小城镇的生活废水处理-以印度尼西亚的社区为例 9页

UnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacificPro-poorWaterandWastewaterManagementinSmallTownsCommunityToiletsinTangerangINDONESIAnCONTENTSA.Introduction....................................................................................................................3B.Background....................................................................................................................3C.Initiatingthepractice......................................................................................................3D.Partnership.....................................................................................................................5E.Operations......................................................................................................................6F.Financialarrangements.................................................................................................6G.Outcomes.......................................................................................................................7H.Addressingtheneedsofthepoor.................................................................................7I.Sustainability..................................................................................................................8J.Replicationandup-scaling............................................................................................8K.Conclusions....................................................................................................................8L.Documentation...............................................................................................................9Note:TheviewsexpressedinthispaperarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsSecretariat.MentionoffirmnamesandcommercialproductsdoesnotimplytheendorsementoftheUnitedNations.Thispublicationhasbeenissuedwithoutformalediting.2nA.IntroductionCommunitytoiletswereconstructedinTangerang,anindustrialzoneclosetoJakarta(Indonesia)wheremigrantworkerssettledinareaswithnowaterandsanitationfacilities.Thefacilitieswerebuiltwiththehelpofforeigndonors,buttheyarenowsustainedbyuserfees.Theysellfreshwaterbythebucketandprovidetoiletsandbathroomservices.Theyaremanagedlikeprivatebusinessesbyafamilyselectedfromeachcommunity.Thepracticebeganin1999andby2002,29CommunitySanitationCentreshadbeenbuiltinTangerangCity(25locations)andSurabayaCity(4locations).Justover13,000usersusethesanitationcentreseachday,witheachcentrereceivingbetween300–500usersadayandgeneratinganannualrevenueofuptoUS$2,400.Activecommunityparticipationintheprojectplanning,construction,operationandmaintenancehelpedtocreateasenseofcommunityownershipoverthepracticeandenhancedthewillingnesstousetheservice,ultimatelycontributingtoitssustainability.B.BackgroundTangerangisacityadjacenttoJakarta,thecapitalofIndonesia.Itservesasanindustrialareaandbufferzonefortherapidlygrowingcapital.Economicandindustrialgrowthinthe1980’sand1990’swasfollowedbyrapidurbangrowth,partlyasaresultofincreasedmigrationofworkerstoindustrialareas.By2002,thepopulationofthecityhadreached1.4million,withayearlygrowthrateof4.29percentpercent,higherthanthenationalaverage.Theeconomiccrisisin1997hadadevastatingimpactontheIndonesianeconomyandinTangerangCity,includinghighunemployment,urbanpoverty,increasedslumareasandanuncontrolledinformalsector.Mostmigrantworkersinthecityliveinsettlementwithoutinfrastructureandservicessuchaswatersupplyandsolidwastemanagement.Accordingtorecentdata,only22percentofthepopulationhasaccesstocleanwaterprovidedbytheRegionalWaterSupplyCompany.Another55percentusegroundwater,while20percentofthepopulation,mostlythepoor,isforcedtoconsumeunsafedrinkingwater.Thelimitednetwork,coverageandproductionoftheRegionalWaterSupplyCompany,whichhasbeenoverwhelmedbytherapidgrowthoftheurbanpopulation,isaseriousproblemforpoorerandmoreremote,communitieswhodonothaveaccesstosafegroundwater.Becausemostofthefamilieslivingintheareaareemployedinmanufacturing,averageincomesarenotverylow.Nevertheless,accesstobasicenvironmentalservicesisdifficult.Thecommunitysanitationcentressoughttoaddresstheneedforsanitationservicesinmanyofthesesettlements.Thesiteschosenhaveproblemswiththeirlocalwatersupplyandsanitationservices,aswellasotherenvironmentalissues.Forexample,settlementsmaybelocatedneartemporarywastedisposalsitesorinswampyareasthatcancarrywater-bornedisease.C.InitiatingthepracticeTheInstituteforIntegratedSocialandEconomicDevelopment(BEST)isanindependent,non-governmentalorganization,establishedin1995,thatfocusesonurbanpovertyandcommunitydevelopmentissues.Mr.HamzahHarunAlRasyid,founderofBESTandkeypersoninthispractice,isdedicatedtofacilitatecommunityparticipationinallitsactivities.Activitiesincludetheimprovementofsettlementinfrastructure,thegenerationofcommunityincome,skillstraining,cooperativedevelopment,alternativeenergyprovision,managerialassistanceforsmallbusinesses,low-costhousingformigrantworkersetc.Previous3nexperienceswiththeIntegratedUrbanCommunityDevelopment(IUCD)projectbasedintheslumareasofNorthJakartamotivatedBEST’sinvolvementinthispractice.ToinitiatetheactivitiesinTangerang,BESTdevelopedalistofsettlementsthatexperiencedwaterandsanitationproblems.Thelistwasbasedonafieldsurveyusingcriteriasuchassitesofmigrant-workerssettlements,lackofcleanwaterandsanitationandlow-incomecommunity.Thefieldsurveywasconductedwiththecooperationofthelocalgovernmentandvillageauthorities.Thenextstepwastoselectthesitesthroughaconsultativeprocesswiththetargetcommunities.Potentialusersoftheservicewereinvitedtoparticipateincommunityconsultationmeetingspriortotheestablishmentofthefacilitiesintheirarea.Theiragreementtotheconstructionofthefacilitiesandsupportforthemoncetheywereestablishedwascriticaltothesuccessofthepractice.Thecommunityconsultationsinvolvedthefollowingactivities:a.NeedAssessmentandSiteIdentification:Thistookplaceduringthepreliminarystageoftheproject.Itsaimwastoidentifycommunityaspirationsandtodisseminatetheprojectproposal.Thiswasdonethroughsitevisitsandinterviewswithtargetgroupssuchaslow-incomecommunities,communityleadersandtheheadsofneighbourhoodcommittees.b.CommunityMeetings.Wherelocalstakeholdersshowedaninterestintheproposedproject,thenextstepwastoarrangeacommunitymeetinginordertodiscusstheprojectproposalfurther.Thismeetingwasusuallyorganizedatthevillagelevel.c.DevelopmentofaMemorandumofUnderstanding(MoU).Afteraseriesofmeeting,thefinalagreementwasformulatedintoaMoU,whichdetailedcommunityagreementtosupportprojectimplementationanditswillingnesstopayforthefacilitiesprovidedatanaffordableprice.Oncethishadbeendone,BESTmobilizedresourcesfrompartnerstocontributetothepractice.AjointcooperationagreementwaspreparedbetweenBESTandtheinternationaldonoragencies,localgovernmentandotherpartners.Figure1:StagesofeachcentreNeedAssessmentCommunityMeetingMemorandumofandSiteUnderstandingwithIdentificationcommunityStage-3:OperationStage-2:Stage-1:andMaintenanceConstructionPre-Construction4nD.PartnershipThispracticeisapartnershipbetweenBEST,localcommunities,localgovernmentandinternationaldonoragencies.Throughthispartnership,BESTwasabletodrawonoutsidefinancialandtechnicalresourcesaswellastoensurethatthecentreswouldmeettheneedsofthecommunity.BESTremainsthemainactorinthispractice.Itcoordinatesandmanagestheprojectresourcesatallstagesoftheprojectfromthepreparationtoconstruction,operationandmaintenance.BesidesBEST,otherpartnersinvolvedare:a.Donoragencies,suchasBremenOverseasResearchandDevelopmentAssociation(BORDA),theMercyCorps,theCanadaFund,andtheGermanEmbassyinIndonesia.Theyprovidetheseedfundingfortheconstructionofthecentre.AJointCooperationAgreementissignedbetweenBESTandtheinternationaldonoragenciesfortheconstructionofeachcentre.AftertheirinitialinvestmentBESTmaintainsitsrelationshipwithprojectdonorsthroughtheprovisionofregularprogress,andmonitoringandevaluationreports.Itssuccessinmaintainingtheserelationshipsisdemonstratedbytheongoinginvolvementofdonors,allofwhohavemadesubsequentfundsavailablefortheconstructionofadditioncentres.b.ThelocalgovernmentofTangerang,providedfundingfortheconstructionofsevencentres,anditfacilitatedtheimplementationofthepractice.Themunicipalityisawareofthepracticeandallowstheconstructionandoperationsofthecentres.However,BESTdoesnotrequestconstructionpermitsforthecentresfromthelocalgovernment,andinthissense,thecentresremain“informal”constructions.c.Communitiesin29locations.CommunitycooperationisformalizedthroughthesigningofaMoUbetweenthelocalcommunitiesandBEST.TheMoUaffirmsthewillingnessofthecommunitytopayforthefacilitiesprovidedataffordableprice.Withinthecommunity,thekeystakeholdersarethepotentialusersoftheservice.Otherstakeholdersincludethoseowningorrentinglandnearthecentresandthoseemployedbythepracticeeitherinitiallyinitsconstruction,orcurrentlyasmaintenanceandcleaningstaffandsmallbusinessownerswhohaveshopsandstallsnearthecentres.Localcommunitieshavechangedfrombeingtherequestersofaservicetobeingusers.Thischangeinstatusandrelationshiphasbeencrucialasthepracticewouldnotbesustainablewithoutcommunitysupport.Therefore,BESThasprovidedregularreportingandundertakenconsumersatisfactionsurveystoensurecontinuedcommunityparticipationandownershipofthepractice.d.Operatorsofthecentres.ThesearefamilieschosenfromthecommunitywhoarepaidabasicsalarybyBESTandtakepartoftheprofits.Mostofthemalsoprovideotherbusinessontheside,likecornershoporcafé.EachtoiletmaintenanceoperatorsignsanindividualcontractwithBESTcoveringhisorherconditionsofemployment,includingmonthlysalaryandrewardsforachievingthetargetrevenues.5nE.OperationsThepracticestartedwithjustonecentreinTangerangin1999;by2002,29CommunitySanitationCentreshadbeenbuilt–25inTangerangCityand4inSurabayaCity(seetableinAnnexforacompletelistofthecentres).Theexpansionofthepracticereflectstheexistingcommunityneedsforbettersanitationservices.Atypicalcommunitysanitationcentreprovidesbasicsanitationfacilitiessuchasbathrooms(sixunits),toilets(sixunits),awashingarea,acommunitywaterpointandawastewatertreatmentplant(biogasdigester).Thetreatmentplantproducescleanwaterandbiogas.Eachcentrehasabout350–500usersperday.Tariffs(thathaveremainedatthesamelevelsince1999)are:200rupiahfora20litrebucketofwater,200rupiahsperuseofthetoilet,300rupiahsperuseofthebathroomand400rupiahsperuseofthebathroomandtoilet(Averageexchangeratein2004was$1=Rs8,940).Eachsanitationcentrehasonemaintenanceoperatorwhooverseestheday-to-dayoperationsofthecentre.Operatorsreceiveabasicsalarypermonth.BESTestimatestheexpectedincomefromeachcentreandcollectsonly90percentofthatamount.Alltheextrarevenuegeneratedgoestotheoperator,whohasanincentiveformaintainingthecentreingoodconditionandattractingcustomers.Furthermore,theycanusethebiogasgeneratedandtheyoftenprovideotherservicesonthepremises,suchascaféorcornershop.AManagementTeamofBESTstaffandtoiletmaintenanceoperatorshasbeenformedtodealwithanycomplaintsthatmaybemadebyusersorlocalcommunities.EmployeesofBESTcollecttherevenuetwiceaweekandmonitorthetoiletconditions,buildingandsurroundingareas,watersupplyandothertechnicalmatters.BESTpreparesprogressandfinancialreportsdetailingphysicalconditions,operationalrevenuesandmonthlyexpenditureineachcentre.ItalsoconductsaConsumerSatisfactionSurveytoascertaintheopinionsofconsumersabouttheserviceprovided.Inthesurvey,consumersareaskedtoprovidetheirownevaluationofthewaterqualityandtheservices,aswellasthebenefits,theoperatorservices,thetariffs,theimpactsetc.AnotherimportantroleofBESTistodistributetheoperationalrisksamongthe29centres,especiallyinconnectionwiththetechnicalfailureofthewaterpump.Abreakdownofthewaterpumpwouldbeaveryexpensiveriskforanindividualoperatortobearatagivenpoint.Fromthepointofviewofthecommunity,thecentralmanagementofthecentresbyBESTensuresthecontinuityoftheservice.Incaseofatechnicalproblem,thestafffromBESTcanbedeployedfastandareavailableatanytime.F.FinancialarrangementsTheconstructionofeachcommunitysanitationcentreisfullysubsidizedbyagrantfromdonors,whilerunningcostsarecoveredbyfees.Theinitialfinancialoutlayfortheconstructionofonecentrerangedfrom$15,000to$18,000.Thecostincludeslandacquisition,construction(includingawastewatertreatmentplantandbio-digester)andthepurchaseofawater-pump.Oncethecentreisestablished,theoperationsandroutinemaintenancecostsofthecentrearefinancedthroughrevenuegeneratedfromuserfees.Theaverageannualoperationalcostsare$1,500,excludingperiodicmaintenancecosts,whileannualrevenuerangesfrom$1,800to$2,400.6nItisastruggletomeettheperiodicmaintenancecostsandshowareturnoninvestment.BESTestimatesthatnotallitsstaffcostsforservicingthecentresarecoveredbyrevenues,soithastorelyonothersourcesoffunding.Anexampleofthecostsandrevenuesofoneprojectunitispresentedinthefollowingtable:Table1:AverageCostComponentsforaCommunitySanitationCentre(CSC)COMPONENTAMOUNTSOURCEOFFUNDInitialinvestmentcost:US$15,000–18,000InternationaldonorLandacquisition(100–150m2)agencyConstructioncost(6bathroomand6toilets)WastewatertreatmentplantandbiogasdigesterWaterpumpmachineAverageannualoperationcost:US$1,560BESTSalaryfortoiletmaintenanceoperator(@US$US$60050permonth)Electricitycosts(@US$25permonth)US$300CleaningMaterials(@US$10permonth)US$120SocialContribution(@US$15permonth)US$180Overheads(@US$30permonth)US$360AverageannualoperationrevenueUS$1,800–2,400UsersAveragemonthlyuserfees(@CSCservicesUS$150–200per300–500peoples/day,userfee:US$0.03–month0.05Source:BESTG.OutcomesThemainoutcomesofthepracticearethecommunitytoiletfacilitiesandtheprovisionofcleanwaterandsanitationtopoorcommunitiesin29settlementsthroughoutTangerangandSurabaya.Thecentresareusedbymorethan13,000peopleeachday.Inaddition,communityawarenessoftheimportanceofsoundsanitarypracticeshasincreased,andthecostofwaterhasbeenloweredby60percentcomparedtothatofprivatewatervendors.Asaresult,communityhealthhasimprovedduetothereductioninwastewateraccumulation,humanexcrement,etc.Further,thelandvaluesinareassurroundingthecentreshaveincreasedandnewsourcesofincomehavebeencreatedforsmallbusinessoperators,whoopenedsmallshops,sellingconsumergoodsnearby.Themainachievementofthepractice,however,hasbeeninthechangeinattitudesandbehaviourofcommunities.Asaresultoftheestablishmentofthecentres,communitiesnownotonlypracticemoresanitaryapproachestowastedisposal,buthavealsofeltencouragedtotackleothercommunityproblemssuchasimprovingdrainagesystemsandlocalroads.H.AddressingtheneedsofthepoorPeoplelivingintheareasselectedbyBESTarepoorintermsoftheirlimitedaccesstocleanwatersuppliesandsanitation.Mostaremigrantworkersemployedinindustrialareasandfactories.Theyworkaneight-hourdaywithanaverageminimumsalaryofabout700,000to800,000rupiahspermonths(US$80–90).Althoughtheirincomelevelisnotextremelylow,theyliveinaccommodationwithoutbasicsanitationandhadtobuycleanwaterfromvendors.7nOverall,thecentresimprovethelivesofthepoorbyprovidingeasyaccesstowatersupplyandsanitationfacilities,reducingthecostofwatersupply,improvingtheenvironmentalconditionsandcreatingemploymentopportunitiesforlocalpeopleworkingastoiletoperatorsandconstructionworkers.Besides,manylocalcommunitieswereempoweredbythesigningofanMoUwithBEST,whichresultednotonlyingreatercommunityparticipationinthepractice,byalsoincreasedcommunityparticipationingeneral,asdemonstratedbycommunityeffortstoimprovepathwaysandroadsintheircommunityfollowingthebuildingofthecommunitytoilets.I.SustainabilityThispracticeisfinanciallysustainableonlybecausetheinitialinvestmentisfinancedbyagrant.Thecustomersthereforeonlyhavetosupporttherunningcostsofthecentres,whichtheycando.Giventherelativelylowincomelevelsinthearea,itwouldbeverydifficulttofinancetheinitialinvestmentthroughuserfeesaswell.Despitetheuncertaintyoveritsfinancialsustainability,thepracticeissociallyandenvironmentallysustainablemainlybecauseoftheactivecommunityparticipationintheplanning,construction,operationandmaintenanceofthepracticeanditssuccessinrespondingtocommunityneedsandprovidingopportunitiestolocalcommunities.Notallcentresareequallysuccessful,though.Thesevencentresfinancedbythelocalgovernmentwereestablishedforpoliticalreasonsinareaswithfewpotentialcustomersandtheycontinuouslystruggletogenerateenoughincometocoverthecosts.BESTisactuallysubsidizingtheoperationsofthesecentreswiththerevenuegeneratedbytheothers.J.Replicationandup-scalingThepracticeissuitableforreplication.Indeed,the29centresinexistencenowaredirectreplications(seeAnnexforacompletelistofthem),firstinTangerangCityandtheninSurabaya.Thepracticecanbereplicatedinareaswherethereisnopublicwatersupplyorsanitationandwherethereisawillingnessoftheuserstosupporttheservice.Itisuncertainthatthepracticeissuitableforup-scalingthough,astheserviceneedstobeveryclosetotheusers’homestobevalued.K.ConclusionsThethreekeyoperationallessonsthathavebeenlearntfromthepracticeare:a.Communityparticipationisnecessaryinalldevelopmentandimplementationstages,becausesustainabilityoftheprojectdependsonit.Byincreasingtheinvolvementofthepoorinserviceprovision,itismorelikelythattheserviceprovidedisbasedontheneedsofthecommunityanditscostisbasedonwhatisaffordabletothecommunity.b.Asubsidytofinancetheinitialinvestmentisnecessary,astheincomegeneratedbythefacilitywillonlycovertherunningcosts.c.CommunityinfrastructureandservicescanbeprovidedbyNGOs,ifavailableresourcesarewellmanagedandtheprivatepartnerismotivatedanddedicatedtoworktogetherwiththecommunity.Thefuturechallengeforthepracticeistotransformcommunityusageofthepublictoiletfacilitiesintobetterandhealthiercommunitysanitationpracticeswhichwillinthelongterm8ncontributedtoanimprovementinthehealthandenvironmentoflow-incomecommunities.Thepracticealsoaimstoextendtheproject’sbenefitstopermanenthousingareas,butitssuccesswillbestronglylinkedtotheawarenessofthecommunityoftheimportanceofhealthypractices.L.DocumentationTheinformationprovidedinthisdocumentationisbasedontheavailablesecondarysourcesofdataandfieldvisitstothesamplepractices.Thepracticewasdocumentedinthefirstmonthsof2004.•BrochureonCommunitySanitationCentres(CSC)printedbyBEST•VCDonCommunitySanitationCentrespreparedbyBEST•URDIdocumentationonInnovativeEnvironmentalManagement•InterviewwithMr.HamzahHarunAl-Rasyid(BESTDirector)•Fieldvisitsto2CSClocationsinAlamJayaVillage,Tangerang•SomerelevantmaterialsdownloadedfromtheseveralwebsitesContactdetailsofBEST:BEST(InstituteforIntegratedSocialandEconomicDevelopment)ContactPerson:Mr.HamzahHarunAlRasyid(Director)SastraPlazaBlokA.25JalanGatotSubroto21Jatiuwung,Tangerang15134INDONESIATel/Fax:+62-21-556501299