSocraticMemorabilia:ATranslationandCom-mentary(Baltimore,MD,).StephenN.Dunningappendsanunan-notatedtranslationofGolgothaandSheblimini!toTheTonguesofMen:HegelandHamannonReligiousLanguageandHistory(Missoula,MT,).JoyceP.Crick’stranslationandannotationofAestheticainNucewasfirstpublishedinH.B.Nisbet,ed.,GermanAestheticandLiteraryCriticism(Cambridge,).GwenGriffithDicksontranslated,withexplicationaswellasannotation,SocraticMemorabilia,AestheticainNuce,TheLastWillandTestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Cross,PhilologicalIdeasandDoubts,EssayofaSibylonMarriage,MetacritiqueonthePurismofReason,andafewothersinJohannGeorgHamann’sRelationalMetacriticism(Berlin,).JamesSchmidteditedWhatisEnlightenment?:Eighteenth-CenturyAnswersandTwentiethCenturyQuestions(Berkeley,CA,),inwhichanearlierversionofmytranslationoftheMetacritiqueonthePurismofReasonappears;italsoincludesanannotatedtranslationofHamann’sletteroftoChristianJacobKrausinwhichHamannrespondstoKant’sessay“WhatisEnlightenment?”ArnulfZweig’stranslationofKant’sCorrespondence(Cambridge,)includesfivelettersfromHamann.JerePaulSurbertranslatestheMetacritiqueanddiscussesitsgenesisinMetacritique:TheLinguisticAssaultonGermanIdealism(Amherst,NY,).AngeloPupitranslatedseveralofHamann’sworksintoItalian(Scritticristiani,;Scrittisullinguaggio:–,);Frenchtransla-tionshavebeenmadebyPierreKlossowski,HenryCorbin,andRomainDeygout(seethelatter’sAestheticainnuce,M´etacritiquedupurismedelaraisonpure,etautrestextes,).SecondaryliteratureinEnglishJamesC.O’Flaherty’sintroductorysurveyofHamann’slifeandwritings(JohannGeorgHamann,Boston,MA,)remainsagoodstartingpointfromwhichtolearnaboutHamann.Twootherworksofhismaybexxx\nFurtherreadingconsulted:UnityandLanguage:AStudyinthePhilosophyofHamann(ChapelHill,NC,)andTheQuarrelofReasonwithItself:EssaysonHamann,Michaelis,Lessing,Nietzsche(Columbia,SC,).IsaiahBerlin’sintroductorystudyTheMagusoftheNorth:J.G.HamannandtheOriginsofModernIrrationalism(London,,butwrittenin)isavaluableintroductionwhichillustratesBerlin’sgiftforfindingsuggestivequotations.ForfurtherbackgroundtoHamanninrelationtohiscontemporaries,fourworksmayberecommended:RobertT.Clark,Jr.,Herder:HisLifeandThoughts(Berkeley,CA,);AlexanderAltmann,MosesMendelssohn:ABiographicalStudy(London,);thelongintroductionbyGeorgediGiovannitohistranslationofFriedrichHeinrichJacobi,TheMainPhilosophicalWritingsandtheNovelAllwill(Montreal,);andManfredKuehn,Kant:ABiography(Cambridge,).LewisWhiteBeckinEarlyGermanPhilosophy:KantandHisPrede-cessors(Cambridge,MA,),andFrederickC.BeiserinTheFateofReason:GermanPhilosophyfromKanttoFichte(Cambridge,MA,)discussHamanninthecontextofintellectualhistory.E.A.BlackalldevotesachapterofTheEmergenceofGermanasaLiteraryLanguage(Cambridge,)toHamann’sstyle.OthermonographsincludeW.M.Alexander,JohannGeorgHamann:PhilosophyandFaith(TheHague,)andTerenceJ.German,HamannonLanguageandReligion(Oxford,).OnHamannandSocrates,seeDenisThouard,“HamannandtheHis-toryofPhilosophy,”inC.R.LigotaandJ.-L.Quantin,eds.,HistoryofScholarship(Oxford,),–.ForHamann’sessaysontheoriginoflanguage,importantstudiesinEnglishincludeAllanMegill’sunpub-lishedPh.D.thesis,“TheEnlightenmentDebateontheOriginofLan-guageanditsHistoricalBackground”(ColumbiaUniversity,)andJamesH.Stam,InquiriesintotheOriginofLanguage(NewYork,).ForHamann’sessayopposingorthographicreform,seeJonathanShee-han,“EnlightenmentDetails:Theology,NaturalHistory,andtheLetterh,”Representations(Winter),–.Sheehan’sfull-lengthstudy,TheEnlightenmentBible:Translation,Scholarship,Culture(Princeton,NJ,)examines,amongothertopics,thecontestedrelationbetweenGer-manphilologyandtheology,andisanexcellent,wide-rangingsurveyoftheperiod.OnHamann’sMiscellaneousNotes,seeGerardGenette,´Mimologics(Lincoln,NE,),–,inregardtoeighteenth-centuryxxxi\nFurtherreadingdebatesaboutwordorderandtheorderofthought.ForHamann’sresponsetoMendelssohn’sJerusalem,seeStephenH.Dunning,TheTonguesofMen:HegelandHamannonReligiousLanguageandHistory(Missoula,MT,).SecondaryliteratureinGermanandotherlanguagesAlargebibliographyofsecondaryliteratureonHamann(“Biblio-graphiederHamann-Literatur”)iscurrentlymaintainedathttp://members.aol.com/agrudolph/bib.html.TheInternationalHamann-Kolloquiummeetsapproximatelyeveryfouryearsandpublishestheproceedingsofitsmeetings;thefullrangeofHamann’swritings,life,andcontextcomeinforexamination.JosephKohnenhaseditedseveralbooksaboutthecultureofKonigsberg;several¨essaysinthemaredevotedtoHamann(K¨onigsberg,;K¨onigsberg-Studien,;K¨onigsbergerBeitr¨age,).ImportantstudiesdevotedspecificallytoHamannandlanguageincludeBernhardGajek,SprachebeimjungenHamann(Berne,);GeorgBaudler,“ImWorteSehen”:DasSprachdenkenJohannGeorgHamanns(Bonn,);HelmutWeiss,JohannGeorgHamannsAnsichtenzurSprache:VersucheinerRekonstruktionausdemFr¨uhwerk(Munster,¨);andHelmutWeiss,“JohannGeorgHamann,”inHerbertE.Brekleetal.,eds.,Bio-bibliographischesHandbuchzurSprachwissenschaftdes.Jahrhunderts,vol.(),pp.–.AnolderworkofscholarshiponHamannandtheEnlightenment,RudolfUnger’sHamannunddieAufkl¨arung(HalleanderSaale,),shouldbereadinconjunctionwithOswaldBayer’sZeitgenosseimWiderspruch:JohannGeorgHamannalsradikalerAufkl¨arer(Munich,).Hegel’slongreviewinofHamann’scollectedworkscanbefoundinWerkeinzwanzigB¨anden,vol.,pp.–.AngeloPupipublishedalargebiographyinItalianofHamann(vols.,Milan,–);itincludesmuchtranslationofHamannintoItalian.xxxii\nNoteonthetext,translation,andannotationFortheMetacritiqueonthePurismofReason,IhavetranslatedthetextprintedinOswaldBayer,VernunftistSprache();fortheexcerptfromDisrobingandTransfiguration,IhavefollowedthatofReinerWild,“Meta-criticusBonaeSpei”:JohannGeorgHamanns“FliegenderBrief”().Otherwise,thetextstranslatedherearethoseprintedbyJosefNadlerinhiseditionofJohannGeorgHamann,S¨amtlicheWerke(,vols.).NadlerreproducesHamann’stypographicalerrorsandintroducesafewofhisown;thesehavenotbeenindicatedinthetranslation.Inafewotherinstances,IhavedepartedfromNadler’stexts;asarulethesehavebeenindicatedintheannotation.AllHamann’swritingsafterhisrediscoveryofhisChristianfaitharedenselyallusivetotheBible.IhavegenerallyreplacedallusionstotheLutherBible(or,inthecaseofTotheSolomonofPrussia,theFrenchBibleofOlivetan)withallusionstotheKingJamesBible.Onsomeoccasions,ithasnotbeenpossibletoreproducetheallusionbecauseofanimportantdifferenceinwording;fullerexplanationsofsuchcasesgenerallyfollowinthenotes.ManyofHamann’sessaysreacttotheprecisewordingofanotherpieceofwriting.InthecaseoftheMetacritiqueonthePurismofReason,aresponsetoKant’sCritiqueofPureReason,andofGolgothaandSheblimini!,aresponsetoMendelssohn’sJerusalem,IhavefollowedtheEnglishtranslationsbyNormanKempSmithandAllanArkush,respectively.Ingeneral,IhaveavoidedthetemptationtosimplifyHamann’swords.ThishasmeantsometimestranslatinganobscurewordinGermanbyanobscurewordinEnglish(plusanote);notalwaysresolvingambiguitiesxxxiii\nNoteonthetext,translation,andannotation(Hamanntendedtobecarelessaboutthereferentsofpronouns);andoccasionallyreproducingidiosyncraticfeaturesofpunctuation(especiallythedash).Inaddition,ithasmeantpreservingthemultilingualaspectofHamann’swriting.Hamannbelievedthatspeakingalanguage,likehavingabody,wasafundamentalaspectofhumanfinitude.Topresenthiswritingsinaseamlesswebofasinglelanguagewouldhavebetrayedbothhispracticeandhisconvictions.Quotationsinforeignlanguagesarepresentedinkeepingwithmodernconventions(GreekandFrenchwordsaregivendiacriticalmarks,Latinisspelledwith“u”asavoweland“v”asaconsonant);thesepassagesaretranslatedinthenotes.Inonerespect,IhavesimplifiedHamann’stext:Idonotreproducehisextensiveitalics.Oftentheseindicatethatawordorphraseisaquotationorapropername,andthisinformationisprovidedbytheannotation.IhavedeliberatelymodeledmytranslationofAestheticainNuceonthatbyJoyceP.Crick,whichappearsinClassicandRomanticGermanAesthet-ics,ed.J.M.Bernstein(CambridgeTextsintheHistoryofPhilosophy,).Fullannotation,thoughdesirable,wouldruntogreatlengthandisnotpossiblehere.OnlyoneexampleexistsinEnglish:JamesC.O’Flaherty’sHamann’sSocraticMemorabilia(),whichdevotesmorethanpagestoa-pageessaybyHamann.SeveralfullyannotatededitionsofHamann’sworkexistinGerman(seeFurtherReading);themostrecentisOswaldBayer’sVernunftistSprache(),anexplicationofaneight-pageessaywhichrunstomorethanpages.Thenotesofferedinthisvolumehavehadtobehighlydisciplined;forthemostpart,theyserveonlytohelpmakeanimmediatesenseofthewords.Contextualandinterpretativeremarksarerare;cross-referencestoHamann’sotherwritingshavebeenmadeonlyinexceptionalcases(Briefeindicatestheseven-volumeeditionofletterspreparedbyZiesemerandHenkel,andWerkethesix-volumeeditionofwritingspreparedbyNadler);andreferencestosecondaryliteraturearegenerallyavoided.IntranslatingandannotatingHamann,Ihavebenefitedfromthehelpgivenbycolleaguesandfriendswhohavereducedthenumberoferrorsinmywork:NicolasdeWarren,AdamGitner,DavidKonstan,MatthewSpencer,andZacharySng.IamespeciallyindebtedandgratefultoJamesSchmidt.IgratefullyacknowledgethesupportoftheHowardFoundation.IwishalsotothankCambridgeUniversityxxxiv\nNoteonthetext,translation,andannotationPressandKarlAmeriks,thegeneraleditoroftheseriesCambridgeTextsintheHistoryofPhilosophy.Anearlierversionofmytranslation“MetacritiqueonthePurismofReason”waspublishedinJamesSchmidt,ed.,WhatisEnlightenment?Eighteenth-CenturyAnswersandTwentieth-CenturyQuestions
C,TheRegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia.xxxv\n\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguage\n\nSocraticMemorabiliaCollectedfortheBoredomofthePublicbyaLoverofBoredomWithaDoubleDedicationtoNobodyandtoTwoOcurashominum!oquantumestinrebusinane!Quislegethaec?–––Min’tuistudais?Nemohercule––Nemo?–Velvel–––PersiusAmsterdam,Thatis,asaspecificagainstboredom,“forwhilingawaythetime.”Persius,Satire.–:“Othecaresofmankind!theemptinessinthings!”“Whowillreadthesethings?”“Areyoutalkingtome?Noone,byHercules.”“Noone?”“Eitheror.”(Hamann’scapitals).ThebookwaspublishedinKonigsberg;thefictitiousplaceofpublicationseemstohavebeenadded¨atthewhimofthepublisher(permissionforpublicationhadbeenobtainedfromthegovernment,andsotherewasnoneedtosuppressthegenuinelocation).\nTothePublic,orNobody,theWell-Known–
ϒ, ;––Euripides,Youbearanameandneednoproofofyourexistence,youfindfaithanddonomiraclestoearnit,yougethonorandhaveneitherconceptnorfeelingthereof.Weknowthatthereisnoidolintheworld.Neitherareyouhuman,yetyoumustbeahumanimagewhichsuperstitionhasmadeagod.Youlacknoreyesnorears,whichnonethelessdonotsee,donothear;andtheartificialeyeyouform,theartificialearyouplant,islikeyourown,blindanddeaf.Youmustknoweverything,andyoulearnnothing;ayoumustjudgeeverything,andyouunderstandnothing,everlearning,aProverbs:[“Afoolishwomanisclamorous:sheissimple,andknowethnothing.”]Euripides,Cyclops:“thisNoone,whereishe?”John::“Rabbi,weknowthatthouartateachercomefromGod:fornomancandothesemiraclesthatthoudoest,exceptGodbewithhim.”LutherandHamannhaveZeichen(“signs”)for“miracles.”Cf.Corinthians::“weknowthatanidolisnothingintheworld.”Cf.Psalms:–,Jeremiah:,Matthew:.Psalm::“Hethatplantedtheear,shallhenothear?hethatformedtheeye,shallhenotsee?”Proverbs:doesnotseemrelevant;cf.Proverbs::“Gofromthepresenceofafoolishman,whenthouperceivestnotinhimthelipsofknowledge.”For“perceivestnot...thelipsofknowledge”LutherandHamannhavelernstnichts(“learnnothing”).\nSocraticmemorabiliaandneverabletocometotheknowledgeofthetruth;byouaretalking,oryouarepursuing,youareonajourney,orperadventureyousleep,whileyourpriestsliftuptheirvoice,andyoushouldanswerthemandtheirmockerywithfire.Offeringsareofferedyoueveryday,whichothersconsumeatyourexpense,inorderthat,onthegroundsofyourheartymeals,yourexistenceseemprobable.Forallyourfastidiousness,younonethelesswelcomeall,ifonlytheydonotappearbeforeyouempty.Ithrowmyself,likethephilosopher,atthehearingfeetofatyrant.Mygiftisinnothingbutthelumpsbywhichagod,likeyou,onceburstinsunder.Soletthembegiventoapairofyourworshipers,whomIwishtopurgewiththesepillsfromdevotiontoyourvanity.Becauseyouwearthefeaturesofhumanignoranceandcuriosityonyourface,IwillconfesstoyoutheidentityofthetwoonwhomIintendtoperform,throughyourhands,thispiousfraud.Thefirstworksonthephilosopher’sstonelikeafriendofmankindwhoviewsitasameanstopromoteindustry,bourgeoisvirtues,andthewelfareofthecommon-wealth.Iwroteforhiminthemysticallanguageofasophist,becausewisdomwillalwaysbethemosthiddensecretofpoliticaleconomy,evenifalchemysucceedsinitsgoaltomakeallmenrich,whobymeansofthefertilemaximsoftheMarquisdeMirabeaumustsoon(!)populatebTimothy:[“Everlearning,andneverabletocometotheknowledgeofthetruth”]Kings::“eitherheistalking,orheispursuing,orheisinajourney,orperadventurehesleepeth.”Moreliterally,Hamann(followingLuther)writes,“youaremusing,haveworktodo,areafield,orperhapsasleep.”InKings,ElijahchallengedtheprophetsofBaaltoacontest.Theyandheeachpreparedasacrifice,onetoBaalandonetoGod,andeachprayedforfiretoconsumethesacrifice.InBelandtheDragon:–,DanielexposesthefraudwherebythepriestsofBelhadconvincedthekingthatBelwasalivinggodbecauseheconsumedsomuchfoodandwineeveryday.Exodus::“noneshallappearbeforemeempty.”ThephilosopherAristippusthrewhimselfatthefeetofthetyrantDionysius.Hedefendedhimselfbysaying,“ItisnotIwhoamtoblame,butDionysiuswhohasearsinhisfeet”(DiogenesLaertius,LivesofEminentPhilosophers..,tr.Hicks,LoebClassicalLibrary).BelandtheDragon::“ThenDanieltookpitch,andfat,andhair,anddidseethethemtogether,andmadelumpsthereof:thisheputinthedragon’smouth,andsothedragonburstinsunder:andDanielsaid,Lo,thesearethegodsyeworship.”Thephrase“devotiontovanity”appearsinacantatabyBach,BWV;thelibrettowasadaptedfrompoemsbyChristianFriedrichHunold.JohannChristophBerens(–),merchantinRiga,friend(andpatron)ofHamann,andfriendofKant.VictordeRiqueti,marquisdeMirabeau(–),physiocratanddiscipleofQuesnay,authorofL’Amideshommes,ou,trait´edelapopulation(–;“Thefriendofmankind,or,treatiseonpopulation”).\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageFrance.Accordingtotoday’splanoftheworld,theartofmakinggoldremains,justly,thehighestprojectandhighestgoodofourstatesmen.TheotherwouldliketobeasuniversalaphilosopherandasgoodaWardenoftheMintasNewtonwas.Noaspectofcriticalanalysisismorecertainthanthatwhichhasbeendevisedforgoldandsilver.Therefore,theconfusioninGermany’scoinagecannotbeaslargeastheconfusionwhichhasstolenintothetextbooksthatarequiteordinarilyfoundamongus.Wearelackingaccurateconversiontablestodeterminehowmuchoftheprescribedintrinsicvalueanideamusthaveifitistopassasatruth,etc.cSincetheselumpsmustnotbechewed,butswallowed,likethosetheCosmicfamilyinFlorenceadoptedontheircoatofarms,theyarenotmadefortheirtaste.Asfarastheireffectsareconcerned,itwasbecauseofafeelingsimilartowhattheyproducethatVespasianfirstlearnedtorecognizethegoodfortuneofyournameandissaidtohavecriedoutonastoolthatwasnothisthrone:,!c,!"#!$%,& '()  *++!+,-.'/
01+1  2+ 34!++52,)+ .Euripides,Medea[Euripides,Medea–.“OZeus,why,whenyougavetomensuresignsofgoldthatiscounterfeit,istherenomarkonthehumanbodybywhichonecouldidentifybasemen”(tr.Kovacs,LoebClassicalLibrary)].ImmanuelKant.IsaacNewtonbecameMasteroftheMintin,retainingtheofficeuntilhisdeathin.InGerman,“anKornundSchrot.”Kornistheamountofpreciousmetalinacoin(thatis,itsintrinsicvalue),andSchrotisthegrossweightofacoin.Hamannplaysontheexpression“vonechtemSchrotundKorn,”asinaman“ofsterlingqualities.”TheemblemoftheMedicifamily(thepoliticaldynastywasfoundedbyCosimo)consistedofanumberofredballsonagoldshield;thesewerevariouslyinterpreted,includingasmedicinalpills,anallusiontothefamilyname,“doctors.”“IthinkI’mbecomingagod.”Hamann’ssourceistheLatintranslationofBacon’sessay“OnDeath,”whichconflatesVespasian’swords(fromSuetonius,LivesoftheCaesars.)withthemannerofhisdeath(anattackofdiarrhea,.).\nTotheTwo–– 678'
!9Sophocles,inElectraThepublicinGreecereadthememorabiliaofAristotleonthenaturalhistoryofanimals,andAlexanderunderstoodthem.Whereanordinaryreadermayseenothingbutmold,thefeelingoffriendshipwillperhapsrevealtoyou,gentlemen,amicroscopicforestinthesepages.IhavewrittenaboutSocratesinaSocraticway.Analogydwasthesoulofhisreasoning,andhegaveitironyforabody.Letignoranceandconfidencebeascharacteristicofmeastheymay;theymustnonethelessberegardedhereasaestheticimitations.IntheworksofXenophonasuperstitiousdevotionpredominates,andinPlato’sworks,anenthusiast’sdevotion;aveinofsimilarfeelingsrunsd“Analogy,man’ssurestguidebelow,”EdwardYoung,NightThoughts.[EdwardYoung(–)wrotehismostfamouswork,thelongpoemTheComplaint,or,Night-ThoughtsonLife,Death,andImmortalityin–;Hamannquotesfroml.ofNight.]Sophocles,Electra:“TheyaresmallthingsbutnonethelessthatwhichIhave.”Inchap.ofbookoftheAdvancementofLearning(),FrancisBaconwritesthatwhenAlexandertheGreatreadAristotle’sbooksonnature,hewrotealettertothephilosopher“whereinheexpostulatethwithhimforpublishingthesecretsormysteriesofphilosophy.”Hamann’ssourcewasBacon’sDeaugmentisscientiarum();seep.ofvol.ofBacon’sWorks(–),ed.Spedding,Ellis,andHeath.Bacon’ssourcewasPlutarch’slifeofAlexander(.).\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagethereforethroughallpartsofthismimeticlabor.Theeasiestthingherewouldhavebeenformetobemoreliketheheathensintheirfrankness;Ihavehad,however,tomaketheeffortoflendingmyreligiontheveilwhichapatrioticSt.JohnandaplatonicShaftesburywovefortheirrespectiveunbeliefandmisbelief.Socrates,gentlemen,wasnomeancritic.IntheworksofHeraclitushedistinguishedwhathedidnotunderstandfromwhathedidunderstandinthem,andhemadeaveryequitableandmodestinferencefromthecomprehensibletotheincomprehensible.OnthisoccasionSocratestalkedofreaderswhocouldswim.eAconfluenceofideasandfeelingsinthatlivingelegyofthephilosopherperhapsturnedhissentencesintoagroupofsmallislandswhichlackthebridgesandferriesofmethodnecessaryfortheircloseassociation.Asyouarebothmyfriends,yourbiasedpraiseandyourbiasedblamewillbeequallywelcometome.Iam,etc.e“Atquehictamdocilisadcetera,natarenesciit.”Suetonius,Caligula.[“Andyetasvariedaswerehisaccomplishments,themancouldnotswim.”Suetonius,LivesoftheCaesars,.,tr.Rolfe,LoebClassicalLibrary].HenrySt.John,ViscountBolingbroke(–),politicianandauthor,published(privately)TheIdeaofaPatriotKingandALetterontheSpiritofPatriotismin.InLettersontheStudyandUseofHistory(privatelyprinted,),BolingbroketreatedwithskepticismtheJewishhistoryoftheOldTestamentandinparticularthechronologyofScripture.AnthonyAshleyCooper,thirdearlofShaftesbury(–),wrotehismostfamouswork,CharacteristicksofMen,Manners,Opinions,Times,in.ShaftesburywasskepticalofmanyaspectsoftraditionalChristianity,andinparticularheridiculedreligiousenthusiasts;atthesametime,hedefendedaPlatonicnotionofenthusiasm.DiogenesLaertius,LivesofEminentPhilosophers.:“Euripidesgave[Socrates]thetreatiseofHeraclitusandaskedhisopinionuponit,andthatreplywas,‘ThepartIunderstandisexcellent,andsotoois,Idaresay,thepartIdonotunderstand;butitneedsaDeliandivertogettothebottomofit’”(tr.Hicks,LoebClassicalLibrary).ThestoryisalsotoldinFranc¸oisCharpentier,LaViedeSocrate();oneofHamann’schiefsourcesfortheSocraticMemorabiliawastheGermantranslationofCharpentierpublishedin.\nEssayonanAcademicQuestionbyAristobulusHoratius––nosproeliavirginumsectisiniuvenesunguibusacriumcantamusvacui,sivequidurimur,nonpraetersolitumleves.In,theBerlinAcademysetasthetopicforitsessaycontestofthatyearthequestionofthemutualinfluenceoflanguageandopinions.JohannDavidMichaeliswonthecompetition,andhisessaywaspublishedin.IntheprefacetoCrusadesofaPhilologist(),Hamannidentifies“Aristobulus”asthefigurefromMaccabees:,the“schoolmaster”ofKingPtolemeus;seeWerke,vol.,p..Horace,Ode..–:“...wesingthecontestsofmaidens,whowithsharpnailsarefierceagainsttheyouths,eitherfancy-freeor,ifweareatallfiredbylove,cheerfullyasusual.”\n.l`mScriptorcyclicusolim“Proverb.”Horace,Arspoetica–:“[norwillyoubeginas]thewriterofepiccyclesintimespast:‘IshallsingthefortuneofPriamandnoblewar’[fortunamPriamicantabo[e]tnobilebellum].”\nEssayonanacademicquestionThetitleofthisshortessayissoproblematicthatIcannotthinkanyofmyreaderscapableofguessingwhatitmeans.IwillthereforedeclaremyselfthatIwishtoputonpapersomethoughtsaboutthetopicthathadbeenissuedbytheBerlinAcademyfortheyear.Thiscelebratedsocietythoughtitworthwhiletocommunicatetotheworldtheprizeessaytogetherwithsixofitscompetitorsunderthefollowingtitle:Dissertationquiaremport´eleprixpropos´eparl’AcademieroyaledessciencesetbelleslettresdePrusse,surl’influencer´eciproquedulangagesurlesopinions,etdesopinionssurlelangage;aveclespiecesquiontconcouru,`aBerlin,MDCCLX,.Inmyviewitwouldbeeasiertosurveytheanswertotheques-tionofthemutualinfluenceofopinionsandlanguageifthistopichadbeenclarifiedpriortoproceedingontoitssolution.aHowever,a4+:!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`@46\.ThestrangerfromElisinPlato’sStatesman.[Plato,Statesmand–b:“StilllesswouldanyrationalmanseektoanalyzetheMichaelisreferstothe“fashionablemeanings,”sometimesfalse,thathavebecomeattachedtoHebrewwords(Beurtheilung,p.).Ibid.,p.(thelastsentenceofthebook):“IbelieveIamcertainthatthisisthecorrectway;whetherIamcorrectinsothinkingornot,afterhavinggivenmyreasonseveryreaderisthejudge.”The“firstfalsehood,”thatis,theinitialfalsepremiseinvalidatingthelaterdeductions;thetermderivesfromAristotle’sPriorAnalytics.(a).MuchofMichaelis’BeurtheilungisconcernedwiththeimproperwaysofunderstandingHebrew(especiallyregardingtheimproperuseofetymologyanddialects).HereHamannmayberefer-ringtoMichaelis’oppositiontousingtheBibleasthemaintextfromwhichtolearnHebrew(p.).\nCloverleafofHellenisticletters(who,asyouknow,disdainsnoreheatedcabbage)doesnotseemtometobeincorrect,thatthemostpowerfultruthsaswellasthemostpowerfulliesagreewiththemonads.AreaderwhohatesthetruthmayfindmuchintheOpinionontheMeansUsedtoUnderstandtheDefunctHebrewLanguagetocomforthim,andwhichcouldservehimasawhetstonetosharpentheweaponsofunrigh-teousness.Areaderwhoseeksaftertruthmightbecomeahypochon-driacoutofdread.Wholovesandhasthetruthcanreadtheauthorwiththegreatestapplicationandjudgment.Ithasbeenverypleasantformetodiscoverthattheproposalformysummer’sworkagreeswiththedirectionofsogreatamaster.Godgivemelifetocarryitout;somayIperhapsintimebeabletosucceedatafundamentalunderstandingofthethingsthemselves.RegardlessofthefactthatIunderstandneitherHebrewnorArabic,thereprimandsoftheauthorarenotalljustGreektome,andItrustthatyou,mostnoblesir,willhaveasmuchpatienceasthatoldgeneral,listeningtoasophistprattleonaboutwarfare.SinceIhaveappliedmyprodigalhourstonothingmorethanaquickexaminationofthisbook,IcangivenoproofinformathattheArabicnotionofweavingforitsownsake.Butpeopleseemtoforgetthatsomethingshavesensibleimages,whichmaybeeasilyshown,whenanyonedesirestoexhibitanyoneofthemorexplainthemtoaninquirer,withoutanytroubleorargument;whilethegreatestandnoblesttruthshavenooutwardimageofthemselvesvisibletoman,whichhewhowishestosatisfythelongingsouloftheinquirercanadapttotheeyeofsense,andthereforeweoughttopractiseourselvesintheideaofthem;forimmaterialthings,whicharethehighestandgreatest,areshownonlyinthoughtandidea,andinnootherway,andallthatwearesayingissaidforthesakeofthem;moreover,thereisalwayslessdifficultyinfixingthemindonsmallmattersthanongreat”(tr.Jowett).]AGreekandLatinproverb,“twice-servedcabbageisdeath,”cametomeaninlateruseapoorbitofwritingthatwasrepeatedadnauseam.ElsewhereHamannglossesthispassagewiththeexplanation“Aphilologistmustnotdespisemeals”(Werke,vol.,p.).HamannconnectsabstractgrammaticalanalysiswithLeibniz’sdoctrineofpre-establishedhar-monybetweenmonads.Michaelis’approachtotheBiblecannotdistinguishtruthfromfalsehood.TheallusiontoCorinthians:ismoreexactinGerman,whichhas“theweapons[Waffen]ofrighteousness,”notasintheEnglishBible,“thearmourofrighteousness.”Michaelis(Beurtheilung,pp.–)recommendsstudyingArabicinpreparationforlearningHebrew.TheanecdoteofthegeneralHannibalandthesophistPhormioistoldbyCiceroinDeoratore.–.Informaseemstobeusedasasynonymforparexcellenceor+5P&(seen.above),thoughitmaymeannomorethanaformalproof.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageconcordancewithalltheprovisosisameansquiteasunreliableandmisleadingasthosemethodswhichhavedeterioratedintoimproperusesandwhoseweaknesstheauthorhasuncoveredwithsuchthoroughnessthatoneneedonlycollecthisownremarksanddirectthemappropriatelyinordertochallengehim.––Thusateacheralwaysbehaveswithgreatestsafetywhenhedoesnotmakehisstudentstoowise,and,ifneedbe,acon-ciseprogramofman’sobligationtospeakthetruthcanbeelaborated;theexerciseofthisdutyhoweverisnotaphilologicalgift.Theartoftakingupafortifiedpositiondoesthegreatesthonortotheauthorofthiswork.YetwhathelpisthemostforbiddingfortressifonesuffershungerthereandrightawaymakesapilgrimageinspirittoRometoassemblemanuscriptsandrightawaymuststooptothebarepenswithwhichmasterpiecesarewritten,torailatsubscriptions.AllofChristianity–butnoacademy,leastofallKirjath-sepher–caninterpretascholar’sinclinationtowardsArabicasaheresy;butonemustnotacceptthecustomsofapeoplewhoselanguageoneloves,norcoverupsmallcoupsd’etatwiththegoldplateoflanguage,nordupeyoung´peopleandMaecenasesintobelievingthatonecanfenceassoonasoneknowshowtoparryandthrustandholdtheepeeandbody.´Thescrapsastheauthordigressesabouttheoriginofthelanguagesandhisdivisionofwordsintopoeticandarbitrarydonotstrikemeasmuchmoredefinitethantheideasofthehieroglyphicsystem.Theinter-mediateideabetweenanointingandmeasuring,coveringandmaking,Michaelis,whoincludesmanyprovisosintheargumentsoftheBeurtheilung,insistsonthevalueofArabicinordertounderstandHebrew.Inafootnoteonp.,Michaelisreferstohis“programoftheobligationofmentospeakthetruth.”Michaelis,onp.oftheBeurtheilung,contraststhepaucityofSyrianliteratureinGermanywiththeireasyavailabilityinRome.Michaelis,p.oftheBeurtheilung,referstothedesirabilityofmemorizingthemasterpiecesofalanguage,asisthecustomofArabs.Joshua:andJudges:;literally,“cityofbooks,”andHamannpresumablyhastheBerlinAcademyinmind.Patrons.Insections–oftheBeurtheilung,Michaelisdigressesabouttheoriginoflanguage.Heopposesahieroglyphicaccount(wherebytheimageofaletterisimmediatelyconnectedwithitsmeaning),butinordertomakehiscasehefirstdistinguishesbetweenthe“natural”andthe“arbitrary”meaningsofwords.HamannreferstovariousattemptsinMichaelis’BeurtheilungtointerpretaHebrewwordbyawordinanotherlanguagewithadifferentmeaning.Seep.,whereMichaeliswrites“Howthesamewordcanmeanbothmeasureandanointatthesametimeisnottobepursuedfurtherhere,”orp.,where“cover”and“make”aretracedindifferentdialects(seealsop.).\nCloverleafofHellenisticlettersetc.,etc.,isalmostasfancifulaswhenGoussethitsonsomethingoutofcontext.Amoreexactinvestigationandexplanationofdialectwouldhavebeenallthemorenecessaryasthisistheentelechyofthewholetext.TheartcritichoweverappearsaslittleabletoimagineanorientaldialectkkFromthefollowinglinesoforefromSchulten’sOriginesthewholethreadbindingthequiresmaybeinferred:Dialectusestuniuslinguaevariatioexternaetaccidentalis,quaeadinternameiussubstantiamnonpertingit,sedfundamentumintegrumillibatumqueconservat–Haevariationesexternae,quaeinveramDialectumcadunt,versantur..circaelementaliterarum,sonosacpronunciandimodos.Fonshuiusvariationistemperiesaeris,inquovivitur.Sicrassiorasperiorque,asperirudioresadsciscentursoni;sinsubtiliordelicatiorque,indelicatamquandammollitiemveltenuitatemspontedevenietur..ipsorumhominumtemperamentum,seseinpartemvelpolitioremvelimpolitioremexerens..linguaelubricamobilitasquamproclivissimedelabensinliterarumvicinarumpraesertim,autuniusorganicommutationemabsqueullaintentione..intentio,cura,industria,quahocipsumiamcaptaturettanquamveldigniusvelvenustiusvelcommodiusadoptatur..Accentus,quemRegemappellarepossumuniversaepronunciationis,a`cuiusnutusicomniapendent,utsiveltantillumineofigendovariaveritconsuetudopublicaalicuiusgentis,diversaeetperegrinaemoxappareantLinguae,quaeiisdemnatalibus,iisdemcretaeradicibus,germanaconsanguinitateiunguntur..circasignificationesverborum.Gravissimumdivortium,quuminpropriaacprimarianotionealicuiusverbinoncon-spiratur..vocabulumaliquodinunaDialectofrequentatum,inalteraplanenonoccurrens;siveprioraliquidnovaverit,siveposterioridemorisiverit..differitatemsatisgrandemformantsecundariaeetmetaphoricaenotiones,quaeexpri-mariaaliquaenascisolent.Saepeenimfit,utinsecundariisistisusibuspugnaquaedamacdiscordiaoriaturinterDialectossororias.TristiaetaegritudoapudAtticos,quodapudIoneslaetitiaexultans.(TheLowGermanwordgrynenorgreinen*alsohasoppositemeaningsindifferentprovincesandimitatesthosemenofwhomacommonproverbsaysthattheyhavelaughterandweepinginonebagwhichaftertheartofanalysismustbesoughtinthecourseoftears.––Imaybepermittedtoinsertonedetailhere.Iknowsomeonewhoisquiteanadmirerofironyandwhoisseekingtoeducatehistasteinthisfigureofrhetoricinaveryunusualway,inGolius’Arabicdictionary;hedoesthisbecausehefindsexamplesofironynowheremorefrequentlythanintherootsofthislanguage.Theetymologyofthisphenomenonmaybederived,ifnotasscholarshipthenasdevotion,fromtheoriginalsinofIshmael.)AliquandoetiaminunaDialectoplurespropullulantpotestatessecundariae,inalterapauciores.ReperiodeniquequasdamDialectossicusibussecundariisindulsisse,utprimariaepenitusinobliv-ionemiverint,quaeinaliamagnostudioconservataefueruntetrecentisempermemoriaviguerunt.JacquesGousset(–),authorofLexiconlinguaeHebraicaeandCommentariilinguaeEbraicae,wasthetargetofMichaelis’criticisminsectionsandforhisundisciplinedattemptstoglossthemeaningofHebrewwords.Goussetopposedonprincipletheapplicationofcompar-ativephilologytoHebrew,asacredlanguage.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguage(Footnote‘k’cont.).circaconstructionem,loquendiformastotumqueorationisambitum.––Phrasesaliterinhac,aliterinillaDialectoconceptaeconformataeque,insummoconsensuradicalisverborummateriae,incredibilempariuntdissensumquoaduniversumambitumorationisformamqueacvelutfaciemdomesticamDialectorum.Omneslinguaehabentaliquidsingulare,domesticum,privum,praesertimcircaOrigines,quodinaliaslinguasnoneademvirtute,dignitate,venustateetamplitudinetransfundipotest.HiccharacterpraeomnibusaliisobsummamantiquitatememinetinlinguahebraeaeiusqueDialectis,Chaldaica,SyriacaetArabica.–Omneslinguaesubunovocabulounamtantumsignificationempropriametprimariampossident.Haecprimaria,princeps,propria,unainomnibuslinguisestrarissimiusus;exadversometaphoricaeetsecundariaeregnant.NullaDialectussibisufficitadOriginessibisuaspraestandas;sedomnesmutuamopemlucemquedesiderant.Nullasatisdocte,solide,profundetenetur,nisiomnessubconspectuhabeantur.IsconspectusnoninLexicispanditursedinlibris,quosquinonassidueversat,nunquamadvivumetvegetumharumlinguarumsensumperveniet.Inlinguisnilfluxiusfallatiusqueillacircinatione,quamdexteritasfabriefficit,nonNaturaipsaetOrigo.*Cf.ŒuvresducomteAlgarotti,vol.,p..Thefootnote.[Seen.foratranslation,withcomments,onthisnote.]ThelongquotationconsistsofthreepassagesfromAlbertSchultens,OriginesHebraeae(onwhichseen.above)andonedigression.ThefirstquotationrunsfromthebeginninguntiltheendofthefirstparagraphaftertheRomannumeral(“...Dialectorum”)andadaptspp.–ofSchultens’work.Itmaybetranslated:Dialectistheexternalandaccidentalvariationofasinglelanguagewhichdoesnotaffectthesubstanceofthelanguagebutpreservesitsfoundationwholeandintact.Thoseexternalvariationswhichoccurwithatruedialectinvolve:.Thealphabet,sounds,andmannersofpronunciation..Thesourceofthisvariationistheclimateinwhichonelives.Ifitisratherroughandharsh,harshandratherrudesoundswillbeadopted;if,ontheotherhand,itismorerarefiedanddelicate,thedialectwillnaturallytakeonacertaindelicatesoftnessorthinness..Thetemperamentofthementhemselves,whichrevealsitselfeitheronthesideofpolitenessorofrudeness..Theslipperymobilityofthetongue,extremelypronetolapseintoalteringlettersthatareverycloseorchangingoneorganwithoutanyintention..Thementaleffort,care,anddiligencebywhichathingisnowseizeduponandadoptedasmoreappropriate,polished,orconvenient..Accent,whichImaycalltheKingofuniversalpronunciation,fromwhoseassenteverythingdependstosuchadegreethatifthecustomofapeopleshouldvaryeventhesmallestamountinitsexpression,diverseandforeigntongueswouldsoonappear,whichareconnectedbybirth,roots,andconsanguinity..Thesignificationsofwords..Mostseriousdivergencewhenthereisnoagreementregardingaword’sproperandfundamentalmeaning..AnamethatiscommoninoneDialectbutdoesnotusuallyoccurinanother;whetheraninnovationwasintroducedbefore,orpermittedtodieofflater..Largedifferencesareformedbysecondaryandmetaphoricalmeanings,whichtendtoarisefromtheprimarymeaning.IndeeditoftenhappensthatinthesesecondaryusagesquarrelanddiscordarisesbetweensisterDialects.SadnessandsicknessamongtheAtticGreeksisexultanthap-pinessamongtheIonians.SometimesoneDialectteemswithsecondary\nCloverleafofHellenisticletterswithoutArabicasaninfirmphilosophercanimagineasoulwithoutthink-ingofthesituationofhisbody.ToconcludeinkeepingwiththeOpinion,theHebrewlanguageisliketheapocalypticbeastwhowas,andisnot,andyetis.Defunct,accordingtothetitle;––Wounds,deadlywoundsuntiltheepoch––whenweshallburstanewintosong:(Footnotecont.)definitions,butanotherhasratherfewer.LastlyIfindthatsomeDialectshavebeensotolerantofsecondaryusagesthattheprimarymeaningshavebeenaltogetherlostinobscurity,whileinanotherdialecttheywerepreservedwithgreatcareandhavealwaysflourishedwithfreshmemory..Syntax,morphology,andtheperiodofspeech.Style,whichisconceivedandshapeddifferentlyamongDialects,evenwheninagreementabouttherootmatterofwords,yieldsanunimaginabledisagreementasfarasthegeneralperiodofspeech,andthegrammaticalform,andthefamiliarface,sotospeak,ofDialects.Hamanninsertsadigressionafter.,adducingaparallelcaseofasinglewordwithoppositemeaningsindifferentdialects,whichleadshimtomakeanotherallusiontoMichaelis,whousedtheword“weep”asanexampleinhisdiscussionoftrueandfalseusesofetymology(p.).This“artofanalysis”isincapableoftreatingtears.TherelevantGermanproverbruns,“Childrenhavelaughterandweepinginthesamebag.”TheDutchOrientalistJacobGoliuspublishedaLatin–Arabicdictionary(LexiconArabico–Latinum)in,andMichaeliswascriticalofitslimitations(p.oftheBeurtheilung).ThefurthernotewhichHamannaddedtothisnotereferstoananecdoterecordedbytheItalianEnlightenmentwriterCountFrancescoAlgarotti(–),afriendofVoltaire’sandFrederickII’s,inhis“Essaisurlapeinture”;ittellsthestoryofapainterwhodemonstrateshoweasyitistochangetherepresentationofaweepingchildintothatofalaughingchild.TheoriginalsinofIshmaelismockery;seeGenesis:(andrecallthat“Isaac”means“helaughs”).ThesecondpassagefromSchultensconsistsoftwoparagraphsfromtheappendedVindiciae(“Defense”),runningfrom“Omnes...”to“...perveniet,”pp.–:Alllanguageshavesomethingunique,familiar,particular,especiallyregardingOrigins,whichcannotbetransfusedintootherlanguageswiththesamevirtue,dig-nity,grace,andamplitude.ThischaracteristicaboveallothersispreeminentonaccountofitsantiquityintheHebrewlanguageanditsDialects(Chaldee,Syriac,andArabic).–Alllanguageshaveonlyonesuchproperandprimarymeaningforeachname.Thisoneprimary,foremost,propersignificationinalllanguagesisoftherarestusage;ontheotherhand,metaphoricalandsecondarymeaningsdominate.NoDialectissufficientbyitselftoascertainitsownOrigins;rather,theyallrequiresharedaidandmutualillumination.Noneisknownwithsufficientlearning,firmness,orprofundity,unlessalltheDialectsbeheldinview.Suchaviewisnotdisclosedindictionaries,butinbooks,andwhoeverdoesnotstudythemassiduously,willneverarriveatalivingandlivelyperceptionoftheselanguages.Thethirdpassage,thefirsthalfofasentenceonp.ofSchultens’OriginesHebraeae,maybetranslated,“Inlanguagesnothingismorefluidandmoredeceptivethanthatcircularpathwhichtheskillofthecraftsmancreates,notNatureherselfandtheOriginal.”Revelation:(“beastthatwas,andisnot,andyetis”)and.“Defunct”referstoMichaelis’title,OpinionontheMeansUsedtoUnderstandtheDefunctHebrewLanguage.Revelation::“AndIsawoneofhisheadsasitwerewoundedtodeath;andhisdeadlywoundwashealed.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageAurumdeArabiaThusetMyrrhamdeSabaTulitinecclesiaVirtusasinaria–WhethermorecanbeexpectedfromthemostrecentmethodstoawakenthedefunctHebrewlanguagethanfromthedesignofthaterrantknightwhosoughttogatherandreconcilethescatteredlimbsofthepeople,timemusttell.IfthenthedoctrineoftheHebrewlanguagewerelikethewomaninthegospel,whotooksevenbrothersforherhusband,withouthavinganheir,thenofcoursesuchanexploitwouldplaceinthehandsoftheSad-duceesanewparableagainstourreligion.However,despiteallartificialmeansitcouldalsobetruehere:Youdonotunderstandthescriptures,northepowerof,neithertheirinspirationnorinterpretation,whichdoesnotdependonphilosophicalreasons.TheOriginesoftheHebrewdialecthencemaybeasdeadastheuterusofSarah:–themostmiraculousresearchersintolanguagearealso,fromtimetotime,themostimpotentexegetes;––thestrongestlawgiversarethedestroyersoftheirtables,ortheywillbecomeone-eyedthroughthefaultoftheirchildren.IfoundanideaaboutlanguagesinPascal,andIamsurprisedthatithasnotyetbeenchallenged.Hetakesalllanguagestobepotentiallydecipher-able(asfarasmymemoryserves),becausetheyarerelatedtoeachotherasonehiddenscripttoanother.Thataheadsopracticedinmathemat-icscancommitsuchanobviousfallacyiseasytounderstand,solongaswedonotturntheweaknessofhumanknowledgeintoamerelocuscom-munisorslip-holeofhissophistries.Fromhisproposition,incaseIhave“GoldfromArabiaandfrankincenseandmyrrhfromShebawerebroughtwithinthechurchbythestrengthofanass”;seeIsaiah:andMatthew:forthegold,frankincense,andmyrrh.PerhapsareferencetoChrist;seeMatthew:.Matthew:–,Mark:–,Luke:–.TheSadduceesattempttotrickJesusbyaskinghimaquestionabouttheresurrectionofawomanwhomarriedsevenbrothers.Matthew::“Jesusansweredandsaiduntothem,Yedoerr,notknowingthescriptures,northepowerofGod.”Genesis:–.SeeExodus:,whereMosesdestroysthetwotableswiththetencommandments.PerhapsareferencetoEli’ssonsandhisblindnessinSamuel–.Probablyreferstotheremark,“Languagesarecipherswherelettersarenotchangedintolettersbutwordsintowords,sothatanunknownlanguageisdecipherable,”inPascal’sPens´ees(§ofsectioninBrunschvicg’sedition).\nCloverleafofHellenisticlettersrememberedorunderstoodhimcorrectly,preciselytheoppositeconclu-sionfollows.––P.S.IamreadingoverwhatIhavewritten,anditoccurstomethatIhaveextendedfranknessintoimpertinence.Wearenowsotimidinthoughtanddemureinspeechthatwemustgiveoffensewhenwewanttospeakorhearthetruth.Theclarityofcertainbooksisoftendeceptiveanddeficient,andexposedtomuchimproperuse.Thosewhoknownothingbutthemech-anismofthescienceshavegoodcreditandneednotlookafterreaders.AStahllwillalwaysbeanobscureauthorbecauseheknowsnatureandisalwayscominguponthoseplaceswhichareasdifficulttotranslateastheoriginalbeautiesofathousand-year-oldorheterocosmicpoet–––Surgamus!solentessegravescantantibusumbrae;Iuniperigravisumbra.Nocentetfrugibusumbrae.Itedomumsaturae,venitHesperus,itecapellae!lSeeLeibniz’sjudgmentsinthecollectionofhislettersed.byKortholt(vol.,Epistle,).[GeorgErnstStahl(–),chemistandphysician,wroteprolificallyonscientifictopics.InLeibniz’sEpistolaeaddiversos(vols.,–),ed.ChristianKortholt,LeibnizoccasionallypraisesStahl,asintheletterswhichHamanncites(seepp.–andofvol.).]PerhapsareferencetotheauthoroftheKoran,praisedbyMichaelisinhisBeurtheilung.Virgil,Eclogues.–(thefinallinesoftheEclogues,slightlyaltered):“Letusrise,theshadesaretooheavyforsingers;theshadeofthejuniperisheavy.Shadesharmeventhefruits.Well-fedgoats,gohome;go,theeveningstariscoming.”\nAestheticainNuceARhapsodyinCabbalisticProseBookofJudges:hmqr!y[bxll`.ll`yrawxl!ytmqr[bx“Aestheticsinanutshell,”probablyanallusiontoasatiricalworkbyChristophOttovonSchonaich,¨DieganzeAsthetikineinerNuߨ(;“Completeaestheticsinanutshell”).Theterm“aesthetica”wasputintowidecirculationwiththepublicationofAlexanderBaumgarten’streatiseAesthetica();Baumgartenhadcoinedtheterminapreviouswork.IhavedeliberatelymodeledmytranslationofAestheticainNuceonthatbyJoyceP.Crick,whichappearsinClassicandRomanticGermanAesthetics,ed.J.M.Bernstein(CambridgeTextsintheHistoryofPhilosophy,).“Apreyofdiverscoloursofneedlework,ofdiverscoloursofneedleworkonbothsides,meetforthenecksofthemthattakethespoil.”\nElihuintheBookofJob:–jtpyAal@yykynfbAhnh.[qby!y`djtwbakylAjwrywhrbda.hn[awytp`jtpa`yaAynpa`aanAla.hnkaal!daAlawhnkayt[dyalyk.yn`[yna`yf[mk“Behold,mybellyisaswinewhichhathnovent;itisreadytoburstlikenewbottles.Iwillspeak,thatImayberefreshed:Iwillopenmylipsandanswer.Letmenot,Iprayyou,acceptanyman’sperson,neitherletmegiveflatteringtitlesuntoman.ForIknownottogiveflatteringtitles;insodoingmymakerwouldsoontakemeaway.”\nOdiprofanumvulgusetarceo.Favetelinguis!carminanonpriusaudita,Musarumsacerdos,virginibuspuerisquecanto.Regumtimendoruminpropriosgreges;regesinipsosimperiumestIovis,clarigiganteotriumpho,cunctasuperciliomoventis.Notalyre!–norapainter’sbrush!–awinnowing-fanformyMuse,topurgethethreshing-floorofholyliterature.–HailtotheArchangelovertherelicsofCanaan’slanguage–onwhiteassesaheisvictoriousinaBookofJudges:.[“Speak,yethatrideonwhiteasses,yethatsitinjudgment,andwalkbytheway.”]Horace,Ode..–:“Ihateandspurnthevulgarcrowd.Keepsacredsilence.I,priestoftheMuses,singtomaidsandyouthssongsnotheardbefore.Theruleofdreadkingsisovertheirsubjects;theruleofJove,famedforhistriumphoverthegiants,whomovesallthingswithhisnod,isoverthekingsthemselves.”Matthew::“Whosefanisinhishand,andhewillthroughlypurgehisfloor.”ThearchangelMichaelpunsonJohannDavidMichaelis(–),professorattheUniversityofGottingen,philologist,theologian,andrationalistcriticoftheBible.¨ReferencetoJohannDavidMichaelis,BeurtheilungderMittel,welchemananwendet,dieausgestorbeneHebr¨aischeSprachezuverstehen(“OpiniononthemeansusedtounderstandthedefunctHebrewlanguage”;Gottingen,¨).\nAestheticainnucethecontest;–butthewiseidiotofGreeceborrowsEuthyphro’sbproudstallionsforthephilologicalexchangeofwords.Poetryisthemother-tongueofthehumanrace,asthegardenisolderthantheploughedfield;painting,thanwriting;song,thandeclamation;parables,thanlogicaldeduction;cbarter,thancommerce.Adeepersleepwasthereposeofourmostdistantancestors,andtheirmovementwasafrenzieddance.Sevendaystheywouldsitinthesilenceofthoughtorwonder;––andwouldopentheirmouths–towingedsentences.Thesensesandpassionsspeakandunderstandnothingbutimages.Allthewealthofhumanknowledgeandhappinessconsistsinimages.ThebSeePlato’sCratylus.Hermogenes:+4&,s)+!,'/!C2 ;!sW5( /!5P+,#!#0;.Socrates:+4+< /+C8Yl:C!87 ++3'1l3(,!k+2+  .^(C66+3$/-+4+;6+.  H5( /3:675-+ -!+ +!,+!8'6+4-!-!5 -,(+ .;H -+ m4?`! -+ 81&]+ 8&+(+ +3$-–+I >+4m;$-8' #:(7+3+4+(+(+85P:!
 !6 ++ 1!+(+ 8E/W2 !E/, /–––"+2 8f,+E#+ a lϒgϒOcSkk.[Plato,Cratyluse–aandd.Hermogenes:“Indeed,Socrates,youdoseemtometobeutteringoracles,exactlylikeaninspiredprophet(enthousiˆontes).”Socrates:“Yes,Hermogenes,andIamconvincedthattheinspirationcametomefromEuthyphrothesonofPantios.ForIwaswithhimandlisteningtohimalongtimeearlythismorning.Sohemusthavebeeninspired[enthousiˆon],andhenotonlyfilledmyearsbuttookpossessionofmysoulwithhissuperhumanwisdom.SoIthinkthisisourduty:weoughttodaytomakeuseofthiswisdom...buttomorrow,iftherestofyouagree,wewillcon-jureitawayandpurifyourselves,whenwehavefoundsomeone,whetherpriestorsophist,whoisskilledinthatkindofpurifying...butaskme,sothatyoumayseewhatkindE’arelike”(tr.Fowler,LoebClassicalLibrary,adapted).ThefinalwordsechoHomer,Iliad.–and.–:“sothatyoumayseewhatTros’horsesarelike.”]c“––uthieroglyphicaliteris:sicparabolaeargumentisantiquiores,”saysBacon,myEuthyphro.[FrancisBacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum(),Book,chap.;theequivalentpassageappearsinTheAdvancementofLearning(),Book,chap.:“ashieroglyphicswerebeforeletters,soparableswerebeforearguments.”FortheLatinpassage,seep.ofvol.ofBacon’sWorks(–),ed.Spedding,Ellis,andHeath.]Socrateswasthearchetypeofthewisefool;Hamann,whoidentifieshimselfwithSocrates,publishedhisSocraticMemorabiliain.RudolfUnger,inalongfootnoteonpp.–ofHamannunddieAufkl¨arung(),findsantecedentstomostofthesecomparisonsinAntoine-YvesGoguet,Del’originedesloix,desartsetdessciencesetleurprogr`eschezlesancienspeuples(;translatedinasTheOriginofLaws,Arts,Sciences,andTheirProgressamongtheMostAncientNations).Onbarterandcommerce,seevol.,p.ofGoguet;onpaintingandwriting,seevol.,p.;ontheantiquityofsongandpoetry,seevol.,pp.–.Goguet(–)wastrainedasalawyer.Hisinterestinancienthistorywasprimarilyfocusedonthesocialandphysicalenvironmentsofancientcivilizations.Job:–::“Sotheysatdownwithhimuponthegroundsevendaysandsevennights,andnonespakeaworduntohim:fortheysawthathisgriefwasverygreat.AfterthisopenedJobhismouth.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagefirstoutburstofcreation,andthefirstimpressionofitschronicler;––thefirstmanifestationandthefirstenjoymentofnatureareunitedinthewords:“Lettherebelight!”Herebeginstheperceptionofthepresenceofthings.dAtlastcrownedthesensoryrevelationofhismajestywiththemasterpieceofman.HecreatedmaninGod’simage;––intheimageofGodcreatedhehim.ThewilloftheAuthorinthisunravelsthemostconvolutedknotsofhumannatureanditsdestiny.Blindheathensacknowledgedtheinvisibilitywhichmanhasincommonwith.Theveiledfigureofthebody,thecountenanceofthehead,andtheextremitiesofthearmsarethevisibleschemainwhichwemovealong;yetintruththeyarenothingbutafingerpointingtothehiddenmanwithinus.Exemplumquequisqueestinimagineparva.eThefirstnourishmentwasfromtheplantkingdom;themilkoftheancients,wine;theoldestpoetrywascalledbyitslearnedscholiast(aswiththetaleofJothamandJoash)fbotanical;gevenman’sfirstapparelwasarhapsodyoffig-leaves.d`C61,+,,/!5 .Ephesians:.[“Forwhatsoeverdothmakemanifestislight.”]eManilius,Astronomica,Book[Line:“EachoneisaninstanceofGinminiature”(Hamann’scapitalization)].fJudges,chap.;Chronicles:.[InJudges,Jothamtellsaparableoftreesinsearchofaking.Chronicles::“AndJoashkingofIsraelsenttoAmaziahkingofJudah,saying,ThethistlethatwasinLebanonsenttothecedarthatwasinLebanon,saying,Givethydaughtertomysontowife:andtherepassedbyawildbeastthatwasinLebanon,andtrodedownthethistle.”]g––cumplantasitpoesis,quaevelutiaterraluxurianteabsquecertoseminegermi-naverit,supraceterasdoctrinasexcrevitetdiffusaest.Bacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap..SeeHerrCouncillorJohnDavidMichaelis’notesonRobertLowth,DesacrapoesiHebraeorumpraelectionesacademicaeOxoniihabitae,p.(note).[FrancisBacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum()book,chap.(seep.ofvol.ofBacon’sWorks).TheequivalentpassageinTheAdvancementofLearning()appearsinbook,chap.:“For[poesy]beingasaplantthatcomethofthelustoftheearth,withoutaformalseed,ithathsprungupandspreadabroadmorethananyotherkind.”Michaelis,the“learnedscholiast,”publishedaneditionofRobertLowth’sDesacrapoesiHebraeorumpraelectionesacademicaeOxoniihabitae(“LecturesheldatOxfordonthesacredpoetryoftheHebrews”)in–.InNoteofthiswork,MichaelisobservesthatHebrewpoetrytookmanymetaphorsfromnature,particularlyfoliageandflowers;hecallssuchpoetry“botanical.”]Genesis::“AndGodsaid,Lettherebelight:andtherewaslight.”Genesis::“SoGodcreatedmaninhisownimage,intheimageofGodcreatedhehim.”Philippians::“andbeingfoundinfashion[5&+ ]asaman.”Genesis::“Andtheeyesofthembothwereopened,andtheyknewthattheywerenaked;andtheysewedfigleavestogether.”\nAestheticainnuceButthemadecoatsofskinsandputthemon–untoourancestors,whomtheknowledgeofgoodandevilhadtaughtshame.–Ifnecessityistheinventressofconveniencesandarts,thenwehavegoodreasontowonderwithGoguethowthefashionofclothingcouldhaveariseninEasternlands,andwhyforthatmatterintheskinsofbeasts.MayIventureaconjecturethatstrikesmeasatleastingenious?––Isettheoriginofthiscostumewithintheuniversalpersistenceofanimalcharacters,whichbecameknowntoAdamthroughhisassociationwiththeancientpoet(calledAbaddoninthelanguageofCanaanbutApollyonintheHellenisticlanguage)–Thismovedthefirstmanunderhisbor-rowedpelttotransmitanintuitiveknowledgeofpastandfutureeventstoposterity–––Speak,thatImayseeyou!––Thiswishwasfulfilledbycreation,whichisaspeechtocreaturesthroughcreatures;fordayuntodayuttersspeech,andnightuntonightshowsknowledge.Itswatchwordtraverseseveryclimetotheendoftheworld,anditsvoicecanbeheardineverydialect.––Thefaultmayliewhereitwill(outsideorinus):allwehaveleftinnatureforourusearejumbledversesanddisjectimembrapoetae.Togatherthesetogetheristhescholar’smodestpart;tointerpretthem,Genesis::“UntoAdamalsoandtohiswifedidtheGodmakecoatsofskins,andclothedthem.”GoguetarguedinDel’originedesloix,desartsetdessciencesetleurprogr`eschezlesancienspeuples(),vol.,pp.–,thatsinceclothingwasfirstworninwarmEasterncountries,theoriginalpurposeofclothingcannothavebeentheneedforwarmth.SatiricalreferencetoLessing’srationalistdiscussionoffables,inwhichhereferstothe“universallyknownpersistenceofanimalcharacters.”Seehisessay“VondemGebrauchderTiereinderFabel”(“Ontheuseofanimalsinfable”)inLessing’sWerke,ed.Gopfert,vol.¨,p..Revelation::“Andtheyhadakingoverthem,whichistheangelofthebottomlesspit,whosenameintheHebrewtongueisAbaddon,butintheGreektonguehathhisnameApollyon.”Anancientsaying,revivedbyErasmus(formoreinformation,seeKennethHaynes,“Loquereutteuideam:TowardstheLifeofanApophthegm,”LiteraryImagination:(Spring),–).Psalm:–:“Dayuntodayutterethspeech,andnightuntonightshewethknowledge.Thereisnospeechnorlanguage,wheretheirvoiceisnotheard.Theirlineisgoneoutthroughalltheearth,andtheirwordstotheendoftheworld.”InGerman,“Turbatverse,”whichwereusedtoteachstudentstowriteLatinverse.Thewordsofasingleversewouldbere-arrangedtoproduceagrammaticalbutunmetricalline.Stu-dentswouldattempttoturnthejumbledwordsbackintothemetricalformwhichscannedcorrectly.Horace,Satire..:“limbsofthedismemberedpoet.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagethephilosopher’s;toimitatehthem–orbolderstill–bringthemintorightorder,thepoet’s.Tospeakistotranslate–fromanangeliclanguageintoahumanlan-guage,thatis,totranslatethoughtsintowords,–thingsintonames–imagesintosigns,whichcanbepoeticorcuriological,ihistoricorsym-bolicorhieroglyphic––andphilosophicalorcharacteristic.jThiskindoftranslation(thatis,speech)resemblesmorethananythingelsethewrongsideofatapestry:hRescissodiscascomponerenomineversum;Lucilivatissicimitatoreris.Ausonius,EpistulaV.[Ausonius,Epistle(inthemoderneditionbyR.P.H.Green),lines–,slightlyaltered:“Mayyoulearntocomposeverseswithsplitnouns;thusyouwillbecomeanimitatorofthepoetLucilius.”]iForanexplanation,thefirstsectionofWachter’sNaturaeetscripturaeconcordia:commentatiodeliterisacnumerisprimaevis,aliisquerebusmemorabilibus,cumortuliterarumconiunctis(LeipzigandCopenhagen,)canbeconsulted.[JohannGeorgWachter(–),philologistandfreethinker,distinguishesthreestagesofwriting(curiological,symbolicorhieroglyphic,andchar-acteristic)inthepassageoftheworkcited(“Theconcordofnatureandscripture:Acommentaryonthefirstlettersandnumbers,andonothernoteworthyitemsconnectedwiththeoriginofwriting”).]jThefollowingpassagefromPetroniusistobeunderstoodasthiskindofsign.Iamobligedtoquoteitincontext,evengrantingthatitmaybereadasasatireonthephilologisthimselfandhiscontemporaries:nuperventosaistaecetenormisloquacitasAthenasexAsiacommigravit,ani-mosqueiuvenumadmagnasurgentesvelutipestilentiquodamsidereadflavit,simulquecorruptaeloquentiaeregulastetitetobmutuit.QuisposteaadsummamThucydidis?(HeiscalledthePin-darofhistorians.)quisHyperidis(whobaredPhryne’sbosomtoconvincethejudgesofhisgoodcause)adfamamprocessit?Acnecarmenquidemsanicolorisenituit;sedomnia,quasieodemcibopasta,nonpotueruntusqueadsenectutemcanescere.Pquoquenonaliumexitumfecit,postquamtammagnaeartisinvenit.ThismaybecomparedwiththeprofoundprophecywhichSocratesputintothemouthoftheEgyptianKingThamusabouttheinventionofThoth,whichmadePhaedrusexclaim,“)+!,r+0!DQ5(2$#!:C! ;!.”[Petronius,Satiricon:“YourflatulentandformlessflowofwordsisamodernimmigrantfromAsiatoAthens.Itsbreathfelluponthemindofambitiousyouthliketheinfluenceofabalefulplanet,andwhentheoldtraditionwasbroken,eloquencehaltedandgrewdumb.Inaword,whoafterthiscametoequalthesplendorofThucydides?...OrofHyperides?...Evenpoetrydidnotglowwiththecolorofhealth,butthewholeofart,nourishedononeuniversaldiet,lackedthevigortoreachthegreyhairsofoldage.Thedecadenceinwasthesame,assoonashadfoundatothishighcalling”(tr.Heseltine,LoebClassicalLibrary;Hamann’scapitals).The“philologist”inquestionisMichaelis.HyperideswasaGreekorator;anancientanecdoterelateshowhebaredthebreastofthebeau-tifulPhrynetoconvinceajuryofherinnocence(Athenaeus.e–a).]Phaedrus’words(fromPlato,Phaedrusb)maybetranslated“Socrates,youeasilymakeupstoriesaboutEgyptiansoranycountryyouplease.”“Curiological”referstothestagewhenobjectsarerepresentedbypicturesandnotbysymbols.“Characteristic”referstoalphabeticwriting.Withthesethreephases,Hamannconnectspoetry,history,andphilosophy,respectively.\nAestheticainnuceAndshewstheStuff,butnottheWorkman’sskill,oritcanbecomparedwithaneclipseofthesun,whichcanbelookedatinavesselofwater.kMoses’torchilluminateseventheintellectualworld,whichalsohasitsheavenanditsearth.HenceBaconcomparesthescienceswiththewatersaboveandbelowthevaultofourvaporousglobe.Theformerareaseaofglass,likeuntocrystalmixedwithfire;thelatter,bycontrast,arelittlecloudsfromtheocean,nobiggerthanaman’shand.Thecreationofthesetting,however,bearsthesamerelationtothecreationofmanasepictodramaticpoetry.Theformertakesplacebymeansoftheword,thelatterbymeansofaction.Heart,belikeuntothetranquilsea!––Hearthecounsel:“Letusmakemeninourimage,afterourlikeness,andletthemhavedominion!”––Beholdthedeed:Andtheformedmanofthedustoftheground––Comparecounselanddeed:worshipthemightyspeakerwiththePsalmist;lworshipthekTheonemetaphorcomesfromtheEarlofRoscommon’s“EssayonTranslatedVerse”andHowell’sLetters.Both,ifIamnotmistaken,borrowedthecomparisonfromSaavedra.Theotherisborrowedfromoneofthemostexcellentweeklyjournals(TheAdventurer).Yettheretheyareusedadillustrationem(toadornthegarment);heretheyareusedadinvolucrum(asacoveringforthebarebody),asEuthyphro’smuseteachesustodistinguish.[Roscommon,“EssayonTranslatedVerse”(),l.,ontranslatingHoraceintoprose.Intheposthumous,fiftheditionofJamesHowell’sFamiliarLetters(),hewritesthat“SomeholdTranslationsnotunliketobe,/Thewrong-sideofaTurkyTapistry”(p.);heexpandsthatcomparisoninproseonp..“Saavedra”isMiguelCervantesdeSaavedra.Inchap.ofPartofDonQuixote,hecomparestranslationfromvernacularlanguagestoviewingFlemishtapestriesfromthewrongside.Onp.ofTheAdventurer,No.(April,),theauthorwritesthattoreadAristotleorGreektragedyinmodernFrenchversions“islikebeholdingtheorbofthesun,duringaneclipse,inavesselofwater.”BacondistinguishesbetweenparablesthatactadinvolucrumfromthosethatactadillustrationeminDeaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap.(seeBacon’sWorks,vol.,p.).InTheAdvancementofLearning,Book,chap.,heopposestwokindsof“poesyparabolical”:one“thattendethtodemonstrateandillustratethatwhichistaughtordelivered”andanotherthattendsto“retireandobscureit–thatis,whenthesecretsandmysteriesofreligion,policy,orphilosophy,areinvolvedinfablesorparables.”]lPsalm:.[“Forhespake,anditwasdone;hecommanded,anditstoodfast.”]Bacon,TheAdvancementofLearning,Book,chap.:“Theknowledgeofmanisasthewaters,somedescendingfromabove,andsomespringingfrombeneath:theoneinformedbythelightofnature,theotherinspiredbydivinerevelation.”Cf.Deaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap.(seeBacon’sWorks,vol.,p.).Revelation::“Andbeforethethronetherewasaseaofglasslikeuntocrystal.”Kings::“Behold,therearisethalittlecloudoutofthesea,likeaman’shand.”Genesis::“AndGodsaid,Letusmakemaninourimage,afterourlikeness:andletthemhavedominion.”Genesis::“AndtheGodformedmanofthedustoftheground.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagesupposedgardenermwithherwhoborethenewstothedisciples;worshipthefreepotternwiththeApostletoHellenisticphilosophersandtheTalmudicscribes!ThehieroglyphicAdamisthehistoryoftheentireraceinthesymbolicwheel:––thecharacterofEveistheoriginalofNature’sbeautyandofsystematiceconomy,whichisnotwrittenwithmethodicalsanctityontheplatewornontheforehead,butiswroughtbeneaththeearthandlieshidden–inthebowels,intheveryreinsofthings.Virtuososofthepresentaeon,uponwhichthecausedadeepsleeptofall!Younoblefew!Makeuseofthissleep,andbuildfromthisEndymion’sribthelatesteditionofthehumansoul,whichthebardofmidnightsongsbeheldinhismorningdreamo––butnotfromcloseathand.Thenextaeonwillawakelikeagiantfromadrunkenstuportoembraceyourmuseandrejoiceandbearwitnesstoher:Thisisnowboneofmyboneandfleshofmyflesh!IfsomemodernliteraryLeviteweretotakenoteinpassingofthisrhapsody,IknowinadvancethathewillblesshimselflikeSaintmJohn:–.[“Jesussaithuntoher,Woman,whyweepestthou?whomseekestthou?She,supposinghimtobethegardener,saithuntohim,Sir,ifthouhavebornehimhence,tellmewherethouhastlaidhim,andIwilltakehimaway.Jesussaithuntoher,Mary.Sheturnedherself,andsaithuntohim,Rabboni;whichistosay,Master.Jesussaithuntoher,Touchmenot;forIamnotyetascendedtomyFather:butgotomybrethren,andsayuntothem,IascenduntomyFather,andyourFather;andtomyGod,andyourGod.”]nRomans:.[“Hathnotthepotterpowerovertheclay,ofthesamelumptomakeonevesseluntohonour,andanotheruntodishonour?”]oSeeDr.Young’s“LettertotheAuthorofSirCharlesGrandison”onoriginalcomposition.[EdwardYoung(–)prefaceda“LettertotheAuthorofSirCharlesGrandison”(i.e.,SamuelRichardson)tohisConjecturesonOriginalComposition();inithedefendsanotionofprogress,askingwhether“heaven’slatesteditionsofthehumanmindmaybethemostcorrect”(p.).]Paul,both“amanwhichamaJew”(Acts:)and“theapostleoftheGentiles”(Romans:).Theplatewornontheforehead(Stirnblatt)appearsinExodus:and:.WornbyAaron,itisinscribedwiththewords,“HolinesstotheLord.”Psalm:–:“Forthouhastpossessedmyreins:thouhastcoveredmeinmymother’swomb...Mysubstancewasnothidfromthee,whenIwasmadeinsecret,andcuriouslywroughtinthelowestpartsoftheearth.”Beforeitacquiredthesenseof“connoisseur,”“virtuoso”denotedmoregenerallyascholarorscientist.Genesis::“AndtheGodcausedadeepsleeptofalluponAdam,andheslept:andhetookoneofhisribs.”HamanncombinesthestoryofEve’screationfromAdam’sribwiththestoryofEndymion,thehandsomeyouthwhomthemoon-goddesslovedandwhonowenjoysaneternalsleep.Genesis::“AndAdamsaid,Thisisnowboneofmybones,andfleshofmyflesh.”TheLeviteiscontrastedwiththegoodSamaritaninLuke:–.HamannisreferringtoMosesMendelssohn.\nAestheticainnucePeterpbeforethegreatsheetknitatthefourcorners,whereinhecaughtsightataglanceandbeheldfour-footedbeastsoftheearth,andwildbeasts,andcreepingthings,andfowlsoftheair–––“Ohno,youmanpossessed,youSamaritan”––(thatishowhewillscoldthephilolo-gistinhisheart)–“forreadersoforthodoxtastes,lowexpressionsanduncleanvesselsarenotproper”––Impossibilissimumest,communiapropriedicere–Behold,thatiswhyanauthorwhosetasteisbuteightdaysold,butcircumcised,willsoilhisswaddlingclotheswithpurewhitecoveredgentian–tothehonorofhumanneeds!––TheoldPhrygian’sfableduglinesswasinfactneversodazzlingastheaestheticbeautyofAesoptheyounger.Today,Horace’stypicalodetoAristusqisfulfilled,thatthepoetwhosingsthepraisesofsweet-smilingLalage,whosekississtillsweeterthanherlaughter,hasmadefopsoutofSabine,Apuline,andMauretanianmonsters.–True,onecanbeamanwith-outfindingitnecessarytobecomeanauthor.Butwhoeverexpectshisgoodfriendstothinkofthewriterapartfromthemanismoreinclinedtopoeticthantophilosophicalabstractions.ThereforedonotventureintothemetaphysicsofthefineartswithoutbeinginitiatedintothepActs:.[“Andsawheavenopened,andacertainvesseldescendinguponhim,asithadbeenagreatsheetknitatthefourcorners,andletdowntotheearth.”]qOde..[Seen..]Acts:–:“Andsawheavenopened,andacertainvesseldescendinguponhim,asithadbeenagreatsheetknitatthefourcorners,andletdowntotheearth:Whereinwereallmanneroffourfootedbeastsoftheearth,andwildbeasts,andcreepingthings,andfowlsoftheair.”ThevisionbelongedtoPeter,whoatfirstresistedGod’sinstructiontoeatthe“commonorunclean”animals(Acts:).TheJewsaskedJesusinJohn:,“SaywenotwellthatthouartaSamaritan,andhastadevil?”“Itismostimpossibletospeakofcommonthingsinaparticularway”;HamannalludestoHorace,Arspoetica,substituting“mostimpossible”forHorace’s“difficult.”InHamann’scontext“commonthings”refertovulgaroruncleanmatters(cf.Acts:).Genesis::“Andhethatiseightdaysoldshallbecircumcisedamongyou.”“Whitegentian”wasrecordedinAdelung’sdictionaryasanexpressionamongcommonersforthewhiteexcrementofdogs.Aesop,whomtraditionrecordsasextremelyugly,iscontrastedwithLessing,whopublishedhisFabeln(“Fables”)in.Theode,addressedtoAristius(not“Aristus”)Fuscus,beginsbysayingthatthemanwhoispureofheartneedsnoweaponstodefendhimselfindangerousterritory;asanexample,Horacerecallsthatamonstrouswolffledfromhimwhenhewassinging,unarmed,ofLalage;itendswithHorace’sdeclaration,“IshalllovesweetlysmilingLalage,sweetlyspeaking.”HamanngivesthemonstersgeographicdesignationsthatrecallplacesmentionedinHorace’sode.InLetter(January,)ofPartofBriefe,dieneuesteLiteraturbetreffend(“Lettersconcerningthemostrecentliterature”),Lessingwrote,“Whatdoestheprivatelifeofawritermattertous?”(p.).\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageorgiesrandEleusinianmysteries.ButthesensesbelongtoCeres,andtoBacchusthepassions,–theancientfoster-parentsofnaturethebeautiful.Bacche!venidulcisquetuisecornibusuvaPendeat,etspicistemporacingeCeres!sIfthisrhapsodyshouldindeedbehonoredwiththejudgmentofamasterofIsrael,thenletusgomeethiminholyprosopopoeia,twhichisaswelcomeintherealmofthedeadasitisintherealmoftheliving(––simodoponorinillis):MostWorthyandLearnedRabbi!“ThepostilionoftheHolyRomanEmpire,whobearsthedeviceRelatareferoontheshieldofhisescutcheon,hasmademecravethesecondhalfofthehomiliesdesacrapoesi.Iburnwithdesireforthem–andhavewaitedinvainuntilthisveryday,evenasthemotheroftheHazoritecaptainlookedoutofthewindowforherson’schariotandcriedr“OrgianecPentheumnecOrpheumtolerant.”Bacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap..[“TheorgiesofBacchuscannotendureeitherPentheusorOrpheus.”Baconexplains:arulingpassionishostilebothtocuriousinquiry[Pentheus]andtowholesomeadvice[Orpheus].SeeBacon’sWorks,vol.,p.;thepassageistranslatedinWorks,vol.,p..]sTibullus,Elegy..[Lines–:“Bacchus,come,letthesweetgrapeshangfromyourhorns;andwreatheyourtempleswithearsofcorn,Ceres.”]t“L’artdepersonnifierouvreunchampbienmoinsbornee´tplusfertilequel’ancienneMythologie,”FontenelleinSurlapo´esieeng´en´eral,vol..[“Theartofpersonification[prosopopoeia]opensafieldthatismuchlessrestrictedandmorefertilethanancientmythology,”BernardLeBovierdeFontenelle(–),Frenchpolymath,inSurlapo´esieeng´en´eral(;“Onpoetryingeneral”);seeFontenelle’sŒuvrescompl`etes,ed.Niderst(vols.;–),vol.,p..(Hamannreferstoaneighteenth-centuryeditionofFontenelle.)Lowth’sthirteenthlecturewasdevotedto“prosopopoeia,orpersonification.”]John::“Jesusansweredandsaiduntohim,ArtthouamasterofIsrael,andknowestnotthesethings?”Michaelisismeant.Onepopularformofprosopopoeiaintheperiodwasthegenreof“dialoguesofthedead.”IthasbeensuggestedthatLowth’sdistinctionbetweenthetwokindsofprosopopoeia(attributedeithertoafictitiousorarealcharacter)gaverisetoHamann’scontrastbetweenlivinganddead.ps-Ovid,Nuxl.:“Ifasanut-treeIamcountedamongthem”;“nux”(“nut”or“nut-tree”)alludestothetitleofHamann’sessay.Areferencetotheweeklynewspaper,Frankfurt’sKayserlicheReichs-Postzeitungen(“Imperialkingdom’spost-newspaper”).“IreportwhatIhavebeentold.”InMichaelis’prefacetoLowth(p.xxvi),heprefersthatthe“orationessacrae”ofan“eloquentphilosopher”becalled“homilies.”ThenewspaperpresumablyannouncedthepublicationofthesecondhalfofMichaelis’editionofRobertLowth’slecturesonHebrewpoetry,DesacrapoesiHebraeorumpraelectionesOxoniihabitae(“LecturesheldatOxfordonthesacredpoetryoftheHebrews”),whichwaspublishedin–.\nAestheticainnucethroughthelattice––DonotthinkillofmethenifIspeaktoyouliketheghostinHamlet,withbeckonings,untilIhaveamoresuitableoccasiontodeclaremyselfinsermonesfideles.uWillyoubelievewithoutproofthatOrbispictus,bytherenownedenthusiast,school-master,andphilologistuJohn:.ThefollowingpassagefromBacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum,Book,mayhelptoguardagainstthecrudeandignorantideaofpronouncingthepresentimitationofcabbalisticstyletobegoodorbad:Ininterpretandimodo[soluto]duointerveniuntexcessus.AltereiusmodipraesupponitinScripturisperfectionem,utetiamomnisPhilosophiaexearumfontibuspetidebeat,acsiPhilosophiaaliaquaevisresprofanaessetetethnica.HaecintemperiesinscholaParacelsipraecipue,necnonapudaliosinvaluit;initiaautemeiusaRabbinisetdefluxerunt.Verumistiusmodihominesnonidassequuntur,quodvolunt:nequeenimhonorem,utputant,Scripturisdeferunt,sedeasdempotiusdeprimuntetpolluunt.–QuemadmodumenimTheologiaminPhilosophiaquaerere,perindeestacsivivosquaerasintermortuos:ita[econtra]PhilosophiaminTheologiaquaerere,nonaliudest,quammortuos[quaerere]intervivos.Alterauteminterpretandimodus(quemproexcessustatuimus)videturprimointuitusobriusetcastus;sedtamenetScripturasipsasdedecorat,etplurimoEcclesiamafficitdetrimento.Isest(utverbodicamus)quandoScripturaedivinitusinspirataeeodem,quoscriptahumana,explicanturmodo.Meminisseautemoportet,,ScripturarumAuctori,duoillapatere,quaehumanaingeniafugiunt:Secretanimirumcordisetsuccessionestemporis.––CumScripturarumdictaminataliasint,utadcorscribantur,etomniumsaeculorumvicissitudinescomplectantur;cumaeternaetcertapraescientiaomniumhaeresium,contradictionumetstatusEcclesiaevariietmutabilis,tumincommuni,tuminelectissingulis:interpretandaenonsuntsolummodosecundumlatitudinemetobviumsensumloci:autrespiciendoadoccasionem,exquaverbaerantprolata:autpraeciseexcontextuverborumpraecedentiumetsequentium;autcontemplandoscopumdictiprincipalem:sedsic,utintelligamus,complectieas,nonsolumtotaliter,autcollective,seddistributive,etiaminclausulisetvocabulissingulis,innumerosdoctrinaerivulosetvenas,adEcclesiaesingulaspartesetanimasfideliumirrigandas.Egregieenimobservatumest,quodResponsaSalvatorisnostriadquaestionesnonpaucas,exiis,quaeproponebantur,nonvidenturadrem,sedquasiimpertinentia.Cuiusreicausaduplexest.Altera,quodquumcogitationeseorum,quiinterrogabant,nonexverbis,utnoshominessolemus,sedimmediateetexsesecognovisset,adcogitationeseorum,nonadverbarespondet:Altera,quodnonadeossolumlocutusest,quituncaderant,sedadnosetiam,quivivimusetadomnisaeviaclocihomines,quibusEvangeliumfueritpraedicandum.QuodetiaminaliisScripturaelocisobtinet.[Seen..]Judges::“ThemotherofSiseralookedoutatawindow,andcriedthroughthelattice.”SiserawasthegeneralofthearmyunderKingJabinofHazor.ThepassageisdiscussedbyLowthasaninstanceofprosopopoeiainhisthirteenthlecture.Hamlet,Act,Scene.“Sermonesfideles”are“faithfulsayings”;thephraseinthesingularoccursintheVulgatetrans-lationofTimothy::“Thisisafaithfulsaying,andworthyofallacceptation.”TheLatintranslationofBacon’sEssayswasentitledSermonesfideles().John::“Verily,verily,Isayuntothee,Wespeakthatwedoknow,andtestifythatwehaveseen;andyereceivenotourwitness.”ThelongquotationfromBacon’sDeaugmentisscientiarumappearsonp.ofvol.ofBacon’sWorks(–),ed.Spedding,Ellis,andHeath;itwastranslatedinvol.,pp.–asfollows:“inthefreewayofinterpretingScripture,thereoccurtwoexcesses.TheonepresupposessuchperfectioninScripture,thatallphilosophylikewiseshouldbederivedfromitssources;asifallotherphilosophyweresomethingprofaneandheathen.ThisdistemperhasprincipallygrownupintheschoolofParacelsusandsomeothers;butthebeginningsthereofcamefromtheRabbisand.Butthesemendonotgaintheirobject;andinsteadofgivinghonortotheScripturesastheysuppose,theyratherembaseandpollutethem...andastoseektheologyinphilosophy\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageAmosComenius,vandtheExercitiaofMuzeliusarebothbooksfartoolearnedforchildrenstillonlypract-is-ingtheirspell-ing––andverily,verily,wemustbecomeevenaslittlechildrenifwearetoreceivethespiritofthetruthwhichtheworldcannotgrasp,foritseesitnot,and(evenifitweretoseeit)knowsitnot.––Blameitonthefoolishnessofmywayofwriting,whichaccordssoillwiththeoriginalmathematicalsinofyourearliestwriting,andstilllesswiththewittyrebirthofyourmostrecentworks,ifIborrowanexamplefromthespelling-bookwhichdoubtlessvSeeKortholt’scollectionofLeibniz’sletters,vol.,Ep..[ChristianKortholteditedLeibnitiiepistolaeaddiversos(“LettersofLeibniztovariouspeople”)in–.ThelettercitedistoMagnusHesenthalerin(seeLeibniz,PhilosophischerBriefwechsel,ed.PrussianAcademyofSciences,pp.–).Leibnizwrites,“ThereforeIabsolutelyagreewithComeniusthatJanualinguarumandasmallencyclopediamustbeoneandthesame.”]istoseekthelivingamongthedead,sotoseekphilosophyintheologyistoseekthedeadamongtheliving.TheothermethodofinterpretationwhichIsetdownasanexcess,appearsatthefirstglancesoberandmodest,yetinrealityitbothdishonorstheScripturesthemselves,andisveryinjurioustotheChurch.Thisis,(inaword),whenthedivinelyinspiredScripturesareexplainedinthesamewayashumanwritings.ButweoughttorememberthattherearetwothingswhichareknowntotheauthoroftheScriptures,butunknowntoman;namely,thesecretsoftheheart,andthesuccessionsoftime...AndthereforeasthedictatesofScripturearewrittentotheheartsofmen,andcomprehendthevicissitudesofallages;withaneternalandcertainforeknowledgeofallheresies,contradictionsanddifferingandchangingestatesoftheChurch,aswellingeneralasoftheindividualelect,theyarenottobeinterpretedonlyaccordingtothelatitudeandobvioussenseoftheplace;orwithrespecttotheoccasionwhereonthewordswereuttered;orinprecisecontextwiththewordsbeforeorafter;orincontemplationoftheprincipalscopeofthepassage;butwemustconsiderthemtohaveinthemselves,notonlytotallyorcollectively,butdistributivelyalsoinclausesandwords,infinitespringsandstreamsofdoctrines,towatereverypartoftheChurchandthesoulsofthefaithful.ForithasbeenwellobservedthattheanswersofourSaviortomanyofthequestionswhichwerepropoundedtoHimdonotappeartothepoint,butasitwereimpertinentthereto.Thereasonwhereofistwofold;theone,thatknowingthethoughtsofhisquestionersnotaswemendobytheirwords,butimmediatelyandofhimself,heansweredtheirthoughtsandnottheirwords;theother,thatHedidnotspeakonlytothepersonsthenpresent,buttousalsonowliving,andtomenofeveryageandnationtowhomtheGospelwastobepreached.AndthisalsoholdsgoodinotherpassagesofScripture”(tr.adapted;Hamann’scapitals).JohnAmosComenius(–)wasaCzecheducationalreformeranddevotionalwriter.TwoofhistextbooksforinstructioninLatinhadalargeinfluenceintheseventeenthcentury:Janualinguarumreserata(;“Thegateoflanguagesunlocked”)andOrbispictussensualium(;“Thevisiblewordinpictures”).FriedrichMuzelius(–)wasanauthorofschooltextbooks,includingtheCompendiumuniversaeLatinitas...inexercitiaGermanicaredactae(;“CompendiumofallLatin...arrangedintoGermanexercises”).Onp.ofhisBeurtheilungderMittel(“Opinionofthemeans”;seen.above),MichaelisarguesagainstthethesisthatnophilologicalhelpisneededtounderstandtheBible;thiswouldbethecaseonlyiftheBiblewereComenius’OrbispictusandMuzelius’Exercitia.Matthew::“VerilyIsayuntoyou,Exceptyebeconverted,andbecomeaslittlechildren,yeshallnotenterintothekingdomofheaven.”John::“EventheSpiritoftruth;whomtheworldcannotreceive,becauseitseethhimnot,neitherknowethhim.”\nAestheticainnucemaybeolderthantheBible.DotheelementsoftheABClosetheirnaturalmeaning,ifintheirinfinitecombinationsintoarbitrarysignstheyremindusofideaswhichdwell,ifnotinheaven,theninourbrains?––Butifweraiseupthewholedeservingrighteousnessofascribeuponthedeadbodyoftheletter,whatdoesthespiritsaytothat?Shallhebebutagroomofthedeadchambertothedeadletter,orperhapsamereesquiretothedeadeningletter?Godforbid!––Accordingtoyourcopiousinsightintophysicalthings,youknowbetterthanIcanremindyouthatthewindblowswhereitlists–regardlessofwhetheronehearsitblowing;soonelookstothefickleweather-cocktofindoutwhereitcomesfrom,orrather,whitheritisgoing––”Ahscelusindignum!solveturliteradives?Frangaturpotiuslegumvenerandapotestas.LiberetalmaCeressuccurrite!––wwSeetheEmperorOctaviusAugustus’poeticedictbywhichVirgil’slastwilldeabolendaAeneideissaidtohavebeennullified.––OnecanconcedewholeheartedlywhatDr.GeorgeBensonhastosayabouttheunityofsense,thoughhehasscarcelydevelopedhisideas,ratheraddedthemtogetherwithlittlethought,selection,orsmoothness.Ifhehadtriedtoconveysomeearthlypropositionsabouttheunityofreading,histhoroughnesswouldstrikeusmorestrongly.––Onecannotleafthroughthefourvolumesofthisparaphrasticexplanationwithoutaveryambivalentsmile,normissthefrequentpassageswhereDr.Benson,thebeamofpoperyinhisowneye,inveighsagainstthemotesoftheRomanChurch–passageswhereheimitatesourowntheologicalcouncillorswholoudlyapplaudeveryblindandover-hastyideahonoringthecreaturemorethanthecreator.––First,onewouldhavetoaskDr.Bensonwhetherunitycanexistwithoutmultiplicity?–AloverofHomerrunstothesameriskoflosinghisunityofsensebyFrenchparaphrastslikedelaMotteorathoughtfuldogmatistlikeSamuelClarke.––Theliteralorgrammaticalsense,thecorporealordialecticalsense,theCapernaiticorhistoricalsenseareallprofoundlymystical,andtheyaredeterminedbyminorcircumstancesofsuchafleeting,spiritual,arbitrarynaturethatwithoutascendingtoheavenwecannotfindthekeyoftheirknowledge.Wemustnotshrinkfromanyjourneyacrosstheseaortotheregionsofsuchshadesashavebelieved,spoken,sufferedforaday,two,forahundredorathousandyears–mysteries!Theuniversalhistoryoftheworldcanhardlytellusasmuchaboutthemasthespaceofthenarrowesttombstone,orascanberetainedbyEcho,thatnymphofthelaconicmemory.––Themanwhowantstoentrusttoustheschemeswhichintellectualwritersinacriticalplaceforgeinordertoconverttheirunbelievingbrethrenmusthavethekeystoheavenandhell.BecauseMosesplacedlifeintheblood,allthebaptizedrabbisareafraidofthespiritandlifeoftheprophets,bywhichtheliteralunderstanding,thechildoftheirheart(5++"$-)issacrificedandthestreamsofEasternwisdomturnedtoblood.––Thesestifledthoughtsarenotfordaintystomachs.–Abstractainitiisoccultis;concretamaturitaticonveniunt,accordingtoBengel’ssun-dialpin–(planepollex,nonindex).[Seen..]Corinthians::“fortheletterkilleth,butthespiritgivethlife.”Michaelisemphasizesgeographyandclimateinhisbiblicalexegesis.John::“Thewindblowethwhereitlisteth,andthouhearestthesoundthereof,butcanstnottellwhenceitcometh,andwhitheritgoeth.”TheLatinlinescomefromtheputative“CaesariAugustotributum”(“WhatisowedtoCaesarAugustus”),apoemnumberedintheLatinAnthology,inwhichAugustusoverturnedVirgil’sposthumousinstructionthattheAeneidbedestroyed(deabolendeAeneide).Thelinesquoted\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageTheopinionsofphilosophersarereadingsofnature,andthepreceptsofthetheologiansarereadingsofScripture.Theauthoristhebestinter-preterofhisownwords.Hemayspeakthroughcreatedthings–throughevents–orthroughbloodandfireandvaporofsmoke,xfortheseconstitutethelanguageofholiness.xActs:.[“AndIwillshewwondersinheavenabove,andsignsintheearthbeneath;blood,andfire,andvapourofsmoke.”]are,,and,respectively:“Ohunworthycrime!Willtherichworkbedestroyed?”;“Rather,lettheaugustpowerofthelawsbeinfringed”;“BacchusandkindCeres,cometoouraid!”GeorgeBenson(–),Presbyterianministerandtheologian,collectedhisparaphrasesonthePaulineepistlesinasAParaphraseandNotesonSixoftheEpistlesofSt.Paul;itwastranslatedintoGermanin(anotherofBenson’sworkswastranslatedbythe“theologicalcouncillor”Michaelis).TheintroductiontoBenson’svolumesissubtitled“Anessayconcerningontheunityofsense;toshowthatnotextofscripturehasmorethanonesense.”Onpp.x–xioftheintroduction,hediscussesapassageofHomer(Iliad.–),inwhichEustathiusandAnneDacierfoundandapplaudedthemultiplemeanings.BensonquoteswithapprovalthecommentofSamuelClarke(–),theologianandclassicalscholar,onthispassage.InhiscommentaryontheIliad,ClarkehadsidedwithPopeandinsistedthatonlyonemeaningispresentinhisverses.AntoineHoudardelaMotte(–)publishedagreatlyabridgedversionofHomer’sIliadinverseonthebasisofAnneDacier’sproseversion(ashedidnotknowGreek).InhisDiscourssurHom`ere,heobjectedtomanyaspectsofHomer’sverseandinparticulartorepetitionofspeechesincontradictorycontextswhichviolatedtheunityofthepoem(seehisŒuvres,vol.,pp.–,–,–).The“Capernaitic”senseishistoricalbecausewhenChristsaidinCapernaumthathewasthebreadoflifeandthatanymanthatshouldeatofitshallliveforever,theJewsobjectedtotheliteralmeaningofthewords(John:–).“Keyoftheirknowledge”echoesLuke:.Forshrinkingfroma“journeyacrossthesea,”cf.Deuteronomy::“Neitherisitbeyondthesea,thatthoushouldestsay,Whoshallgoovertheseaforus,andbringituntous.”ThekeysofthekingdomofheavenaregiventoPeteratMatthew:;thekeysofhellappearinRevelation:.“Mosesplacedlifeintheblood”;cf.Leviticus::“Forthelifeofthefleshisintheblood:andIhavegivenittoyouuponthealtartomakeanatonementforyoursouls:foritisthebloodthatmakethanatonementforthesoul.”5++"$-means“inafigureofspeech,inaparable”;itistranslated“inafigure”inHebrews:.“TurnthestreamsofEasternwisdomtoblood”:riversareturnedtobloodinExodus:andRevelation:.JohannAlbrechtBengel(–)wasatextualcriticanddevotionalwriter.Thesun-dialpinisagnomon,whichisareferencetothetitleofBengel’sNewTestamentcommentary,GnomonNoviTestamenti(;“IndexoftheNewTestament”).TheLatinwordshavenotbeentracedinthiswork,thoughtheyaresimilarinthoughttoBengel’scommentonMatthew:.TheLatinmaybetranslated,“Theabstractsuitshiddenbeginnings;theconcretesuitsmaturity.”“Planepollex,nonindex”:Cicero,LettertoAtticus.(orinShackletonBailey’sedition):“athumbindeed,notanindexfinger”(Ciceroispunning;heiswritingtoAtticusaboutanacquaintancenamedPollex,“thumb,”whodoesnotgivehimtheinformationhewants;“index”isboth“indexfinger”and“informer.”\nAestheticainnuceThebookofcreationcontainsexamplesofgeneralconceptswhichwishedtorevealtocreaturesthroughcreation.Thebooksofthecovenantcontainexamplesofsecretarticleswhichwishedtorevealtomanthroughman.TheunityoftheAuthorismirroredeveninthedialectofhisworks–inallofthematoneofimmeasurableheightanddepth!Aproofofthemostsplendidmajestyandoftotalself-emptying!Amiracleofsuchinfinitestillnessthatmakesasnothing,sothatinallconscienceonewouldhavetodenyhisexistence,orelsebeabeast.yButatthesametimeamiracleofsuchinfinitepower,whichfillsallinall,thatwecannotescapehisintensesolicitude!–Ifwhatmattersisthegoodtasteoftheworshipconsistinginthephilo-sophicalspiritandpoetictruth,andwhatmattersisthestatecraftzoftheversification,canwepresentamorecrediblewitnessthantheimmortalVoltaire,whovirtuallydeclaresreligiontobethecornerstoneofepicpoetryandwhosegreatestlamentisthathisreligionaaistheoppositeofmythology?BaconrepresentsmythologyasawingedboyofAeolus,thesunathisback,andwithcloudsforhisfootstool,andwhilingawaythetimepipingonaGrecianflute.bbyPsalms:–.[“Thusmyheartwasgrieved,andIwasprickedinmyreins.SofoolishwasI,andignorant:Iwasasabeastbeforethee.”]z“Laseulepolitiquedansunpoemedoitdefairedebonsvers,”saysVoltaireinhiscredoonthe`epic.[Inthe“IdeedelaHenriade”;seep.´ofvol.oftheVoltaireFoundation’sCompleteWorks.]aaWhatVoltaireunderstandsbyreligion,grammaticicertantetadhucsubiudicelisest;thephilologisthasaslittletoworryabouthereashisreaders.WemayregarditasthelibertiesoftheGallicanChurchorthesulfuricflowersofpurifiednaturalism;thenneitherexplana-tionwilldoharmtotheunityofthesense.[HamannquotesHorace,Arspoetica,“scholarsargue,andthecaseisstillunderconsideration.”By“naturalism”Hamannmeansnaturalreligion.]bbFabulaemythologicaevidenturesseinstartenuiscuiusdamaurae,quaeextraditionibusnationummagisantiquaruminGraecorumfistulasinciderunt.Bacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap..[“Mythologicalfablesseemtobeakindofsoftbreathfromthetraditionsofmoreancientnations,whichfellintothepipesoftheGreeks.”Seep.ofvol.ofBacon’sWorksfortheLatin,andp.ofvol.fortheEnglishtranslation(hereslightlymodified).]AnallusiontoPhilippians::“Butmadehimselfofnoreputation”[moreliterally,“emptiedhimself”].Ephesians::“thefulnessofhimthatfillethallinall.”John::“thetrueworshippersshallworshiptheFatherinspiritandintruth.”Psalm::“Thestonewhichthebuildersrefusedisbecometheheadstoneofthecorner.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageButVoltaire,highpriestinthetempleoftaste,drawsconclusionsascompellinglyasCaiaphasccandthinksmorefruitfullythanHerod.ddForifourtheologyisnotworthasmuchasmythology,thenitissimplyimpossibleforustomatchthepoetryoftheheathens–letaloneexcelit,whichwouldbemostinkeepingwithourdutyandourvanity.Butifourpoetryisworthless,ourhistorywilllookleanerthanPharaoh’skine;butfairy-talesandcourtgazetteswillmakegoodourlackofhistorians.Anditisnotworththetroubleofthinkingofphilosophy;allthemorehoroscopes!–morethanspider-websinaruinedcastle.Everyidlefellowwhocanjustaboutmanagedog-LatinorSwitzer-GermanbutwhosenameisstampedbythewholenumberMorhalfthenumberoftheacademicbeastprovessuchblatantliesthatthebenchesandtheclodssittingonthemwouldhavetocry“Murder!”iftheformeronlyhadears,cc“Qu’unhommeaitdujugementounon,ilprofiteegalementdevosouvrages:ilneluifautque´dela,”saysawritercapableofutteringpropheciestoVoltaire’sface––+ 3>2 C5 &+]+ r+01L+,SocratesinPlato’sIon.[TheFrenchquotationistakenfromFredericktheGreat’sletteronMarch,toVoltaire:“Whetheramanhasjudgmentornot,heprofitsequallyfromyourworks;allheneedsismemory”;seep.ofvol.oftheVoltaireFoundation’sCompleteWorks.Plato,Ione,“Forgetfulnessillsuitsarhapsode.”]ddPhotius(inhisAmphilochiaequaestiones,whichJohannChristophWolfhasaddedtohiscornucopiaofcriticalandphilologicalwhimsies)searchesforaprophecyinthewordsofHerodtotheWiseMenoftheEast(“thatImaycomeandworshiphimalso”)andcomparesthemwithCaiaphas’pronouncementatJohn:–.Henotes:t !>++#! !+4^7 +8+C0C)$#+4J$- + ,:0#C2+82+!,# 1<#,:+.PhotiusimaginesHerodasaJanusbifrons,whorepresentedtheGentilesbyhisraceandtheJewsbyhisoffice.–Verymanymaliciousandemptyideas(whichmastersandservantsbragabout)wouldassumeanaltogetherdifferentlightforusifweweretorememberfromtimetotimetoaskourselvesorwhethertheyarespeakingontheirownorshouldbeunderstoodasprophetic.[Photius,theninth-centuryPatriarchofConstantinople,isanimportantfigureinthehistoryoftheChristianchurchandinclassicalscholarship.ThepassagequotedcomesfromhistheologicalworkAmphilochia,Question.ThetheologianandphilologistJohannChristophWolf(–)quotedthepassagefromPhotiusinvol.ofhisCuraephilologicaeetcriticae().InthemodernTeubnereditionoftheAmphilochia,itappearsinvol.,part,p.;itmaybetranslated“Youmayseethatotherwordslikethese,spokenwithamaliciousheartandmurderousintention,gainapropheticend.”“Janusbifrons”is“two-facedJanus.”]Cf.Voltaire,LeTempledugoˆut().Hamannalludesto“QuerelledesAnciensetdesModernes”(“Quarreloftheancientsandthemoderns”);seeforexamplePeterFrance,ed.,TheNewOxfordCompaniontoLiteratureinFrench(),–.ForPharaoh’sleancows,seeGenesis.OnSwissphilosophersinPrussiaintheeighteenthcentury,seeforexampleMartinFontiusandHelmutHolzhey,eds.,SchweizerimBerlindes.Jahrhunderts(Berlin,).“M”standsfortheacademicmaster’sdegree.Italsodenotes,,halfofwhichissymbolizedby“D,”whichalsostandsfortheacademicdoctorate.\nAestheticainnuceandifthelatter,whomawretchedironycallsauditors,hadanypracticeinhearingwiththeirears.––“WhereisEuthyphro’swhip,ohtimidjade?Sothatmycartdoesnotgetstuck––”Mythologyhere!mythologythere!eePoetryisanimitationofnaturethebeautiful–andnodoubttherevelationsofNieuwentyt,Newton,andBuffonwillbeabletoreplacethelessonsoffablesinpoortaste?––Obviouslytheyshoulddoso,andtheywoulddoso,iftheyonlycould.–Whythendoesitnothappen?–Becauseitisimpossible,yourpoetssay.Natureworksthroughthesensesandthepassions.Butthosewhomaimtheseinstruments,howcantheyfeel?Arecrippledsinewsfitformovement?––Yourlying,murderousphilosophyhasclearednatureoutoftheway,andwhydoyoudemandthatwearetoimitateher?–Sothatyoucanrenewthepleasurebybecomingmurderersofthepupilsofnature,too–Yes,youdelicatecriticsofart!,yougoonaskingwhatistruth,andmakeforthedoor,becauseyoucannotwaitforananswertothisquestion–Yourhandsarealwayswashed,whetheryouareabouttoeatbread,orwhetheryouhavejustpronouncedadeath-sentence–Doyounotalsoask:whatmeansdidyouemploytoclearnatureoutoftheway?–––Baconaccusesyouofinjuringherwithyourabstractions.IfBaconisawitnesstothetruth,wellthen,stonehim–andthrowlumpsofearthorsnowballsafterhisshadow–eeFontenelle,Surlapo´esieeng´en´eral,“Quandonsauraemployerd’unemanierenouvellelesimages`fabuleuses,ilestsurqu’ellesferontungrandeffet.”[SeeFontenelle’sˆŒuvrescompl`etes,ed.Niderst(vols.;–),vol.,p.:“Assoonasoneknowshowtousemythologicalimagesinanewway,theywillcertainlyhaveagreateffect.”]BernardNieuwentyt(–),Dutchtheologian,physician,andscientist;Georges-LouisLeclerc,comtedeBuffon(–),Frenchnaturalist.John::“Pilatesaithuntohim,Whatistruth?Andwhenhehadsaidthis,hewentoutagain.”Matthew::“Whydothydisciplestransgressthetraditionoftheelders?fortheywashnottheirhandswhentheyeatbread.”Matthew::WhenPilatesawthathecouldprevailnothing,butthatratheratumultwasmade,hetookwater,andwashedhishandsbeforethemultitude,saying,Iaminnocentofthebloodofthisjustperson.”SeeforexampleNovumorganon,Aphorism:“toabstractfromnatureisnotaseffectiveastodissectit”(tr.ReesandWakely,TheOxfordFrancisBacon,vol.,p.).TheGermanword“toabstract”(abziehen)canalsomean“toflay.”Asotherwitnessestotruthriskedorenduredstoning;seeJohn:andActs:.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageIfonesingletruthlikethesunprevails,itisday.Ifyoubehold,insteadofthisonetruth,asmanyasthesandsoftheseashore,–andthenbeholdalittlelightffwhichexcelsinbrightnessggawholehostofsuns,itisanightbelovedofpoetsandthieves.––Thepoethhatthebeginningofdaysisthesameasthethiefiiattheendofdays––Allthecolorsofthismostbeautifulworldgrowpaleonceyouextinguishitslight,thefirstbornofcreation.Ifthebellyisyourgod,theneventhehairsonyourheadareunderitsguardianship.Everycreaturewillalternatelybecomeyoursacrificeandyouridol.–Subjectagainstitswill–butinhope,itgroansbeneathyouryokeoratyourvainconduct;itdoesitsbesttoescapeyourtyranny,andlongseveninthemostpassionateembraceforthatfreedomwithwhichthebeastspaidAdamhomage,whenbroughtthemuntomantoseewhathewouldcallthem;forwhatsoevermanwouldcallthem,thatwasthenamethereof.ThisanalogyofmantotheCreatorendowsallcreatureswiththeirsubstanceandtheirstamp,onwhichdependsfidelityandfaithinallff––etnotho––––lumine–Catullus,CarmensaeculareadDianam[“Andwithbastardlight”;fromCatullus,Carmen.–.]gg––micatinteromnesIuliumsidus,velutinterignesLunaminores.Horace,Ode,BookI[Lines–:“TheJulianstarshinesamongthemall,astheMoonamonglesserfires.”]hhCorinthians:.[“ForGod,whocommandedthelighttoshineoutofdarkness,hathshinedinourhearts,togivethelightoftheknowledgeofthegloryofGodinthefaceofJesusChrist.”]iiRevelation:.[“Behold,Icomeasathief”;cf.Thessalonians:,“ForyourselvesknowperfectlythatthedayoftheLordsocomethasathiefinthenight.”]Genesis::“AndGodmadetwogreatlights;thegreaterlighttoruletheday,andthelesserlighttorulethenight:hemadethestarsalso.”Jeremiah::“Asthehostofheavencannotbenumbered,neitherthesandoftheseameasured.”LightwasfirstborninthatitwasthefirstthingGodcreated(Genesis:).Butthe“firstborn”isalsoChrist;cf.JohnandColossians::“WhoistheimageoftheinvisibleGod,thefirstbornofeverycreature.”Philippians::“Whoseendisdestruction,whoseGodistheirbelly,andwhosegloryisintheirshame,whomindearthlythings.”Matthew::“Buttheveryhairsofyourheadareallnumbered.”Romans::“Forthecreaturewasmadesubjecttovanity,notwillingly,butbyreasonofhimwhohathsubjectedthesameinhope.”Genesis::“AndoutofthegroundtheGodformedeverybeastofthefield,andeveryfowloftheair;andbroughtthemuntoAdamtoseewhathewouldcallthem:andwhatsoeverAdamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamethereof.”\nAestheticainnucenature.Themorevividlythisideaoftheimageoftheinvisiblejjdwellsinourheart,themoreablewearetoseeandtastehisloving-kindnessincreatures,observeitandgraspitwithourhands.Everyimpressionofnatureinmanisnotonlyamemorialbutalsoawarrantoffundamentaltruth:Whoisthe.Everyreactionofmanuntocreatedthingsisanepistleandsealthatwepartakeofthedivinenature,kkandthatwearehisoffspring.llOhforamuselikearefiner’sfire,andlikeafuller’ssoap!mm––Shewilldaretopurifythenaturaluseofthesensesfromtheunnaturaluseofabstractions,nnbywhichourconceptsofthingsareasmaimedasthenameoftheCreatorissuppressedandblasphemed.Ispeakwithyou,ohGreeks!foryoudeemyourselfwiserthanthechamberlainswiththejj–<K('7,Colossians:.[“TheimageoftheinvisibleGod.”]kk––(+! 4,!,Peter:;:,!-!<:!W+3,Romans:.[Peter::“partakersofthedivinenature”;Romans::“conformedtotheimageofhisSon.”]llActs:,etc.[Acts::“Forwearealsohisoffspring.”Cf.Acts:,“wearetheoffspringofGod.”]mmMalachi:.[“forheislikearefiner’sfire,andlikefullers’soap.”]nnBacon,“Aphorismideinterpretationenaturaeetregnohominis,”.Modulosineptosmundo-rumettanquamsimiolas,quasinphilosophiis(inthetheoriesofthesciences)phantasiaehominumexstruxerunt,omninodissipandasedicimus.Sciantitaquehominesquantuminter-sitinterhumanaementisIdolaetdivinaementisIdeas.HumanaementisIdolanilaliudsuntquamabstractionesadplacitum:DivinaementisIdeaesuntverasignaculaCreatorissupercreat-uras,proutinmateriaperlineasverasetexquisitasimprimunturetterminantur.Itaqueipsissimaeressuntveritasetutilitas:atqueoperaipsaplurisfaciendasunt,quatenussuntveritatispignora,quamproptervitaecommoda(forthesakeofthebelly).ElsewhereBaconrepeatsthisreminderthatweshouldusetheworksofnaturenotonlyasbeneficiavitaebutalsoasveritatispignora.[Hamannadaptsapassagefromthesecondpart(“Aphorismsconcerningtheinterpretationofnatureandthekingdomofman”)ofNovumorganon.“Iproclaimthatthebotchedand(ifyoulike)apishpatternsofworldswhichmen’sfancieshavethrowntogetherintophilosophicalsys-temsshouldbeutterlydestroyed.SoletmenknowhowgreatisthegulfbetweentheIdolsofthehumanmindandtheIdeasofthedivine.TheIdolsofthehumanmindarenothingmorethanabstractionsmadearbitrarily.TheIdeasofthedivineareauthenticsealsthattheCreatorhasstampeduponhiscreaturesaccordingastheyareimpressedanddefinedinmatterbytrueandexactlines.Thustruthandutilityaretheverythingsthemselves:andtheveryworksgivemuchmoreaswarrantsofthetruththanprovidersofmaterialbenefits”(tr.ReesandWakely,TheOxfordFrancisBacon,vol.,p.;thetranslationhasbeenadaptedtofollowHamann’salterations).“Beneficiavitae”correspondto“theamenitiesoflife”and“veritatispignora”to“thewarrantoftruth.”]Psalm::“Otasteandseethattheisgood.”Theword“Leutseligkeit,”heretranslatedas“loving-kindness,”appearsuniquelyintheLutherBibleinTitus::“Butafterthatthekindnessandlove[Leutseligkeit]ofGodourSaviourtowardmanappeared.”PerhapsareferencetothearthistorianJohannWinckelmann(–),whowasinfluentialinestablishingGreekartasthemodeltobeimitated.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagegnostickey;–justtrytoreadtheIliadafterfilteringout,withyourabstractions,thetwovowels+and,andthengivemeyouropinionofthepoet’ssenseandmelody!Z- . g.k## ... -!Behold!thelargeandsmallMasorahofphilosophyhasoverwhelmedthetextofnature,liketheGreatFlood.Werenotallitsbeautiesandrichesboundtoturnintowater?–Yetyouperformfargreatermiraclesthanthegodseverdelightedootodo,withoak-treesppandpillarsofsalt,withpetrifiedandalchemicalmetamorphosesandfablestoconvincethehumanrace–Youmakenatureblind,thatshemightbeyourguide!orrather,withyourEpicureanismyouhaveputoutthelightofyourowneyes,thatyoumightbetakenforprophetswhoconjureinspirationandexpositionsoutoftheemptyair.–Youwouldhavedominionovernature,andyoubindyourownhandsandfeetwithyourStoicism,sothatinyourpoeticmiscellaniesyoumaysingfalsettoonthediamondfettersoffateallthemoremovingly.oo, +C!C6+4Wg.SocratesintheCratylus.[Plato,Cratylusc:“Foreventhegodsdelightinplay.”]ppSocratestoPhaedrus:W2[C8],85$/M 1!M+W$/1!:C!T,#++ D!)!C2(+ .;!H:A3H ,;!8sm;!W2 8'2#1!+42+!' m3#(+!8<:'#(-2C .4E! +,2 !J2C+4+:!83C65;:;!8E[!EL!T .[Plato,Phaedrusb–c:“Theyusedtosay,myfriend,thatthewordsofanoakintheholyplaceofDodonawerethefirstpropheticutterances.Thepeopleofthattime,notbeingsowiseasyouyoungfolks,werecontentintheirsimplicitytohearanoakorarock,providedonlyitspokethetruth;buttoyou,perhaps,itmakesadifferencewhothespeakerisandwherehecomesfrom,foryoudonotconsiderwhetherhiswordsaretrueornot”(tr.Fowler,LoebClassicalLibrary).]PresumablyareferencetocontemporaryphilosophersaroundFredericktheGreat,includingVoltaire.InActs:,Luthertranslatesas“Kammerer”(relatedto“Kammerherr,”chamberlain)¨whattheKingJamesBibletranslatesas“eunuch.”SinceChrististhealphaandtheomega(Revelation:,etc.),ifGreeksdenyhim,theywouldnotevenbeabletoreadthefirstlineoftheIliad,whichwithoutthosevowelswouldreadasHamannprintsit(approximately,“Sing,·G·ddess,thewr·th·fPeleus’s·n·chilles”).“Thebodyofrules,principles,andtraditionsrelatingtothetextoftheHebrewScriptures,developedbyJewishscholarsintheth–thcenturies”(OxfordEnglishDictionary).ThesmallMasorahconsistsofnotesinthemargin;thelargeMasorah,ofnotesattheheadandfootofcolumns.SeeGenesis.Lot’swifeisturnedintoapillarofsaltinGenesis.Epicureanism,traditionallyassociatedwithatheism,influencedFrenchskepticalthinkerslikeSaint-Evremond,Bayle,andFontenelle.\nAestheticainnuceIfthepassionsarethemembersofdishonor,dotheythereforeceasetobeinstrumentsofvirility?HaveyouawiserunderstandingoftheletterofreasonthantheallegoricalchamberlainoftheAlexandrianChurchhadoftheletteroftheScriptureswhenhecastratedhimselfforthesakeoftheKingdomofHeaven?Theprinceofthisaeontakeshisfavoritesfromamongthegreatestoffendersagainstthemselves;––hiscourtjestersaretheworstenemiesoffairnature,whoindeedhasCorybantsandGaulsasherpot-belliedpriests,butespritsfortsashertrueworshippers.AphilosophersuchasSaulqqsetsupmonasticrules––passionalonegiveshands,feet,andwingstoabstractionsaswellastohypotheses;–toimagesandsignsitgivesspirit,life,andtongue––Whereareswiftersyllogisms?Whereistherollingthunderofeloquencebegotten,andwhereisitscompanion–themonosyllableoflightning?rr––WhyshouldIparaphraseOneWordforyou,readersignorantaccordingtoyourestate,honor,andoffice,withaninfinitenumberofwords?Foryoucanobserveforyourselvesthephenomenaofpassioneverywhereinhumansociety;evenaseverything,howeverremote,canimpulsivelystrikeourheartsinaparticulardirection;evenaseachindividualfeelingextendsovertherangeofallexternalobjects;ssevenasweknowhowtoqqSamuel:.[“ForSaulhadadjuredthepeople,saying,Cursedbethemanthateatethanyfooduntilevening,thatImaybeavengedonmineenemies.Sononeofthepeopletastedanyfood.”]rrBriefasthelightninginthecolliednight,That(inaspleen)unfolds[both]heav’nandearthAndere[a]manhaspowertosay,Behold!Thejawsofdarknessdodevouritup.Shakespeare,AMidsummerNight’sDream[fromAct,scene]ss“C’estl’effetordinairedenotreignorancedenouspeindretoutsemblablea`nousetderepandrenosportraitsdanstoutenature,”saysFontenelleinhisHistoireduth´eˆatrefran¸cais.“Unegrandepassionestuneespeced’Ameimmortelle`as`amaniere,etpresqueind`ependantedesOrganes,”´FontenelleinElogedeM.duVerney.[SeeFontenelle’sŒuvrescompl`etes,ed.Niderst(vols.;–),vol.,p.:“Theordinaryeffectofourignoranceistodepictusasallalikeandtoextendourportraitsoverallofnature.”ThequotationfromtheeulogyofM.duVerneyisfoundRomans::“Neitheryieldyeyourmembersasinstrumentsofunrighteousnessuntosin:butyield...yourmembersasinstrumentsofrighteousnessuntoGod.”Origen,aChurchFatherfromAlexandriapronetoallegoricalexegesisoftheBible,issaidtohavecastratedhimself,inspiredbyaliteralreadingofMatthew:.CorybantsarethemythicalattendantsofCybele,theAnatolianmother-goddess;GaulsareFrench-men,butinconnectionwithCorybantstheyrecalltheGalli,thecastratedpriestsofCybele.Adelung’sdictionaryrecordsthatthetermBauchpfaffe,literally“priestofthebelly,”wasappliedtoministersmoreconcernedwiththeirowncomfortthanwiththeirparishioners.Anespritfortis“a‘strongminded’person;usually,onewhoprofessessuperioritytocurrentprejudices,esp.a‘freethinker’inreligion”(OxfordEnglishDictionary).\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagemakethemostgeneralinstancesourownbyapplyingthemtoourselvespersonally,andhatchanyprivatecircumstancesintothepublicspectacleofheavenandearth.–Eachindividualtruthevolvesintothefoundationofadesignmoremiraculouslythanthatcow-hideevolvedintothedomainofastate;andaground-planmorecapaciousthanthehemisphereiscontainedbyapointoffocus.––Inshort,theperfectionofthedesigns,thestrengthoftheexecution,–theconceptionandbirthofnewideasandnewexpressions,thelaborandrestofthewiseman,theconsolationandaversionhefindsinthem,lieburiedfromoursensesinthefruitfulwombofthepassions.Thephilologist’spublic,hisworldofreaders,seemstoresemblethatlecture-hallwhichasinglePlatofilled.ttAntimachuscontinuedconfi-dently,asitiswritten:Nonmissuracutemnisiplenacurorishirudo.Justasifourlearningwereamererecollection,ourattentionisconstantlydirectedtothemonumentsoftheancients,toshapeourmindsthroughmemory.ButwhystopatthebrokencisternsoftheGreeksandforsakethefountainofthemostlivingwatersofantiquity?PerhapswedonotreallyknowourselveswhatitisintheGreeksandRomansthatweadmireeventoidolatry.Thisiswherethataccursedcontradictionuuinoursymbolictextbookscomesfrom,fortothisdaytheyaredaintilyboundinsheepskin,butwithin,–verily,invol.oftheŒuvrescompl`etes,p.:“agreatpassionisakindofSoul,immortalinitswayandalmostindependentoftheOrgans”(Hamann’scapitals).]ttPlatoeniminstaromniumest.CiceroinBrutus.[“ForPlatoaloneisworthallofthem.”HamannadaptsCicero’sanecdoteinBrutus[]:When[Antimachuswas]readingthatlongandwell-knownpoemofhisbeforeanassembledaudience,inthemidstofhisreadingallhislistenerslefthimbutPlato;“Ishallgoonreading,”hesaid,“justthesame;formePlatoaloneisasgoodasahundredthousand”(tr.Hendrickson,LoebClassicalLibrary).]uuPsalm:.[“Forthesinoftheirmouthandthewordsoftheirlipsletthemevenbetakenintheirpride:andforcursingandlyingwhichtheyspeak.”]VirgilintheAeneidrelatesthatDidowasgivenonlyasmuchlandasacow-hidewouldenclose;shecutthehideintothinstripesandfoundedCarthage.Horace,Arspoetica:“aleechthatwillnotletgooftheskinuntilitisfullofblood.”Cf.Socrates’demonstrationintheMenothatMeno’sslavemustberecollecting,notlearning,mathematicaltruths.Jeremiah::“Formypeoplehavecommittedtwoevils;theyhaveforsakenmethefountainoflivingwaters,andhewedthemoutcisterns,brokencisterns,thatcanholdnowater.”Matthew::“Bewareoffalseprophets,whichcometoyouinsheep’sclothing,butinwardlytheyareraveningwolves.”\nAestheticainnucewithintheyarefullofdeadmen’sbonesandfullofhypo-criticalwickedness.vvLikeuntoamanbeholdinghisnaturalfaceinaglass,butafterhebeholdshimselfandgoeshisway,hestraightwayforgetswhatmannerofmanhewas:thisishowwetreattheancients.–Apaintersitsforhisself-portraitinawhollydifferentspirit.–Narcissus(thebulbousplantofbeauxesprits)loveshisimagemorethanhislife.wwvvSeethroughoutPartofBriefe,dieneuesteLiteraturbetreffend,alittlehere,alittlethere,butmainlyp..[OnthepagewhichHamanncites,FriedrichNicolaianonymouslyobjectedtoarecentbookofpoemswhichincludeda“KritischeAbhandlungeinigerAnmerkungenuber¨dasNaturlicheinderDichtkunstunddieNaturdesMenschen”(“Criticaltreatmentofcertain¨remarksonthenaturalinpoetryandinhumannature”).Nicolaiwrotethatthetreatisewaslikewhitedsepulchreswhichindeedappearbeautifuloutwardbutarewithinfullofdeadmen’sbonesandalluncleanness.Hamannaccusesthereviewerofhypocrisyanddirectshisownbiblicalallusionagainsthim.]wwOvid,Metamorphoses,Book.[]–bibit,visaecorreptusimagineformae.Spemsinecorporeamat,corpusputatesse,quodumbraest.AdstupetipsesibivultuqueinmotuseodemhaeretuteParioformatummarmoresignum.Spectathumipositusgeminum,sualumina,sidusetdignosBaccho,dignosetApollinecrines,inpubesquegenaseteburneacolla,decusqueorisetinniveomixtumcandoreruborem;cunctaquemiratur,quibusestmirabilisipse.[]––opacafususinherbaspectatinexpletomendacemlumineformamperqueoculosperitipsesuos;paulumquelevatusadcircumstantestendenssuabracchiasilvas:‘Ecquis,iosilvae,crudelius’inquit‘amavit?(Scitisenimetmultislatebraopportunafuistis)–––[]Etplacetetvideo;sedquodvideoqueplacetque,nontameninvenio.Tantusteneterroramantem!Quoquemagisdoleam,necnosmareseparatingensnecvia,necmontes,necclausismoeniaportis.Exiguaprohibemuraqua–––[]Posseputestangi.est,quodamantibusobstat.Quisquises,hucexi!––[]Spemmihinescioquamvultupromittis–Matthew::“Woeuntoyou,scribesandPharisees,hypocrites!foryearelikeuntowhitedsepulchres,whichindeedappearbeautifuloutward,butarewithinfullofdeadmen’sbones,andofalluncleanness.”James:–:“Forifanybeaheareroftheword,andnotadoer,heislikeuntoamanbeholdinghisnaturalfaceinaglass:Forhebeholdethhimself,andgoethhisway,andstraightwayforgettethwhatmannerofmanhewas.”Thenarcissusisabulbousplant.Acleverwit.HamannabridgesthestoryofNarcissusfromOvid,Metamorphoses.–:“Hedrinksandissmittenbythesightofthebeautifulform.Helovesaninsubstantialhopeandthinksthatsubstance\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageSalvationcomesfromtheJews.–Ihadnotyetseenthem,butIwasawaitingsounderconceptsintheirphilosophicalwritings–toyourshame–Christians!–Yetyoufeelthestingofthatworthynamebywhich[]––lacrimasquoquesaepenotavimelacrimantetuas;nutuquoquesignaremittis–[]Inteegosum.Sensi,necmemeafallitimago–[]Quodcupiomecumest:inopemmecopiafecit.Outinamanostrosecederecorporepossem!Votuminamantenovum––’[]Detadfaciemrediitmalesanuseandemetlacrimisturbavitaquas,obscuraquemotoredditaformalacuest;quamcumvidissetabire,[]–clamavit:‘Liceat,quodtangerenonest,adspicereetmiseropraeberealimentafurori!’–[]Illecaputviridifessumsubmisitinherba;luminanoxclausitdominimirantiaformam:tumquoquese,postquamestinfernasedereceptus,inStygiaspectabataqua–––[]Iamquerogumquassasquefacesferetrumqueparabant,nusquamcorpuserat.Croceumprocorporefloreminveniuntfoliismediumcingentibusalbis.[Seen..]whichisonlyshadow.Helooksinspeechlesswonderathimselfandhangstheremotionlessinthesameexpression,likeastatuecarvedfromParianmarble.Proneontheground,hegazesathiseyes,twinstars,andhislocks,worthyofBacchus,worthyofApollo;onhissmoothcheeks,hisivoryneck,thegloriousbeautyofhisface,theblushmingledwithsnowywhite:allthings,inshort,headmiresforwhichhehimselfisadmired...stretchedoutontheshadedgrass,hegazesonthatfalseimagewitheyesthatcannotlooktheirfillandthroughhisowneyesperishes;raisinghimselfalittle,andstretchinghisarmstothetrees,hecries:‘Didanyone,oyewoods,everlovemorecruellythanI?(Youknow,foryouhavebeenthefavoritehauntofmanylovers.)...Iamcharmed,andIsee;butwhatIseeandwhatcharmsmeIcannotfind.Sogreatadelusionholdsmylove!And,tomakemegrievethemore,nomightyoceanseparatesus,nomountainranges,nocitywallswithclose-shutgate.Byathinbarrierofwaterwearekeptapart...Youwouldthinkhecouldbetouched.Soathingitisthatseparatesourlovinghearts.Whoeveryouare,comeforthhither!...Somegroundforhopeyouofferwithyourfriendlylooks...andIhaveoftenseentears,whenIweep,onyourcheeks.Mybecksyouanswerwithyournod...Iaminyou.Ihavefeltit,Iknownowmyownimage...WhatIdesire,Ihave;theveryabundanceofmyrichesbeggarsme.OthatImightbepartedfrommybody!Astrangeprayerforalover...’Heand,halfdistraught,turnedagaintothesameimage.Histearsruffledthewater,anddimlytheimagecamebackfromthetroubledpool.Ashesawitthusdepart...,hecried,‘StillmayitbeminetogazeonwhatImaynottouch,andbythatgazetofeedmyunhappypassion!’...Hedroopedhiswearyheadonthegreengrassandnightsealedtheeyesthatmarveledattheirmaster’sbeauty.Andevenwhenhehadbeenreceivedintotheinfernalabodes,hekeptongazingonhisimageintheStygianpool...Andnowtheywerepreparingthefuneralpile,thetorches,andthebier;buthisbodywasnowheretobefound.Inplaceofhisbodytheyfindaflower,itsyellowcentergirtwithwhitepetals”(tr.Miller,LoebClassicalLibrary,adapted;Hamann’scapitals).John::“forsalvationisoftheJews”;Hamann’sallusiontotheLutherBibleismoreexact.\nAestheticainnuceyouarecalledxxaslittleasyoufeelthehonordidhimselfintakingthederogatorynameSonofMan––––NatureandScripture,then,arethematerialsofthebeautiful,creative,andimitativespirit––BaconcomparesmatterwithPenelope;–herimpudentsuitorsarethephilosophersandscribes.ThetaleofthebeggarwhoappearedatthecourtofIthacayouknow,forhasnotHomertranslateditintoGreekverse,andPopeintoEnglishverse?Buthowarewetoraisethedefunctlanguagesofnaturefromthedead?––BymakingpilgrimagestohappyArabia,bygoingoncrusadestotheEast,andbyrestoringtheirmagicart,tostealwhich,wemustemployoldwomen’scunning,forthatisthebestsort.–Castyoureyesdown,youslowbellies,andreadwhatBaconyythoughtupaboutthemagicart.–Silkenfeetindancingshoeswillnotbearyouonsuchaburdensomejourney,sobereadytobeshownabetterwaythroughhyperbolezz–xxJames:.[“Donottheyblasphemethatworthynamebythewhichyearecalled?”]yyM[...]ineopotissimumversabatur,utarchitecturasetfabricasrerumnaturaliumetciviliumsymbolizantesnotaret––Necsimilitudinesmeraesunt(qualeshominibusfortasseparumper-spicacibusvideripossint)sedplaneunaeademquenaturaevestigiaautsignaculadiversismateriisetsubiectisimpressa.SoBaconinthethirdbookofDeaugmentisscientiarum,inwhichheclaimstoexplainthemagicartalsobymeansofa“scientiaconsensuumrerumuniversalium,”andinthelightofthis,theappearanceoftheWiseMenatBethlehem.[Bacon,Deaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap.:“Butthechiefbusinessofthe[Persian]magic[somuchcelebrated]wastonotethecorrespondencesbetweenthearchitecturesandfabricsofthingsnaturalandthingscivil...Neitherarethesemeresimilitudes(asmenofnarrowobservationmayperhapsconceivethemtobe),butplainlythesamefootstepsofnaturetreadingorprintingupondifferentsubjectsandmatters.”Thesecondquotation,“knowledgeoftheuniversalconsentsofthings,”comesfromBook,chap.ofthiswork:“ForamongthePersiansmagicwastakenforasublimewisdom,andtheknowledgeoftheuniversalconsentsofthings;andsothethreekingswhocamefromtheeasttoworshipChristwerecalledbythenameofMagi.”TheLatinpassagesarefoundonpp.andofvol.ofBacon’sWorks;theEnglishtranslation,invol.,pp.and.]zz–+4T +(m"J1m; ,Corinthians:.[“AndyetIshewyouuntoamoreexcellentway.”IntheGreek,theidiomcorrespondingto“moreexcellent”(+(m"&)suggests“hyperbole.”]InDeaugmentisscientiarum,Book,chap.andDesapientiaveterum(“Onthewisdomoftheancients”),chap.(“Pan,orNature”),BacondiscussesthemythologicaloriginsofPan,asspringingeitherfromMercury(“theWordofGod”)orfromPenelope’spromiscuousintercoursewithallhersuitors.SeeBacon’sWorks,vol.,pp.–(Latin)andvol.,pp.–(Englishtranslation).OdysseusreturnedtoIthacadisguisedasabeggarandovercamethesuitorswhohadoppressedPenelope.AlexanderPopeandhiscollaboratorscompletedatranslationoftheOdysseyin.Anallusiontothescientificexpeditionto“ArabiaFelix”andelsewhereinArabiclandsunderCarstenNiebuhr(–);itsailedinJanuary.Michaelisprovidedthemainimpulsefortheexpedition.Titus::“Cretiansarealwayliars,evilbeasts,slowbellies.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageOyouwhorenttheheavensandcamedown!atwhosearrivalthemountainsfloweddownashotwaterboilsonmeltingfire,thatyournamebemadeknowntoyouradversaries,whoneverthelesscallthemselvesbyit;andthatanointednationsmaylearntotremblebeforethewondersthatyoudo,whicharebeyondtheirunderstanding.–Letnewfool’s-fireriseintheOrient!–Letthepertcuriosityoftheirmagiberousedbynewstars,thattheybeartheirtreasuresinpersontoourcountry.Myrrh!frankincense!andtheirgold!whichmeanmoretousthantheirmagicart!–Letkingsbegulledbyit,lettheirphilosophicalmusesnortatchildrenandchildren’sloreinvain;butletnotRachelweepinvain!Whyshouldweswallowdeathfromthepots,tomakethegarnishpalatableforthechildrenoftheprophets?AndhowshallweappeasethevexedspiritoftheScripture:“WillIeatthefleshofbulls,ordrinkthebloodofgoats?”NeitherthedogmaticthoroughnessoftheorthodoxPhariseesnorthepoeticopulenceofthefree-thinkingSadduceeswillrenewthemissionofthespiritwhichinspired’sholymen(3+!'+!)tospeakandwrite.––ThatbosomdiscipleoftheOnlyBegotten,whichisinthebosomoftheFather,hasdeclaredittous:Isaiah:–:“Ohthatthouwouldestrendtheheavens,thatthouwouldestcomedown,thatthemountainsmightflowdownatthypresence,Aswhenthemeltingfireburneth,thefirecauseththewaterstoboil,tomakethynameknowntothineadversaries,thatthenationsmaytrembleatthypresence!”MatthewrelatesthestoryoftheMagi.InGerman,anallusiontoActs:isclearer:“AndSaul,yetbreathingout[schnaubte,“snorted”]threateningsandslaughteragainstthedisciplesoftheLord.”IncontrasttoChrist,asatMark:.ThecontemptofFredericktheGreatandhiscourtforthechildishnessofChristianityiscomparedtoHerod’smassacreoftheinnocents.Cf.Matthew::“InRamawasthereavoiceheard,lamentation,andweeping,andgreatmourning,Rachelweepingforherchildren,andwouldnotbecomforted,becausetheyarenot.”InKings:–,Elishainatimeofdearthordershisservanttopreparefoodforthesonsoftheprophets.Theservantunknowinglyaddsapoisonousgourdtothepot.Whenthemeneat,theycryout,“OthoumanofGod,thereisdeathinthepot”(v.).Elishathenaddsmealtothepottage,“Andtherewasnoharminthepot”(v.).Isaiah::“Buttheyrebelled,andvexedhisholySpirit.”Psalm:.ThePhariseesandSadduceesweretwoofthemajorJewishsectsatthetimeofChrist.Onsomeoftheirdifferences,seeActs.Here,asthroughouttheessay,Hamannhasinmindhisowncontemporaries.“Inseason,outofseason,”fromTimothy:.John::“NowtherewasleaningonJesus’bosomoneofhisdisciples,whomJesusloved.”John::“NomanhathseenGodatanytime,theonlybegottenSon,whichisinthebosomoftheFather,hehathdeclaredhim.”\nAestheticainnucethatthespiritofprophecylivesinthetestimonyofthe,wherebyalonewearesavedandmayinheritthepromiseofthelifethatnowisandofthatwhichistocome;–thenamewhichnomanknowssavinghethatreceivesit,thenamewhichisaboveeveryname:Thatatthenameofeverykneeshouldbow,ofthingsinheaven,andthingsinearth,andthingsundertheearth;Andthateverytongueshouldconfessthatis,tothegloryof!–theCreator,whoisblessedforever,Amen!Thusthetestimonyofisthespiritofprophecy,aaaandthefirstsignbywhichherevealsthemajestyinhisformofaservanttransformstheholybooksofthecovenantintofineoldwine,whichdeceivesthejudg-mentofthegovernorofthefeastandstrengthenstheweakstomachofthecritics.“Legelibrospropheticosnonintellecto,”saysthePunicbbbFatheroftheChurch,“quidtaminsipidumetfatuumaaaRevelation:.[“ForthetestimonyofJesusisthespiritofprophecy.’]bbbSeepp.–oftheprize-winninganswertothequestionoftheinfluenceofopinionsonlanguageandoflanguage,setbytheRoyalAcademyofSciencesin.InthisconnectionArspun-ica,siveFloslinguarum:Theartofpunning,or,Thefloweroflanguagesinseventy-ninerulesforthefartherimprovementofconversationandhelpofmemory.BythelabourandindustryofTOMPUN-SIBImayalsobeconsulted.Exambiguodictavelargutissimaputantur,sednonsemperinioco,saepeetiamingravitateversantur–Ingeniosienimvideturvimverbiinaliud,atqueceteriaccipiant,possedicere.Cicero,Deoratore,Book.ThesecondeditionofArspun-ica,octavo.Thislearnedwork(alas,Ipossessadefectivecopyonly)hasasitsauthor–Swift,thegloryofthepriesthoodandtheshame(EssayonCriticism).Itbeginswithlogical,physical,andmoraldefinitions.Inthelogicalsense,“Punnatadicunturidipsumquodsuntaliorumessedicunturautalioquovismodoadaliudreferentur.”AccordingtoRevelation::“forthetestimonyofJesusisthespiritofprophecy.”Acts::“forthereisnoneothernameunderheavengivenamongmen,wherebywemustbesaved.”Timothy::“godlinessisprofitableuntoallthings,havingpromiseofthelifethatnowis,andofthatwhichistocome.”Revelation::“TohimthatovercomethwillIgivetoeatofthehiddenmanna,andwillgivehimawhitestone,andinthestoneanewnamewritten,whichnomanknowethsavinghethatreceivethit.”Philippians:–:“WhereforeGodalsohathhighlyexaltedhim,andgivenhimanamewhichisaboveeveryname:ThatatthenameofJesuseverykneeshouldbow,ofthingsinheaven,andthingsinearth,andthingsundertheearth;AndthateverytongueshouldconfessthatJesusChristisLord,tothegloryofGodtheFather.”Romans::“whochangedthetruthofGodintoalie,andworshippedandservedthecreaturemorethantheCreator,whoisblessedforever.Amen.”Philippians::“Butmadehimselfofnoreputation,andtookuponhimtheformofaservant.”ChristturnedthewaterintowineatamarriageinCana(John).Timothy::“usealittlewineforthystomach’ssake.”ThePunicChurchFatherisAugustine.“Punic”(Carthaginian)referstoAugustine’soriginsinNorthAfrica;withthiswordHamannbeginsanexcursusonpuns.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguage(Footnote‘bbb’cont.)thenaturalscience(oftheadventurousandcapriciousCardano),“PunningisanArtofHarmo-niousJinglinguponWords,whichpassinginattheEarsandfallingupontheDiaphragma,excitesatitillaryMotioninthoseParts,andthisbeingconvey’dbytheAnimalSpiritsintotheMusclesoftheFaceraisestheCocklesoftheHeart.”Butaccordingtocasuistry,itis“aVirtue,thatmosteffectuallypromotestheEndofGoodFellowship.”––AnexampleofthisartfulvirtuecanbefoundamongothersofthesameilkintheaforecitedanswertothePuniccomparisonbetweenMahomettheProphetandAugustinetheChurchFather,acomparisonwhichlooksplausibletoanamphibologicalloverofpoetry(withanimaginationhalfenthusiastic,halfscholastic)whoisnotnearlylearnedenoughtoappreciatethefigurativelanguageproperly,letalonebeabletoscrutinizereligiousexperience.ThegoodbishopspokeHebrewwithoutknowingit,justasthebourgeoisgentlemanspokeprosewithoutknowingit,andjustaseventoday,throughlearnedquestionsandtheiranswers,amancanrevealwithoutknowingitthebarbarismofhisageandthetreacherousthoughtofhisheart,atthecostofthisprofoundtruth:thatallhavesinned,andcomeshortoftheglorythatisimputedtothem,thelyingprophetofArabiaasmuchasthegoodAfricanshepherdandalsothecleverwit(whomIshouldhavementionedfirstofall)whothoughtupthatfar-fetchedcomparisonbetweenthetwobelieversinprovidencebyputtingtogethersuchridiculousparallelpassagesaccordingtothePunictheoryofreasonofourmoderncabbalists,forwhomeveryfig-leaveyieldsasufficientreason,andeveryallusionitsownfulfilment.[Seen..](Footnotecont.)Theprize-winningessaywasbyMichaelis(seeHamann’sEssayonanAcademicQuestion,above).Michaelis,onpp.–oftheEnglishtranslation()ofhisessay,comparesMahometandAugustine:“Theybothhadanaturalbenttopoetry...Neitherofthetwohadsomuchlearningastoguardthemselvesfromtheelusionsoffigurativestyle.”Inparticular,MichaelisarguesthatthedoctrineofGod’sprovidencewasmaintainedbytakingbiblicalpassagesinaliteralsensewhentheyweremeantinafigurativesense.Hamann’sexcursusonpunningisdirectedhereagainstMichaelis’attackonthefigurativelanguageoftheBibleandonGod’sprovidence;itcontinuesinHamann’snextfootnote.Arspun-ica,siveFloslinguarum(Hamanngivesthefulltitleasitappearsonthetitlepage)wasidentifiedonthetitlepageofthesecondeditionastheworkofJonathanSwift(botheditionsappearedin);itisnowattributedtoThomasSheridan(–).Cicero,Deoratore.[chap.]:“Bons-motspromptedbyanequivocationaredeemedtheverywittiest,thoughnotalwaysconcernedwithjesting,butoftenwithwhatisimportant.”Cicero,Deoratore.[chap.]:“forthepowertospeaktheforceofawordintoasensequitedifferentfromthatinwhichotherpeopleunderstanditseemstoindicateamanoftalent”(tr.SuttonandRackham,LoebClassicalLibrary).ThisquotationappearsonthetitlepageofArspun-ica.AlexanderPopeinAnEssayonCriticism()referstoErasmus,“TheGloryofthePriesthood,andtheShame!”(l.).Arspun-icabeginswith“TheLogicalDefinitionofPunning”andprovidestheLatindefinitionwhichappearstobeaparodyofsimilarAristotelianandscholasticdefinitions(cf.Aristotle,Categoriesa).Itisfollowedonp.byafreetranslation:“PintheirverynatureandConstitutionhaveaRelationtosomethingelse,oriftheyhavenot,anyotherReasonwhy,willserveaswell.”Thelogicaldefinitionisfollowedby“ThePhysicalDefinitionof,accordingtoCardan”.GirolamoCardano(–)wasanItaliandoctor,astrologer,andmathematician.“TheMoralDefinitionof”followsnext.Anamphibologyisaquibble,anambiguousstatement.“ThegoodbishopspokeHebrewwithoutrealizingit”isaquotationfromMichaelis’essay;seep.oftheEnglishtranslation:“LatinindeedwasspokeninthecitiesofAfrica,butitwasnottheRomanLatin,beingadulteratedwithastrongAfricantinge.IfLatinwasthebodyofthatlanguage,itssoulwasformedofthePunic...ThusthegoodbishopspokeHebrewwithoutknowingit.”\nAestheticainnuceinvenies.Intelligesibi,nonsolumsapit,quodlegis,sedetiaminebriat.”–“Butwemustputastopheretothosewickedandhighflyingspirits,––TheoldAdammustfirstdiebeforehetoleratesthisanddrinksthestrongwine.Thereforebewarethatyoudonotdrinkwinewhileyouarestillasuckling.Thereisalimit,atime,andanageforeverydoctrine.”cccAfterhadgrownwearyofspeakingtousthroughnatureandScripture,throughcreatedthingsandprophets,throughreasoningsandfigures,throughpoetsandseers,andgrownshortofbreath,hespokeuntousatlastintheeveningofdaythroughhisSon–yesterdayandtoday!–untilthepromiseofhiscoming,nolongerintheformaservant,shallbefulfilled–ThouarttheKingofGlory,O,Thouarttheeverlastingofthe,ThoudidstnotabhortheVirgin’swomb––dddcccOurLuther’swords(readingAugustine,itissaid,spoiledhistastesomewhat),takenfromhisfamousprefacetotheEpistletotheRomans,whichInevertireofreading,justasInevertireofhisprefacetothePsalms.Ihaveintroducedthispassagebymeansofanaccommodation,astheysay,becauseinitLutherspeaksoftheabyssofdivineprovidence,and,afterhisadmirablecustom,restsassureduponhisdictum:“ForintheabsenceofsufferingandthecrossonecannotdealwithpredestinationwithoutharmandwithoutsecretangeragainstGod.”[SeeLuther’sWorks(AmericanEdition)vol.,p.,forboththequotationfromLutherinthemaintextandtheoneinHamann’sfootnote.The“strongwine”isthemysteryofpredestination.Intheology,accommodationis“theadaptationofatextorteachingtoalteredcircumstances”(OxfordConciseDictionaryoftheChristianChurch).]dddThedevoutreaderwillcompletethehymn-likecadenceofthisstanzaforhimself.Mymemoryabandonsmeoutofsheerwilfulness.–Semperadeventum––etquaedesperat–relinquit.[ThepartiallyquotedstanzainthemaintextcomesfromLuther’stranslationofthe“TeDeum.”TheLatininthenotecomesfromHorace,Arspoetica,“alwaysontotheend–andwhathedespairsofaccomplishing–heabandons.”]MonsieurJourdain,whospokeinprosewithoutknowingit,isthetitlecharacterfromMoliere’s`LeBourgeoisGentilhomme.Acts::“Repentthereforeofthisthywickedness,andprayGod,ifperhapsthethoughtofthineheartmaybeforgiventhee.”Romans::“Forallhavesinned,andcomeshortofthegloryofGod.”“Sufficientreason”isaLeibniziandoctrinefavoredbyChristianWolffandotherphilosophersduringtheEnlightenment.Augustine,InIohannisEvangeliumTractatusCXXIX(“TractsontheGospelofJohn”),Tract(onJohn:–),para.:“ReadallthepropheticbookswithoutperceivingChrist:whatwillyoufindsoinsipidandsosilly?UnderstandChristthere,andwhatyouarereadingnotonlybecomessavory,butitalsointoxicates”(tr.Rettig,TractatesontheGospelofJohn,TheFathersoftheChurch,CatholicUniversityofAmerica).Hebrews:–:“God,whoatsundrytimesandindiversmannersspakeintimepastuntothefathersbytheprophets,HathintheselastdaysspokenuntousbyhisSon.”Hebrews::“JesusChristthesameyesterday,andtoday.”Philippians:.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageWewouldbebringingarailingaccusationifweweretocallourcleversophistspoor,dumbdevilswhentheycomparethelaw-giveroftheJewstoanass’sheadandtheproverbsoftheirmaster-singerstodove’sdung;yetthemshallthedayofthe––aSabbathdarkerthanthemidnightinwhichindomitablefleetsarestubble––Themostcom-plaisantzephyr,heraldofthelastthunderstorm–aspoetical–astheofHostscouldonlythinkandexpressit,willdrowntheblastsofeventhesturdiesttrumpeter:––Abraham’sjoywillreachitspinnacle–hiscupwillrunover–Theverylasttears!morepreciousbeyondmeasurethanallthepearlswithwhichthelastQueenofEgyptlivedherprodigallife;–theseverylasttearsshedoverthelastflameofSodomandtheabductionofthelastmartyreeewithhisownhandwillwipeawayfromtheeyeofAbraham,thefatherofthefaithful––Thatdayofthe,whichgivesChristiansthecouragetopreachthe’sdeath,willrevealthedumbestvillage-devilsamongalltheangelsforwhomthefiresofhellareprepared.Thedevilsbelieveandtremble!–butyoursenses,crazedbythesubtletyofreason,tremblenot–YoulaughwhenAdamthesinnerchokesonanapple,andAnacreoneeePeter:.[“Forthatrighteousmandwellingamongthem,inseeingandhearing,vexedhisrighteoussoulfromdaytodaywiththeirunlawfuldeeds.”]Jude:;Peter:.Kings::“and,behold,theybesiegedit,untilanass’sheadwassoldforfourscorepiecesofsilver,andthefourthpartofacabofdove’sdungforfivepiecesofsilver.”PossiblyareferencetoMalachi::“andthedaythatcomethshallburnthemup.”Joel:–:“forthedayoftheisnearinthevalleyofdecision.Thesunandthemoonshallbedarkened,andthestarsshallwithdrawtheirshining”;Amos:,“thedayoftheisdarkness,andnotlight”;Revelation::“andthesunbecameblackassackclothofhair.”Malachi::“For,behold,thedaycometh,thatshallburnasanoven;andalltheproud,yea,andallthatdowickedly,shallbestubble.”John::“YourfatherAbrahamrejoicedtoseemyday.”Psalm::“mycuprunnethover.”AccordingtoPliny(NaturalHistory..–),Cleopatraownedthetwolargestpearlsinhistory.ToimpressonAntonytheluxurianceofabanquetshewashosting,shedissolvedoneinvinegarandswallowedit.Isaiah::“theLordwillwipeawaytearsfromoffallfaces”;Revelation::“Godshallwipeawayalltearsfromtheireyes”;Revelation:,“AndGodshallwipeawayalltearsfromtheireyes.”Romans::“Abraham;whoisthefatherofusall.”Corinthians::“ButwepreachChristcrucified.”Matthew::“Departfromme,yecursed,intoeverlastingfire,preparedforthedevilandhisangels.”James::“thedevilsalsobelieve,andtremble.”Corinthians::“astheserpentbeguiledEvethroughhissubtilty.”\nAestheticainnucethewisemanonthegrape-stone!–DoyounotlaughwhenthegeesefilltheCapitolwithalarm,–andtheravensfeedthepatriotwhosespiritwasIsrael’sartilleryandcavalry?–Youcongratulateyourselfsecretlyonyourblindnesswhenonthecrossisnumberedamongthecriminals,–andwhensomeabominationinGenevaorRome,intheoperaorthemosque,becomesapotheosedorcolocynthed.Pingeduosangues!pueri,sacerestlocus;extrameiite.discedo–––PersiusThebirthofageniuswillbeaccompanied,asusual,bythemartyr’sfeastoftheholyinnocents–Itakethelibertyofcomparingrhymeandmetertoinnocentchildren,forourmostrecentpoetryseemstoputtheminmortaldanger.Ifrhymebelongstothesamegenusasparonomasiafffandword-play,thenitsoriginsmustbealmostasoldasthenatureoflanguageandoursense-impressions.––HewhofindstheyokeofrhymetoofffSeen.byMichaelisinhiseditionofLowth’sPraelectiones,Lecture;andAlgarotti,vol..[InthenotetohiseditionofLowth(p.),Michaelismentionsaworkbyhisfatheronparonomasia(ChristianBenedictMichaelis,Desacraparanomasia,);hehimselfwritesthathedislikessuchword-playinseriousliterature.TheworksofFrancescoAlgarotti(–),anItalianphilosopherandfriendofFredericktheGreat,weretranslatedintoFrenchandpublishedinsevenvolumes.His“Essaysurlarime”isfoundinvol.;on.pp.–,hewritesthatrhymewasintroducedalongwiththeduelandfeudallawasanagreeablecontagion;itevolvedfromleonineverseandinfectedallthevernacularlanguages.]AccordingtoPliny(NaturalHistory..),Anacreondiedbychokingonaraisin-stone.Theanecdotehasbeenretoldbylaterpoets,includingAbrahamCowley(“ElegieuponAnacreon:WhowaschoakedbyaGrape-Stone”)andJohannFriedrichLauson(“DasKußchen,”¨),thelatterafriendofHamann’s.TheCapitolinegeesewarnedtheRomansthatthecitywasunderattackbytheGauls(seeforexampleLivy.).InthewildernessElijahwasfedbytheravens,Kings:–.InKings,Elijah,unarmed,defeatsthecaptainsofthekingofSamaria.Mark::“Andhewasnumberedwiththetransgressors.”Inoneinterpretation,HamanniscontrastingtheCatholicchurchatRomeandtheCalvinistchurchofGeneva.TheelaborateCatholicworshipiscomparedtooperaandreachesanapotheosis;theaustereCalvinistserviceiscomparedtoamosqueandispurgedbythecolocynth,whichfurnishesapurgativedrug(cf.Kings,wherethosewhoatethepottageintowhichthegourdhadbeenmixedcalledit“deathinthepot”andn.above).Additionally,theword“colocynth”recallsSeneca’ssatireagainstthedeifiedClaudius,Apocolocyntosis(“thegourdification,”apunonapotheosis).Persius,Satire.–:“Painttwosnakes.Children,theplaceissacred;pissawayfromhere.Iamleaving.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageheavytobearisnottherebyjustifiedindenigratingitstalent.gggThebachelorwouldotherwisehavegiventhisfrivolouspenasmuchocca-sionforapasquinadeasPlatowouldhavehadtoimmortalizeAristo-phanes’hiccupsintheSymposium,orScarronhisownhiccupsinasonnet.ThefreeconstructionwhichKlopstock,thatgreatrestoreroflyricsong,haspermittedhimselfispresumablyanarchaism,ahappyimitationofthemysteriousmechanicsofsacredpoetryamongtheancientHebrews.Init,accordingtotheshrewdobservationsofthemostthoroughcriticsofourtime,hhhweapprehendnothingmorethan“anartfulprosebrokendownintoallthesmallunitsoftheperiods,eachoneofwhichcanbetakenasaverseinaparticularmeter;andthereflectionsandfeelingsofthemostancientandsacredpoetsseemoftheirownaccord”(perhapsjustasrandomlyasthesunmotesofEpicurus)“tohavearrangedthemselvesintosymmetricallineswhicharefullofharmony,althoughtheyhaveno(prescribedormandatory)meter.”gggGentlyrhymedoesstealintotheheart,whenitisnotuponcompulsion;Itsupports,adornstheharmony,andfixesspeechinmemory.ElegienundBriefe(Strasbourg,)[LudwigHeinrichvonNicolay(–)publishedhisElegienundBriefe(“Elegiesandletters”)in;seep..]hhhSeetheeditor’sfourthnotetoLowth’sthirdlecture,p.;andseealsothefifty-firstletterinthethirdpartofBriefe,dieneuesteLiteraturbetreffend.[ThenotebyMichaelisdiscussesLowth’slectureonthefreeHebrewmeter,whichhecomparestorecitative.Lessing’swords(onKlopstock),whichHamannadaptsandquotesinthemaintext,appearedinBriefe,dieneuesteLiteraturbetreffend,Part,letter(August,;“Lettersconcerningthemostrecentliterature”).Onp.Lessingwrote,“Butwhatdoyousaytothiskindofverse,ifImayevencallitverse?Forinactualityitisnothingmorethananartfulprose,brokendownintoallthesmallunitsoftheperiods,eachofwhichmaybetakenasverseinaparticularmeter.”Onp.hewrote,“They[theexpressedsentiments]seemoftheirownaccordtohavearrangedthemselvesintosymmetricallineswhicharefullofharmony,althoughtheyhavenodefinitemeter.”]Elsewhere(Werke,vol.,p.)Hamannexplainsthatby“bachelor”hemeansaverseforwhicharhyminglinecannotbefound.Plato,Symposiumc–e.PaulScarron(–),poetandplaywrightwhospecializedintheburlesquestyle.Shortlybeforehisdeath,heissaidtohavewishedtowriteasatireagainsthiccups;seeLaFontaine,“EpigrammesurunmotdeScarronquietaitpr´esdemourir.”`FriedrichGottliebKlopstock(–),epicandlyricpoet,imitatedclassicalmetersinGermanpoetry,includingwhatwereunderstoodasthe“freerhythms”ofthePindaricode.The“mostthoroughcritics”areMichaelisandLessing.ForDemocritusandPythagoras,sunmotesarethevisibleformoftheatoms(seeAristotle,Deanima.,a).\nAestheticainnuceHomer’smonotonousmeteroughttostrikeusasatleastasparadoxicalastheunboundennessofourGermanPindar.iiiMyamazementatorignoranceofthereasonthattheGreekpoetalwaysusedthesamemeterwastemperedwhenImadeajourneythroughCourlandandLithuania.Incertaindistrictsoftheseregions,youcanheartheLettishornon-Germanpeopleatworksingingjustasinglecadenceofafewnotes,whichisverymuchlikeapoeticmeter.Ifapoetweretoemergeamongthem,itwouldbequitenaturalforhimtotailorallhislinestothismeasureestablishedbytheirvoices.Itwoulddemandtoomuchtimetoplacethissmalldetail(ineptisgratumfortasse–quivoluntillacalamistrisinurere)intheappropriatelight,compareitwithseveralotherphenomena,traceitscauses,anddevelopfruitfulconsequences–IamsatisterrisnivisatquediraegrandinismisitPateretrubentedexterasacrasiaculatusarcesterruiturbem,terruitgentis,gravenerediretsaeculumPyrrhaenovamonstraquestae,omnecumProteuspecusegitaltosviseremontes.––HoraceiiiWoulditnotbecharmingifHerrKlopstockweretospecifytohisprinterortoaMargotlaRavaudeuse(asthephilologist’smuse)thereasonswhyhehadprintedinseparatelineshispoeticsentiments,whichthevulgarthinkareconcernedwithqualitatesoccultaeandwhichthelanguageofdalliancecallssentimentsparexcellence.Despitethegibberishofmydialect,IwouldquitewillinglyacknowledgeHerrKlopstock’sprosaicstyletobeamodelofclassicalperfection.Fromhavingmadeatrialofafewspecimens,Iwouldcreditthisauthorwithsuchaprofoundknowledgeofhismothertongue,particularlyofitsprosody,thathismusicalversificationseemsthebestsuitedasthelyricraimentforasingerwhoseekstoshunthecommonplace.–IdistinguishtheoriginalcompositionsofourAsaphfromhistransformationsofancientchurchhymns,indeedevenfromhisepic,whosestoryiswell-known,andresemblesthatofMilton,ifnotentirely,atleastinoutline.[LouisCharlesFougeretdeMonbron(c.–)publishedthenovelMargotlaRavaudeuse(“Margotthemender/darner”)in;itwasthestoryofaprostitute.SeeRomancierslibertinsduXVIIIesi`ecle,ed.Lasowski(Paris,),–.“Qualitatesoccultae,”hiddenqualities,ascholasticterm;theywereopposedbyDescartes,Newton,andothers.ToAsaph,oneoftheleadersofDavid’schoir,areattributedPsalmsand–.KlopstockisanAsaphbecauseofhisreligiouspoetry,whichincludeshisGeistlicheLieder(“Spiritualsongs”)andhisepicpoem,modeledonMilton,DerMessias(“TheMessiah”).]KlopstockistheGermanPindar.InGermantheword“unbound”canmean“inprose.”Cicero,Brutus[],slightlyadapted:“perhapsgratifyingtotheinept...whowanttocrimpitwiththeircurlingirons.”Horace,Ode..–:“AlreadyJovehassentupontheearthenoughsnowandfiercehale,andwithhisredrightarmhehasstruckthesacredcitadelandterrifiedthecity;hehasterrifiedthe\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageApostilleAstheoldestreaderofthisrhapsodyincabbalisticprose,Ifindmyselfobligedbytherightofprimogenituretobequeathtomyyoungerbrethrenwhowillcomeaftermeonemoreexampleofamercifuljudgment,asfollows:Everythinginthisaestheticnutshelltastesofvanity!–ofvanity!–Therhapsodistjjjhasread,observed,reflected,soughtandfoundagreeablewords,quotedfaithfully,andlikeamerchantshipfetchedandbroughthisfoodfromafar.Hehasaddedupsentenceandsentenceasarrowskkkarecountedonabattle-field;andcircumscribedhisfiguresasstakesmeasureoffatent.Insteadofstakesandarrows,hehas,withthepetit-maˆıtresandsophomoresofhistimewritten********and––––––––obelisksandasterisks.llljjj–Wr+0–F#2F#;!.SocratesinPlato’sIon.[Plato,Iona:“Rhapsodes–interpretersofinterpreters.”]kkkProcopius,DebelloPersico..[ProcopiuswasaGreekhistorianofthesixthcentury.HismajorworkisHistoryoftheWarsofJustinian,ofwhichbooksanddealwiththefirstPersianwar(“debelloPersico”).In..–oftheHistory,ProcopiusremarksthatalthoughthePersians,almostallofthembowmen,shotmorerapidlythantheRomans,theirbowswereweakanddidnotinflictmuchdamage;andthatthoughtheRomanbowmenwerefewerandmuchslower,thebowswerestifferandverytightlystrung,andsotheRomansinflictedagreaternumberoffatalities.]lllAstericusilluscerefacit;obeliscusiugulatetconfodit(JeromeinhisprefacetothePentateuch;cf.DiogenesLaertiusonPlato).AskilfuluseofthesemasoreticsignscouldservejustaswelltorejuvenatethewritingsofSolomonastointerpettwolettersofPaul,asoneofthemostrecentcommentatorshasdonethroughthemethodof§§andtables.[Jerome’s“PrefacetothePentateuch”goesbyseveralnames;itisthefinalsectionofhis“PrefatoryEpistles”totheBible.Hamannadaptsafewsentencesfromthebeginningofthesection:“anasteriskmakesalightshine,theobeliskcutsandpierces.”Jeromeandhispredecessorsusedtheobelisk(“littledagger,”representedinancienttimesbyastraighthorizontalstroke)tocutandanasterisk(“littlestar”)toaddpassages.BookofDiogenesLaertius’LivesofEminentPhilosophersisdevotedtoPlato.At.,hediscussesthevariousmarksusedtomarkpassages;theasteriskindicatesagreementwithdoctrineandtheobelusaspuriouspassage.]nationsthatthedreadagewouldreturnofPyrrhalamentingnewportents,whenProteusdrovehiswholeherdtovisitthehighmountains.”Theofficialcredentialsgiveninapostscripttoadocument(MeyersLexikon);cf.Niermeyer’sMediaeLatinitatisLexiconMinus.Ecclesiastes::“Vanityofvanities,saiththepreacher;vanityofvanities;allisvanity”;cf.:.Proverbs::“sheislikethemerchants’ships;shebringethherfoodfromafar.”Apetit-maˆıtrereferseithertoa“dandy,fop,coxcomb”ortoa“minormaster”inthearts;bothmeaningsarederogatory.\nAestheticainnuceLetusnowheartheconclusionofhisnewestaesthetic,whichistheoldest:Fear,andgiveglorytohim;forthehourofhisjudgmentiscome:andworshiphimthatmadeheaven,andearth,andthesea,andthefountainsofwaters!Ecclesiastes::“Letusheartheconclusionofthewholematter:FearGod,andkeephiscommandments:forthisisthewholedutyofman.”Revelation:.\nTheLastWillandTestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-CrossConcerningtheDivineandHumanOriginofLanguageCredidi,propterquodlocutussum.Corinthians:Hastilytranslatedfromanoriginalcartoonhieroglyphicbythehierophant’sacolyte+45CK &Y,7#.Arrian,DiscoursesofEpictetus.Temporeetlocopraelibatis.MottoofRabelais\nThetitle-pageoriginallyborethefalsedateof,toimplythatthepiecehadbeensubmittedinthecompetitionovertheBerlinAcademy’sprize-questionabouttheoriginoflanguage.“IbelievedandthereforehaveIspoken.”InfullCorinthians:reads:“Wehavingthesamespiritoffaith,accordingasitiswritten,Ibelieved,andthereforehaveIspoken;wealsobelieve,andthereforespeak.”Cf.Psalm:.HamanntranslatedfromGermanintoFrenchasaclerkintheGeneralExciseandCustomsAdministration.“ThetitlepointstotheFreemasons,ofwhichHerderbecameamemberin.‘RoseCross,’or‘RoseCroix,’asthenomenclatureisgiventoday,isnowandwasinHerder’stimeadegreeintheMasonicsociety...TheKonigsberglodge,likemostothers,waspresidedoverbya‘Hierophant,’¨whoquitelikelyhadaHandlager[heretranslatedas“acolyte”],ormason’sassistant–theGermanwordcomesfromthestonemason’scraft,”RobertT.Clark,Herder:HisLifeandThought(Berkeley,CA,),.“Itoowillmakeahierophant.”ThemottofromArrian’sDiscoursesofEpictetus..wasaddedsubsequentlybyhand.Thechapterisanadmonition“Tothosewhoenterlight-heartedlyupontheprofessionoflecturing.”“Intherighttimeandplace,”fromChapterofGargantua.Theidentification“mottoofRabelais”wasalsoaddedsubsequently.Intheprintedversionthefalsedate“”followedatthebottomofthepage;thequotationobliquelyindicatedthefalsenessofthedate.\nSocratesinPlato’sPhilebusDonumprofectoadhomines,utmihividetur,perPrometheumquendamunacumquodamlucidissimoignedescen-dit.Etenimpriscinobispraestantiores,quepropinquiores,haecnobisoraculatradiderunt––Plato,Philebusc:“Atrulygreatgiftofthegods,asitappearstome,camedowntomenbysomePrometheustogetherwithamostdazzlingfire.Indeedtheancients,noblerthanweareandnearertothegods,handeddowntheseoraclestous...”HamannquotesthepassageintheLatintranslationbyMarsilioFicino,inpartbecauseheprefers“oracles”[oracula]to“tradition”[,&#].HamannisalsoaimingatHerder’sclaimintheTreatiseontheOriginofLanguage,Part,section:“ThefocalpointatwhichPrometheus’heavenlysparkcatchesfireinthehumansoulhasbeendetermined.Withthefirstcharacteristicmarklanguagearose.”(Herder,PhilosophicalWritings,tr.Forster,p.;cf.OntheOriginofLanguage,tr.Gode,p.).\nFavetelinguis!IfGodissupposedtobetheoriginofalleffectsingreatthingsandsmall,orinheavenandinearth,theneverynumberedhaironourheadisasdivineasthebehemoth,thatchiefofthewaysofGod.ThespiritoftheMosaiclawextendsfromtheretothemostdisgustingdischargeofthehumancorpse.Consequently,everythingisdivine,andthequestionoftheoriginofevilamountsintheendtoword-playandscholasticprattle.Everythingdivine,however,isalsohuman,becausemancanneitheractnorsufferbutbytheanalogyofhisnature,howeversimpleorcomplexamachineitissaidtobe.Thiscommunicatioofdivineandhumanidiomatumisafundamentallawandthemaster-keyofallourknowledgeandofthewholevisibleeconomy.Horace,Ode..:literally,“bepropitiouswithyourtongues,”butidiomatically,“keepsacredsilence.”Theprizequestionhadbegun“Ensupposantleshommesabandonnes´a`leursfacultes´naturelles...,”“Supposingthatmenwerelefttotheirnaturalfaculties...”“Inheavenandinearth”occursinPsalm:andMatthew:;“greatandsmall”isalsoabiblicallocution.Matthew::“Buttheveryhairsofyourheadareallnumbered”;cf.Luke:.Job::“HeisthechiefofthewaysofGod.”Cf.Numbers::“Hethattoucheththedeadbodyofanymanshallbeuncleansevendays.”ElsewhereHamannquotesHippocrates:“Allaredivineandallhuman,”fromOnTheSacredDisease(seeWerke,vol.,p.).Herder,Treatise,Part,section:“theinventionofalanguageoutofinsipid,emptyarbitraryvolitionisopposedtothewholeanalogyofhisnature”(PhilosophicalWriting,tr.Forster,p.;cf.OntheOriginofLanguage,tr.Gode,p.).“Theinterchangeoftheproperties,”thetheologicaldoctrinethat“whilethehumanandDivinenaturesinChristwereseparate,theattributesoftheonemaybepredicatedoftheotherinviewoftheirunionintheonepersonoftheSaviour”(ConciseOxfordDictionaryoftheChristianChurch);seeLuther’s“TheWordMadeFlesh,”Luther’sWorks(AmericanEdition),vol.,p..Itmayalsobetranslatedas“communicationofidioms.”Or“housekeeping.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageBecausetheinstrumentsoflanguage,atleast,areagiftofthealmamaternature(withwhomourespritsfortscarryonanidolatrymoretastelessandmaliciousthanthepaganandpapistrabble),andbecauseinaccordancewiththehighestphilosophicalprobabilitythecreatoroftheseartificialinstrumentsdesiredandwasobligedtoimplanttheuseofthemtoo,theoriginofhumanlanguageisthereforecertainlydivine.aHowever,ifahigherbeingoranangel(asinthecaseofBalaam’sass)isgoingtotakeeffectthroughourtongues,anysucheffect,aswiththetalkinganimalsinAesop’sfables,mustbeexpressedinanalogywithhumannature,andinthisrespectneithertheoriginoflanguagenor,evenless,theprogressoflanguagecanseemorbeanythingbuthuman.ThuslongagoProtagorascalledmanthemensuramomniumrerum.bOurcenturyisfertileingreatsoulswhorevereandclaimforthemselvestherelicsoftheEpicureansystemintheŒuvresphilosophiquesdeM.delaMettrie,intheSyst`emedelanature,andintheEvangiledujour;a–invenissedicunturnecessariaistavitae,noninstituisse;quodanteainvenitur,fuit,etquodfuit,noneiusdeputabiturquiinvenit,sedeiusquiinstituit.Eratenimantequaminveniretur.Tertullian,Apologeticus..Tertullian,Detestimonioanimae.–etmentisetvocisetlinguaeartifex.Lactantius,Deverocultu,..–numquamfuissehominesinterra,quipropterinfantiamnonloquerentur,intelliget,cuirationondeest.Lactantius,Deverocultu,..[HamannreferstofourpassagesfromtheChurchFathersandquotesthreeofthem.ThefirstcomesfromTertullian’sApology,chapter(Hamann’sLatindeviatesslightlyfromstandardeditions):“[thegods]aresaidtohavediscoveredthoseessentialsoflife,nottohavemadethem.Butthatwhichisdiscoveredalreadyexisted;andthereforewillnotbeaccountedhiswhodiscoveredit,buthiswhomadeit.Foritexistedbeforeitcouldbediscovered.”Thesecondisnotquoted.Tertullian,OntheTestimonyoftheSoul,chapter,discussestherelationbetweentheknowledgeofGodthatisinborninthesoulandthatknowledgewhichcomesfromScripture(thechapterconcludes“itdoesnotmattergreatlywhetherthesoul’sknowledgewasshapedbyGodorbythewritingsofGod”).ThethirdandfourthpassagesbothcomefromBook(“Oftrueworship”)ofLactantius,DivineInstitutes:“Godisthecontriverofthemindandofthevoiceandofthetongue”(chapter)and“anyonenotdeprivedofsenseunderstandsthattherewerenevermenontheearthwhocouldnotspeak[except]onaccountofinfancy”(chapter).]bPlatointheTheaetetusandtheCratylus.[“Themeasureofallthings”;Protagoras’wordsarequotedinPlato’sTheaetetusaandCratylusa.]Anespritfortis“a‘strongminded’person;usually,onewhoprofessessuperioritytocurrentprejudices,esp.a‘freethinker’inreligion”(OxfordEnglishDictionary).Herder,Treatise,Part,section:“Ifanangelorheavenlyspirithadinventedlanguage,howcoulditbeotherwisethanthatlanguage’swholestructurewouldhavetobeanoffprintofthisspirit’smannerofthought?”(PhilosophicalWritings,tr.Forster,p.;OntheOriginofLanguage,tr.Gode,p.).Numbers;cf.Peter::“thedumbassspeakingwithman’svoiceforbadthemadnessoftheprophet.”The“philosophicalworks”ofJulienOffraydelaMettrie(–)werefirstpublishedin,andincludeaposthumouslyedited“SystemofEpicurus.”TheBarond’Holbach’s“systemofnature”appearedin.Voltaireeditedthe“gospeloftheday”fromto.\nThelastwillandtestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Crossmeanwhile,producingthehumanracefrommireorslimestilllookstomelikeabeautifullypaintedbrainlessmask.Notamerepotterofplasticforms,butafatheroffieryspiritsandbreathingforcesisseeninthewholework.SomeoneelsemaydaretohavedoubtsabouttherevelationsofaGalileo,Kepler,Newton;tomeatleastthesturdyfaithofaVoltaireandHumeinthesetheorieshasmorethanoncerenderedtheirevangelicalcertaintysuspect.Also,ithardlymakessensethatourwisemenoftodayaresopen-etratinganddependableinheavenlydiscoveriesbutontheotherhandsobefoggedintheirdomesticaffairs.However,justassoonasthespiritofmathematicalobservationfromoutoftheetherealsphereswillconde-scendtothehorizonofoursmallmoralglobeofhaze,thenthehypothesisofasinglehumancoupleandthedelusionofaChineseandEgyptianchronologyforthepresentshapeoftheearthwillappearinageometriclight.AlearneddoctorcprovednotlongagoinanorationheldattheAnatomyTheaterinPaviathattheverticaltwo-leggedgaitofmanisaninheritedandartificialgait.ShouldtheKnightoftheRose-Crosswishtodesecratethediamondwriting-penofhisancestors,justasourleadingenthusiastsofMontbard,ofVore,ofFerneyenBourgogne´dandof—in—desecratetheirgagglinggoose-quills,thenthisrelicwouldhavebecomeapragmaticdeductionwhichalltheGreekacademiesoftheholyRomanempirewouldhavereadtocorpsesandspecters,becauseIwouldproveinthejawsoftheircannibalsandgypsies,leaseholdersandswindlers,fouacierseandcMoscati.[PietroMoscati,Dellecorporeedifferenzeessenzialichepassanofralastrutturade’bruti,elaumana:discorsoaccademicolettonelteatroanatomicodellaRegiaUniversit`adiPavia(“Ontheessentialphysicaldifferencesthatoccurbetweenthestructureofanimalsandthehumanstructure:academicorationreadintheAnatomyTheateroftheRoyalUniversityofPavia”),.ItwastranslatedintoGermanthenextyear.]dBuffon,Helvetius.[Georges-LouisdeLeclerc,ComtedeBuffon(´–),wasthemostimpor-tantnaturalhistorianofhistime;hewasborninMontbard,France.Claude-AdrienHelvetius´(–),Frenchphilosophe,retiredtohisestateinVorein´;hismostfamous,orinfamous,workwasDel’esprit().Voltaire’smovedtoFerneyinBurgundyin.The“—in—”presumablyreferstoanunnamedtarget.]eRabelais.[A“fouacier”isabakeroffouaces,flatcakesbakedonthehearth.InchapterofRabelais’Gargantua,thefouaciersrefusetoselltothosewhomtheyregardastoovulgar.]Hebrews::“Whomakethhisangelsspirits,andhisministersaflameoffire”;cf.Psalms:.AdamandEve.PossiblyanallusiontoNewton’sTheChronologyofAncientKingdomsAmendedorsimilarworks.Geometryinthesenseoflogicalclarity,withperhapsanallusiontothe“geometricalmethod”ofSpinoza(Ethicamoregeometricodemonstrata).Jeremiah::“ThesinofJudahiswrittenwithapenofiron,andwiththepointofadiamond.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagepoisonersthateveneatinganddrinkingcannotbeaninnateideaofthehumanracebutrathermustsimplybeaninheritedandartificialcustom.–Everything,everythingdebatesforthispoint:thenatureofthehumanstomach,whichswallowsupintoitselfskinandhair,stonesandveinsofore,likepills,streamsofsweatandblood,entireloadsofsighsandcurses,likedistilledliquors;–theelementofhungerandthirst,whoseavariceorratherattractionmakeseverything,everything,savoryandprofitabletotheprincelypalateofourfinanciersandnewfanglers,CretesandArabians,eventhatdung,bearingprofitandfruit,whichtheJewinthelandoftheChaldeansbytheriverofChebarscornedinpartandinpartconsumedwithcareduringhispropheticsiegefagainstasovereignlyproject.TheanalogybetweenthecoldmealsofaLaplanderorindigenaandbetweenthefire-spittingvaultofanApiciusorcoquinpenduetparvenu–betweenFritzinthepurplecradleandFritzinpraesepio,whoequallywouldnothavelearnedtoeateitherwithwoodenorwithgoldenspoonshadnottheirwet-nursesortheirmotherssmearedpaparoundtheirgapinglittlemouthsandfaithfullyawaitedthegreatmysteryofdigestion.–Comeon,doyounotknowbynow,philosophers!,thattherefEzekiel.[Ezekiel:-:“Thoualso,sonofman,taketheeatile,andlayitbeforethee,andpourtrayuponitthecity,evenJerusalem:Andlaysiegeagainstit.”Ezekiel:–:“thoushaltbakeitwithdungthatcomethoutofman,intheirsight...ThensaidI,AhLordGod!behold,mysoulhathnotbeenpolluted:forfrommyyouthupeventillnowhaveInoteatenofthatwhichdiethofitself,oristorninpieces;neithercamethereabominablefleshintomymouth.Thenhesaiduntome,Lo,Ihavegiventheecow’sdungforman’sdung,andthoushaltpreparethybreadtherewith.Moreoverhesaiduntome,Sonofman,behold,IwillbreakthestaffofbreadinJerusalem:andtheyshalleatbreadbyweight,andwithcare;andtheyshalldrinkwaterbymeasure,andwithastonishment.”]Hamann’sinsultsaredirectedprimarilyagainstFrederick’sofficials.GwenGriffithDickson(JohannGeorgHamann’sRelationalMetacriticism,p.)pointsoutthathereandthroughouttheparagraphHamannisparodyingHerder’sover-emphaticstyleandhiskeywords.Cf.neartheendofHerder’sTreatise:“Humaninventionhaseverythingspeakingforitandnothingatallagainstit:essenceofthehumansoulandelementoflanguage;analogyofthehumanspeciesandanalogyoftheadvancesoflanguage–thegreatexamplesofallpeoples,times,andpartsoftheworld!”(PhilosophicalWritings,tr.Forster,p.).Acts::“CretesandArabians,wedohearthemspeakinourtonguesthewonderfulworksofGod.”Ezekiel::“IwasamongthecaptivesbytheriverofChebar.”Hamannmaybereferringtohimself,anative(indigena)ofEastPrussia;elsewhere,however,heusesthewordtoindicateMaupertuis,wholedanexpeditiontoLaplandin.Apicius,arichanddecadentgourmet,livedunderAugustusandTiberius,andcommittedsuicidebypoisoninghimself.Thefire-spittingvaultisApicius’kitchen.Acoquinpenduetparvenuisaroguethatwashangedandhadrisenintheworld.Purpleasthecolorofemperors,andFritzasFredericktheGreat.Fritz“inthemanger”(Luke)makesthekenoticcontrastwithFredericktheGreat.\nThelastwillandtestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Crossisnophysicalconnectionbetweencauseandeffect,meansandintent,onlyaspiritualandidealone,thatis,blindfaith,asthegreatestearthlychroniclergofhiscountryandofthenaturalchurchhasproclaimed!Thehappyattempttoholdbodyandsoultogetherwithacornswasthusaninventionofourancestors,whowerebothimaginativeandaquickstudy,andwhowerecalledaboriginesorautochthonesinanaturalpronunciationthatwasmoregruntingthanbleating.Theyhadthefortunetobeborningreatforestsofoakwheretheywouldcertainlyallhavestarvedunderthegoldenreignoffaminehadtheynotswiftlyresolved,throughtheinadvertenttutelageoftheirsubjectsandrivalsformast,uponacynicaldietofacorns.–Outofgratitudeforthischaritableacorndiet,givetheswinenutritioushusksforthesethreeyears,andwithwhichyourlostnativecitizenscankeepopentable.Meanwhilethegodsandcolonistsguzzledownthegoldofthelandandleaveitbehindthem.–Thoseintimatebrothersofthehumanrace,thesophistsofSodom-Samaria,whoareedifieddayandnightbytheconversationsoftheAuto-cratMarkAntoninuswithhimself,havecertainlyreadinChapterofBooksixthattheChevillevivifiqueh(onwhichdependsthewholepreservationandincreaseoftheamesmoutonni`ˆeres)isaparviintes-tiniaffrictiomuciqueexcretioconvulsiva.ButtheyharnessthehorsesgHume.[DavidHume(–)wasskepticalaboutanecessarylinkbetweencauseandeffect,wroteahistoryofEngland(andishencea“chronicler”),anddefendednaturalreligion.]hRabelais.[Rabelaispraisesthe“vivifyingpeg”intheprologuetotheThirdBook:“Ientreatyouinthenameof...thefourrumpsthatbegotyouandofthevivifyingpegthatatthattimejoinedthem.”]“Thatacorns(withwildhoney)werethefoodofprimitiveman,iscommonknowledgeinAntiq-uity”writesR.A.B.MynorsinhiscommentarytoVirgil,Georgics.(Oxford,).RousseauinADiscourseupontheOriginandFoundationofInequalityAmongMankindlamentsthatheisoneofthosemen“whosepassionshaveforeverdestroyedtheiroriginalsimplicity,whocannolongerliveupongrassandacorns,ordowithoutlawsandmagistrates”(footnote).Moscatialsoreferstoacornsasthefoodofprimitiveman.Herder’shypotheticalexampleoftheoriginoflanguageinvolvedthebleatingofasheep(Part,section).Luke::“Andhewouldfainhavefilledhisbellywiththehusksthattheswinedideat:andnomangaveuntohim.”“Sheepishsouls.”RabelaisinTheFourthBook,chapter,afterdrowningthesheepthatwereontheship,looksroundtoseewhetherthereremains“anysheepishsoul.”HamannquotesfromaLatintranslationofMarcusAureliusAntoninus’descriptionofsex,whichconsistsina“rubbingofthesmallmemberandaconvulsivedischargeofmucus.”Thetitleofhisworkhasbeentranslatedas“HisConversationwithHimself”;itismorecommonlyknownasTheMeditationsorCommentaries.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagebehindthephaeton–andthewisdomitselfofSolomonintheMorningPreacher,ilikethespikenardofDemetrius(seethelargecatechismofreasonjundertheheading“Lamia”),smellslikeaglansregia.SincetheKnightoftheRose-CrossknowsnoArcadiaorElDorado,whereyoublessGodasyouplease,hisswan-songblessesalltheardentyouthandoldmen,notthroughhisownchoiceofpiety,butfromalitanyofdegrees:“Theymustbeasthegrassuponthehousetops,whichwithersaforeitgrowsup,wherewiththemowerfillsnothishand;norhethatbindssheaveshisbosom;andtheywhichgobysay,avezhontepourvosAncˆetres!”TheimaginedorcontrivedparadiseofSotadictolerancewhichMahomet,exutroqueCaesar,justasbrazenalatroasheisahyp-ocrite,promisestohisproselytesandslaves,isnothingbutadeadsaltseai––quel’onprieDieudansmonRoyaumecommel’onveutetquel’onyf—commel’onpeut.Matin´eesroyales,ouEntretienssurl’artder´egner,.[“...inmykingdomyoupraytoGodasyoupleaseandyouf[uck]asyoucan”;seen..]jBayle.IntheprefacetotheExtraitduDictionnairehistoriqueetcritique,.[Seen..]OxfordEnglishDictionary:“Aspeciesoffour-wheeledopencarriage,oflightconstruction.”AreferencetoFrederick’shomosexuality.BecauseofitsobscenedenunciationofFrederick,Hamann’swritingishereparticularlydenseandobscure,andeventhehandwrittennoteshesubsequentlyaddsareoblique.The“MorningPreacher”isacipherfortheMatin´eesroyales,asatireofuncertainauthorshipwhichincludesthesentenceHamannquotesinthenote.TheremainingallusionistoastorythatsurvivesinAthenaeus,Deipnosophists(Book)butwhichHamannfoundinPierreBayle’sDictionnairehistoriqueetcritique.Inafootnotetothearticle“Lamia,”BaylequotesinLatinthestory.KingDemetriusdesiredtheflute-girlLamiaandwasshowingheravarietyofperfumes,whichsherejected.Hecalledforsomespikenard,masturbated,andaskedLamiatosmellandtellhimhowsuperioritwastotheothers.Shesmiledandrepliedthatitsmelledthemostputridofall.Demetriusansweredthatitcamefromtheroyalglans[glansregia]itself.The“Extrait”wastakenfromBayle’sDictionaryandpublishedinBerlin,.Theprefaceconcludesbyinsistingthattheworksofthephilosophesconstitutethe“catechismofreason.”Thatis,his“lastwillandtestament.”Psalms(“ASongofdegrees”),verses–:“Letthembeasthegrassuponthehousetops,whichwitherethaforeitgrowethup:Wherewiththemowerfillethnothishand;norhethatbindethsheaveshisbosom.Neitherdotheywhichgobysay,Theblessingofthebeuponyou:weblessyouinthenameofthe.”“Beashamedforyourancestors”(onthegroundstheyengagedinheterosexualsex?).“Sotadic”meansobscene,fromSotades,Greekpoet.Thatis,Frederick.ExutroqueCaesar:theidealofthekingasaccomplishedinbothwarandthearts(armisetlitteris,arteetmarte).SeeErnstH.Kantorowicz,“OnTransformationsofApollineEthics,”pp.–ofKonradSchauenberg,ed.,Charites:StudienzurAltertumswissenschaft(Bonn,)andDoraandErwinPanofsky,Pandora’sBox:TheChangingAspectsofaMythicalSymbol(NewYork,),–;cf.ErwinRobertCurtius,EuropeanLiteratureandtheLatinMiddleAges,tr.WillardR.Trask(Princeton,),–.Latinfor“thief.”\nThelastwillandtestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Crossassoonasitmeans:mortuaestillapars,quaquondamAchilleseram!–Nothunderingchariot,noflameoftheair-beatingsword,cankeepthewaytothetreeoflifemoresplendidlythantheplagueoffig-wartsonthebordersandinthebowelsofthestatewhichwillshortlybetransformedintoaHotel-Dieu,ˆwheretheterriblenecessityofhardshipteachesustobeg.ForalthoughHerodesAtticuspersecutesthegodlyfoolishnessoftheChristianfaithwiththefireofhismuseandtheswordofhisprose,andindeedinanidiomwhosesyntaxSt.Diderotconsiderssupremelymeta-physical,behold!alllaws,orders,andcommandsnotonlyroarout,morepublicandmoreinnumerablethanthewavesandthesandofthefoamingsea,theGodofgracethroughwhomallthatseemstorulereallyisruled,buttheyalsosnortouttheevangelicalspiritofusury,kwhichburdenstheimpoverishedandreviledsubjectswiththeninebeatitudesofthepreacheronthemount,andJoel’sprophecy(:–)isfulfilledonceagain:“Hisstinkshallcomeup,andhisillsavourshallcomeup,becausehehathdonegreatthings.Fearnot,Oland;begladandrejoice:fortheLordwilldogreatthings.”–“Behold!HisControleur-Gˆen´eral´kj(+\;+ :  .JohannAlbertFabricius,“DedictisChristi”inCodexapocryphusNoviTestamenti()vol.,p..[“Beajustmoney-changer,”anapocryphalsayingofChrist.]AdaptsPetronius,Satyricon:“DeadisthatpartinwhichIwasonceAchilles.”Corinthians::“sofightI,notasonethatbeateththeair”andGenesis::“andheplacedattheeastofthegardenofEdenCherubims,andaflamingswordwhichturnedeveryway,tokeepthewayofthetreeoflife.”Syphiliticwarts,avarietyofcondyloma.HamanngivestheFrenchwordfor“hospital”becauseof“Dieu.”HerodesAtticus(–)wasanimportantoratorandteacher.“Herodes”alsoinvokesthepersecutingHerodoftheNewTestament(thenamesareidenticalinGerman),and“Atticus”referstotheelegantrhetoricandtheatheismofthephilosophes.HamannisreferringtoFredericktheGreat.Corinthians::“BecausethefoolishnessofGodiswiserthanmen;andtheweaknessofGodisstrongerthanmen.”Cf.Diderot’sessay“SurFred´ericII,”writtenin´andpublishedintheEncyclop´edieinasasupplementtothearticle“Prussia.”Init,DiderotoffersaqualifiedpraiseofFrederick’sŒuvresduphilosophedeSans-Souci;Frederickwaswoundedbyit.SeeDiderot,Artsetlettres(–),ed.JeanVarloot(Paris,).Cf.Hebrews::“somanyasthestarsoftheskyinmultitude,andasthesandwhichisbytheseashoreinnumerable.”Peter::“theGodofallgrace.”Proverbs::“Bymekingsreign,andprincesdecreejustice.”Matthew–,Luke.TheController-GeneralofFinancesinPrussiawastheheadoftheGeneralExciseAdministra-tion(or“Regie”),anewministryFrederickintroduced,runbyFrenchmen,andresponsibleforcollectingcertaintaxes.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagecomestoturntheheartsofthefatherstothenativecitizensandtheunbelieverstothewisdomofthejust.”–Thereforeifman,accordingtotheuniversaltestimonyandexampleofallpeoples,times,andregions,isnotinapositiontolearnbyhimselfandwithoutthesociableinfluenceofhiswardersandguardians(thatis,iussus,lasitwere)howtowalkontwolegs,norhowtobreakdailybreadwithoutthesweatofhisface,noragain,andleastofall,toarriveatthemasterpieceofthecreativebrush,howthencouldtheideacomeintoanyone’sheadtoregardlanguage,cetartlegere,volage,demoniacle(tospeakwithMontaignemoutofPlato)nasanautonomousinventionofhumanartandwisdom?–Ourphilosopherstalklikealchemistsaboutthetreasuresofproductivity,thoughtojudgebytheirfieldsandvineyards,youmightswearthattheydonotknowhowtotelltaresfromwheat,grapesfromthorns,norfigsfromthistles–Theyimitatethatcharlatanwhodeclaredthatthevacuumofhisbagwasthegreat,beautiful,strongspiritwho,ifitwerepossible,wouldseducetheElus´themselves.Theconfusionoflanguage,bywhichhowevertheyseduceandareseduced,isofcourseaverynaturalmagicofautomaticreason,towhichitcomesatlittlecosttobetransformedintoastarofthefirstmagnitude,especiallyfortheprankstersoflikeblindness.lOvid,Metamorphoses,Book.[ThefirstbookofOvid’sMetamorphosesrecountsthecreationoftheworldandofman,thedegenerationofmenaftertheirGoldenAge,theirdestructionatthehandsofJove,andtherepopulationoftheearthbyDeucalionandPyrrha.“Iussus”(“commanded”)perhapsreferstothegodwhocommanded(“iussit”)thecreationoftheworldatlines,,and;italsosuggestsGod’scommandstoAdaminGenesis.]mEssais,Book,chapter.[SeeEssais,ed.ThibaudetandRat(),p.(“Delavanite”).´“Poetry,saysPlato,isanartwhichislight,wingedandinspiredbydaemons,”tr.M.A.Screech,Essays(),p.(“Onvanity”).]n,C6-+ #&!5 +4#1+4W:.Plato,Ion.[b:“apoetisalightandwingedandsacredthing.”]Luke::“AndheshallgobeforehiminthespiritandpowerofElias,toturntheheartsofthefatherstothechildren,andthedisobedienttothewisdomofthejust;tomakereadyapeoplepreparedfortheLord.”Lutherhas“unbelievers”ratherthan“disobedient,”andsodoesHamann.InthisinstanceIhavedepartedfromtheKingJamesversiontorenderthequotationclosertotheGerman.Herder,Treatise,towardtheend:“thegreatexampleofallpeoples,times,andpartsoftheworld!”(PhilosophicalWritings,tr.Forster,p.).Genesis::“Inthesweatofthyfaceshaltthoueatbread.”Matthew::“Gatheryetogetherfirstthetares,andbindtheminbundlestoburnthem:butgatherthewheatintomybarn.”Matthew::“Domengathergrapesofthorns,orfigsofthistles.”French,“theelect,”“thechosenones.”\nThelastwillandtestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-CrossWithoutgettingmyselfinvolvedinafraywithridiculousideasthatdonotdeservetoberefutedandwhichcannotbecuredbybeingrefuted(forthedarknessliesintheeyeballofthesensuscommunisandthetroubleliesinthewomboftheconcept),Ishalltouchmerelyontheonebitofnonsensebywhichthesecrookedpatriarchsofautochthonesandaboriginesaremadeintothethrice-blessedinventorsofanartwhosestructureBeauzee´(inhisGrammaireg´en´erale)andHarrishavewrittenfartoomuchabout,butunderstoodfartoolittleof––Henceforth,piousbrothers,meditate,whenandaswellasyoupossiblycan,onthebirthofthefirsthumancouple.–Theirnakednesswaswithoutshame,theirnaveloaroundgobletwhichneverlacksdrink,andthevoiceofaGodwalkinginthecoolofthedayinthegardenwasthesinceremilkofreasonfortheselittlechildrenofcreationforthegrowthoftheirpoliticaldestiny:topeopletheearthandtorulebythewordoftheirmouthp––oSeeSirThomasBrowne’sPseudodoxiaepidemica,Book,chapter.NB:Thefirsthumansdidnothavenavels.[BrownearguesinBook,chapterofthiswork(;sixthedn.)thattherepresentationofAdamandEvewithnavelsmaybeanerror.]pQuiprimus,quodsummaesapientiaePythagoraevisumest,omnibusrebusimposuitnomina?Cicero,TusculanDisputations,..–Ilnefautqu’unamantpassionne´pourinventerl’ecriture,´maisLeibnizsuffiroienta`peinepourcreerlapremi´erelangue.`Delaphilosophiedelanature(Amsterdam,),vol.,chap.,p..–Philo,Omniaquaeextantopera(Frankfurt,),pp.,,,,.[HamannaltersthequotationfromCicero’sTusculanDisputations..inaminorway:“Whofirstgavenamestothings,somethingwhichPythagorasthoughtrequiredtheheightofwisdom?”ThesecondquotationisfromaworkbyDelisledeSalesthatwaspublishedinAmsterdamin:“Ittakesonlyonepassionatelovertocreatewriting,butthirtyLeibnizeswouldhardlysufficetocreatethefirstlanguage.”ThefinalcitationinvokesfivepassagesfromPhilo.InthemodernLoebeditionofPhilo’sworksintenvolumes(tr.F.H.ColsonandG.H.Whitaker),thesecorrespondtovol.,pp.–(“OntheCreation”–);vol.,pp.–(“OntheCreation”–);vol.,pp.–(“OntheCreation”–);vol.,pp.–(“ThattheWorseisWonttoAttacktheBetter”–);andvol.,pp.–(“TheSacrificesofAbelandCain”–).]Hamannhasunschlachtig,anolderequivalenttoungeschlacht,“clumsy,coarse,uncouth,”butsincethewordisparticularlyassociatedwithLuther’stranslationofPhilippians:,“inthemidstofacrookedandperversenation,”Ihavetranslatedithereas“crooked.”NicolasBeauzee,´Grammaireg´en´erale;ou,Expositionraisonn´eedes´el´ementsn´ecessairesdulangage,pourservirdefondement`al’´etudedetoutesleslangues,.JamesHarris,Hermes,orAPhilosophicalInquiryConcerningUniversalGrammar,;secondedn.;thirdedn..Genesis::“Andtheywerebothnaked,themanandhiswife,andwerenotashamed.”SongofSongs::“Thynavelislikearoundgoblet.”Peter::“Asnewbornbabes,desirethesinceremilkoftheword.”HamannquotesLuther’sphraseexactly,butIhavedepartedfromtheKingJamesversioninordertoemphasize(asHamanndoes)“reason.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageEventheinequalityofmankindandthesocialcontractarethusconse-quencesofanoriginalinstitution,foraccordingtotheoldestdocumentaveryearlyevent(whichissowellsuitedtothecradleofmankindthatthetruthoftheirnarrativebruisesthesnake’sheadofskepticismandmakesalltheheel-bruisesofmockerylaughable)longagogavecauseforwomantosubmitunderthewillofthehusband––AdamwasthereforeGod’s,andGodhimselfbroughtthefirst-begottenandtheoldestofourraceasthefeudaltenantandheiroftheworldsetinorderbythewordofhismouth.Angels,burningtolookintohisheavenlycountenance,weretheministersandcourtiersofthefirstmonarch.InthechoirofthemorningstarsallthesonsofGodshoutedforjoy.Alltastedandsaw,atfirsthandandred-handed,thegoodnessofthemastercraftsmanwhorejoicedinthehabitablepartofhisearthandhisdelightswereforthesonsofmen–Thecreaturewasnotyetmadesubject,unwillingly,tothevanityandbondageofthecorruptiblesys-temunderwhichtheynowyawn,sigh,andaredumb,liketheDelphictripodandtheanti-machiavellianeloquenceofDemostheneswithhissilver-quinsy,oratmostgasps,rattles,andisstifledfinallyinthedrop-siedbreastofaTacitus–Everyphenomenonofnaturewasaword,–thesign,symbol,andpledgeofanew,secret,inexpressiblebutallthemoreferventunion,fellowship,andcommunionofdivineenergiesandideas.Allthatmanheardatthebeginning,sawwithhiseyes,lookedupon,andAlludestoHerder’swork,TheOldestDocumentoftheHumanRace(–).Genesis::“itshallbruisethyhead,andthoushaltbruisehisheel.”Genesis::“Untothewomanhesaid...thydesireshallbetothyhusband,andheshallruleoverthee.”ThebiblicalallusioniscloserinGerman.Luke::“Adam,whichwasthesonofGod”(inGerman,“theson”doesnotappear);Corinthians::“AndyeareChrist’s;andChristisGod’s.”Peter::“whichthingstheangelsdesiretolookinto.”Job::“Whenthemorningstarssangtogether,andallthesonsofGodshoutedforjoy?”Psalm::“OtasteandseethattheLordisgood.”Proverbs:–:“ThenIwasbyhim...Rejoicinginthehabitablepartofhisearth;andmydelightswerewiththesonsofmen.”TheallusioniscloserinGerman.Romans:–:“Forthecreaturewasmadesubjecttovanity,notwillingly,butbyreasonofhimwhohathsubjectedthesameinhope,BecausethecreatureitselfalsoshallbedeliveredfromthebondageofcorruptionintothegloriouslibertyofthechildrenofGod.”OnwhichthepriestessofApolloatDelphisatandwasinspiredbeforedeliveringoracles.FredericktheGreatpublishedAnti-Machiavelanonymouslyin.Demostheneswassaidtobesuffereringfrom“silver-quinsy”('C7C#)whenherefrainedfromspeakingonthegroundsthathesufferedfromquinsy(7C#),butinfactbecausehehadbeenbribed.SeePlutarch,LifeofDemosthenes,.\nThelastwillandtestamentoftheKnightoftheRose-Crosshishandshandledwasalivingword;forGodwastheword.Withthiswordinhismouthandinhishearttheoriginoflanguagewasasnatural,ascloseandeasy,asachild’sgame.Forhumannatureisfromthebegin-ninguntiltheendofdaysaslikeuntothekingdomofheavenasleaven,withwhosesmallnesseverywomancanmakefermentthreemeasuresofmeal.–IwouldmatagrabolizeqfurtherandwideranddeeperifIdidnotknowthatmuchstudyrightnowweariesthecheerofthelistenerasonceitweariedthefleshofthespiritualspeaker.SoIcontentmyselftodaywithhavingfoundandnamed,throughapilgrimageinblackashensack,rtheelementoflanguage–theAandO–theword.Inconclusion,theKnightoftheRose-CrossinvitesallthewittyandcleverfoolsoftheKingdomofYvetotandthepetrifiedoranimatedgawkersincoemeterioPisorumswhoarenotashamedtobe,ortobecome,Germantohishereditaryseat,whereprivilegesandlivingsarenotlackingthatarelucrativeinconsecratedribbons,gloves,waxcandles,andsealing-sticks.MeanwhileHeHimself,mid-dayandmidnight,composesaRomandesœconomiesetservitudes,tandbroodsoverthelastmasterpieceofRomanstatecraft,Julian’splantoconquertheParthiansattheborder.qMatagraboliser,++ C+,"\ .[ThewordwascoinedbyRabelais,inGargantuachap-ter.Inhisnote,HamanninventsaGreekword(derivedfromthreeGreekroots,7+ !,“vain,empty”;C7,,“write”;and"\,“takesoundings”)thatcorrespondstoRabelais’neologism.]rArtroyalduChevalierdeRosecroix`aLondres,..p..[AMasonictext,butsincethe“ChevalierdeRosecroix”istheFrenchfor“KnightoftheRose-Cross,”thisseemsalsotobeapersonalreferencetoHamann’srepentanceduringhistriptoLondonin.]sAlgarotti.[FrederickraisedamonumentinPisatohisfriendthephilosopherAlgarotti,hence“inthecemeteryofthePisans.”]tSeetheoriginaleditionoftheMemoirsofSully.[TheDucdeSully(–),aHuguenot,becametheheadofKingHenriIV’sfinancialsystem.Hamann’sFrenchtitle,“RomanceofEconomiesandServices,”adaptsthefulltitleofSully’sMemoirs:M´emoiresdessagesetroyalesœconomiesd’estat,domestiques,politiques,etmilitairesdeHenryleGrand...etdesservitudesutiles,ob´eissancesconvenablesetadministrationsloyalesdeMaximiliandeBethune...]John::“Thatwhichwasfromthebeginning,whichwehaveheard,whichwehaveseenwithoureyes,whichwehavelookedupon,andourhandshavehandled,oftheWordoflife.”John::“InthebeginningwastheWord,andtheWordwaswithGod,andtheWordwasGod.”Ecclesiastes::“andmuchstudyisawearinessoftheflesh.”Revelation::“IamAlphaandOmega.”The“KingofYvetot”is“amanofmightypretensionsbutsmallmerits”(Brewer’sDictionaryofPhraseandFable).Julian,thatistheRomanemperorknownasJuliantheApostate,whosoughtmilitaryglorybyinvadingPersia,anddiedinretreat.ProbablyareferencetoFrederick’spartitionofPolandin.\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguageThegentlemenEntrepreneurs`al’enseignedestroisvertuscouronn´eesd’amaranthe,towhom,intheeventofmyoverhastyexiliumintoabetterfatherland,themanuscriptofthesefragmentsorthetorsoofmywastedmonumentinagroPisanoAestioriumumaybeofsomeconcern,willbeobligedbymydearJunkerJohann.Michel.Joseph.Nazir.–Onhisheadmaytheblessingsofhisfatherbeheapedoverandabovetheblessingsofmyancestors,uptothepleasanthillofoldentime–mayheclimbitsoonwithhiseventualvsibling!Allassayerstothecontrary,whoshudderatmydialectlardedwithFrenchandLatin,IwishthatthepresentacolyteofthehierophanthadbeenapolyglotlikePanurgewandQuintusIcilius,sothattheywouldnotbeabletoreadhistranslation–cartelestnotrebonplaisir–Happythemanwhowaitstwoorthree,evenfouryears,untilthetestimony[Meynung]ofthislastwillisrevealed,whosehiddensenseisstillsealed!(L.S.)CognovitDOMINVSquisuntEIVS.Timothy:uCaiusHerenniusRapidus,SermoadPisones.PoembymyblessedteacherRappoltongreenpeas.[Thephrase“inagroPisanoAestiorum”(“inthePisanlandoftheAestonians”)indi-catesKonigsberg.Therearethreepuns:thefirstcontrastsHamann’swastedmonumentwith¨thewastefulmonumentofAlgarottiinPisa.ThesecondechoestheLatinwordpisus,orpea,thesubjectofKarlHeinrichRappolt’spoem.ThethirdalludestothethirdepistleofthesecondbookofHorace’sEpistles,“adPisones.”Rappolt’spseudonymwasCaiusHerenniusRapidus,andthetitleofhisbookDePisisadPisones,published“PisaeAestiorum”(inKonigsberg)in¨.]vWrittenonthenightofPalmSundayafewhoursbeforethebirthofmyoldestdaughterLisetteReinette.[ElisabethReginawasbornonApril,.]wRabelais.[AreferenceperhapstoRabelais,Panurge,chap.,wherePanurgeandPantagruelmeet,andwherePanurgeanswershiminmanylanguages.]Sully’sMemoirsclaimstobeprintedinAmsterdam“chezAlethinosgraphedeClearetimelee,&GraphexechondePistariste,a`l’enseignedestroisVertuscouronneesd’Amaranthe.”´JohannMichaelHamannwasbornonSeptember,.ThenameJosephisaddedbecausehereceivedtheblessingofJacob,andNazir,becausethatisthepseudonymofRabelais(“AlcofribasNasier,”ananagramforFranc¸oisRabelais,isgivenastheauthoronthetitlepageofGargantua).FrederickhadgivenKarlGottliebGuichard,asoldierandauthorwhomheliked,thename“QuintusIcilius”(FrederickdidthisafterGuichardhadcorrectedhimformisrememberingQuintusCaeciliusas“QuintusIcilius”).French,“forsuchisourgoodpleasure,”theformulawithwhichroyaledictsconclude.Thatis,the“locussigilli,”wheretheKnight’ssealistobeplaced.Timothy::“TheLordknoweththemthatarehis.”\nPhilologicalIdeasandDoubtsaboutanAcademicPrizeEssayPsalms:Sharparrowsofthemighty,withcoalsofjuniper.––'2+"7!8L(s+7+f+ (6C/+.Pindar,NemeanOdeAlongwithmanyotherpassagesfromthisode,eachinitsplace.DraftedbytheMagusoftheNorthInOctoberPrintedat:HerefollowstheprinteroftheAllgemeineBibliothek.––nequeegoillidetrahereausimHaerentemcapitimultacumlaudecoronam.Horace,Satire..–.Incontext,thesearerelatedto“adeceitfultongue”(v.)and“thoufalsetongue”(v.).Pindar,Nemean.–:“IswearthatIhavenotoversteppedthemark,launchedlikeabrazen-tippedjavelinmyswiftword.”Pindar’sNemean,anodeinpraiseofaprize-winningathlete,ishereappliedtoHerder’sprize-winningessay.Severalpassagesinitareconcernedwithpoetry’sawesomepower,includingitscapacityfordeception.HamannwishedtohaveFriedrichNicolai,publisherandtheeditorofthereviewjournalAllgemeinedeutscheBibliothek(the“UniversalGermanLibrary”),publishhiswork.OnNicolai’srejectionofHamann’swork,seeMartinSommerfeld,FriedrichNicolaiundderSturmundDrang(),–.Hamann’sPindarictextdiffersslightlyfrommodernones:“NorwouldIdaretopulloffthewreathclingingtohisheadwithmuchpraise.”\n(G¨ottingischeAnzeigenvongelehrtenSachenunterderAufsichtderK¨oniglichenGesellschaftderWissenschaftenNo.,)(Hisstylemustnotbeamodelforothers,butashisownstyleitagreeswithusquitewell)AquotationfromareviewofHerder’sessayintheG¨ottingenNoticesofScholarlyMattersundertheAuspicesoftheRoyalSocietyofSciences,No.(June,),p..\nPhilologicalideasanddoubtsAristotlewithhiscustomaryacumensoughttodistinguishvoiceandlanguage.Accordingtohisaccount,atheuuuuandthe+`+`+`+`+`+`+`ofthefamoussufferinghero,alongwiththatsniffingofthefree-loaderinPlutus,v=v=v=v=,areinthetruestunderstandingsoundsofthevoice,whichisofcoursetherootanda?HOSRYRMl+4eϒkRcϒ54RZlS8 1+4;!L !m7 \$) !82 C6?, !+3/5&(s+<(7(+ #+4?2!+4++#+ '& !.Jej54$/#5 1ϒZOlcS+41weQwlcS.s+41MQS+41QMS.C61!6L+\$/+;!'() !E 81:QjQgϒ+4Qϒ+4MQϒ+4QMϒ+4/+E(# T .Aristotle,Politics..[a].–;T:]+ 1+46,+++! :!.RZQSC6& !:,!5?OSR.Aristotle,OntheSoul.[b].[“The,itistrue,isaofand,andthereforeitisalsopossessedbytheotheranimalsfortheirnaturehasdevelopedtothepointthattheyperceivepleasureandpainandsignifythosethingstoeachother.Butisforthepurposeofrevealingtheandthe.Andsotheandthe.Forthisincontrasttotheotheranimalsisspecifictomen,theuniqueperceptionofandandandandsoon.”“Thethingthatmakestheimpactmusthaveasoulandshareinimagination,fortheisasound.”]Philoctetes’criesofpaininSophocles’Philoctetes,ll.,,–,etc.InthefirstparagraphofHerder’sEssayontheOriginofLanguage,hewrites:“Asufferinganimal,nolessthantheheroPhiloctetes,willwhine,willmoanwhenpainbefallsit”(tr.Gode,p.;cf.tr.Forster,p.).Aristophanes,Plutus,l..Theelaboratesnifffollowstheline,“Ireckon,youvillains,thatthereismuchsaltfishandroastmeatinthishouse.”\nWritingsonphilosophyandlanguagestem,thenourishingsap,andthelivingspiritoflanguage,aboveallitsonomatopoeia.Theconceptofstagesandkindreferstoveryarbitrarysimilarities,andthecontrastoftheserelationshaslittleeffectontheknowledgeofthethingsthemselves.Everymechanismpositsinadvanceanorganization,bandeveryvisiblelifepositsboth.Thesethreewheelsappeareverywhereinsuchlarge,exceptionalamountsthattheirmachineryisasunmistakableineachotherasitis,perhaps,indistinguishable.Notonlydoesmanhavelifeincommonwiththeanimals,buthealsohassimilaritiesbothtotheirorganizationandtotheirmechanism,moreorless,thatis,bystages.Theprincipaldifferenceofmanmustthereforedependonhiswayoflife.Withrespecttosociability,thewiseStagyriteconsidersmantobeneutral.Ithereforepresumethatthetruecharacterofournatureconsistsinthejudicialandadministrativecofficeofapoliticalanimal;dandthatconsequentlymanwouldstandinthesamerelationtocattleastheprincetothesubject.Nowthisoffice[W¨urde]likeallhonorificpositionsassumesneitheraninnerworth[W¨urdigkeit]normeritinournature;ratheritis,asthelatteritselfis,anunmediatedgiftofgracefromthegreatAll-Giver.bcjQSQ+46/,/2#8'6+/!A+––Aristotle,OntheSoul.[b].[“Thepartsofplantsarealso,butverysimpleones...”]c#!B/!34/LJ\+ `@$/2 cl+4ichR.Aristotle,Politics..[a].[“Acitizenisdefinedsimplybynothingotherthanparticipationinand.”]dkeQ54V^ +4 1CC+ 71TC.Aristotle,HistoryofAnimals.[a].[“Thepoliticalanimalsareallthosethathavesomeonecommonwork.”]Cf.Herder,Essay:“Inallaboriginallanguages,vestigesofthesesoundsofnaturearestilltobeheard,though,tobesure,theyarenottheprincipalfiberofhumanspeech.Theyarenottherootsassuch;theyarethesapthatenlivenstherootsoflanguage”(tr.Gode,p.;cf.tr.Forster,p.).Cf.ibid.:“thehumanspeciesstandsabovetheanimalsnotbystagesofmoreoroflessbutinkind”(tr.Gode,p.;cf.tr.Forster,p.).Ezekiel::“Theappearanceofthewheelsandtheirworkwaslikeuntothecolorofaberyl:andtheyfourhadonelikeness:andtheirappearanceandtheirworkwasasitwereawheelinthemiddleofawheel.”Aristotle,HistoryofAnimals.[b–a]:“Some[animals]aresocial,somesolitary...othersshowbothcharacteristics...Manshowsbothcharacteristics.”Aristotleisknownasthe“Stagirite,”fromthecityofStagirawherehewasborn.Inthepast,itwasalsocommonlyspelled“Stagyrite.”Meritinthetheologicalsenseof“therighteousnessandsacrificeofChristasthegroundonwhichGodgrantsforgivenesstosinners”(OxfordEnglishDictionary).\nPhilologicalideasanddoubtsEveryheroorpoet,whetherheisatypeoftheMessiahoraprophetoftheAntichrist,hasperiodsinlifewhenhehasfullcausetoconfesswithDavid:“Iamaworm,andnoman.”Withoutthefreedomtobeevilthereisnomerit,andwithoutthefreedomtobegoodnoresponsibilityforone’sownguilt,andindeednoknowledgeofgoodandevil.Freedomisthemaximumandminimumofallournaturalpowers,aswellasboththefundamentaldriveandthefinalgoaloftheirentireorientation,evolution,andreturn.Henceneitherinstinctnorthesensuscommunisdeterminesman;neithernaturallawnorthelawofnationsdeterminestheprince.Everyoneishisownlegislatorbutalsothefirst-bornandtheneighborofhissubjects.Withouttheperfectlawoffreedomemanwouldnotevenbecapableofimitation,thebasisofalleducationandinvention.Formanbynatureisthegreatestpantomimeamongalltheanimals.feJ+++!