〖西南大学〗2019年[0174]《欧洲文化入门》大作业（资料）内附答案 21页

【西南大学】[0174]《欧洲文化入门》试卷总分:100得分:100第1题,【解释题】29.Humanism正确答案:29.Humanismisaphilosophicalandethicalstancethatemphasizesthevalueandagencyofhumanbeings,individuallyandcollectively,andaffirmstheirabilitytoimprovetheirlivesthroughtheuseofreasonandingenuityasopposedtosubmittingblindlytotraditionandauthorityorsinkingintocrueltyandbrutality.Thetermwascoinedin1808bytheearlynineteenthcenturyGermaneducationalreformerandtheologianFriedrichNiethammerandgraduallyadoptedintoEnglish.NiethammerhadwishedtointroduceintoGermaneducationthehumanevaluesofancientGreeceandRome.第2题,【解释题】26.TheCrusades正确答案:26.referencetotext-bookpp99-100TheCrusadeswereaseriesofreligiouswarssanctionedbytheLatinChurchinthemedievalperiod,especiallythecampaignsintheEasternMediterraneanwiththeaimofrecoveringtheHolyLandfromIslamicrule.Theterm"crusades"isalsoappliedtoothercampaignssanctionedbytheChurch,foughttocombatpaganismandheresyortoresolveconflictamongrivalRomanCatholicgroups,ortogainpoliticalorterritorialadvantage.Thetermcrusadesitselfisearlymodern,modelledonMiddleLatincruciatae,andhasinmorerecenttimesbeenextendedtoincludereligiouslymotivatedChristianmilitarycampaignsintheLateMiddleAges.ThecrusadeshadaprofoundimpactonWesterncivilisation:theyreopenedtheMediterraneantocommerceandtravel(enablingGenoaandVenicetoflourish);consolidatedthecollectiveidentityoftheLatinChurchunderpapalleadership;andwereawellspringforaccountsofheroism,chivalryandpiety.Thesetalesconsequentlygalvanisedmedievalromance,philosophyandliterature.ThecrusadesalsoreinforcedtheconnectionbetweenWesternChristendom,feudalism,andmilitarism.第3题,【解释题】20.Virgil正确答案:20.referencetotext-bookp44.PubliusVergiliusMaro(ClassicalLatin:[ˈpuː.blɪ.ʊswɛrˈɡɪ.lɪ.ʊsˈma.roː];traditionaldatesOctober15,70BC–September21,19BC),usuallycalledVirgilorVergil/ˈvɜːrdʒᵻl/inEnglish,wasanancientRomanpoetoftheAugustanperiod.HewrotethreeofthemostfamouspoemsinLatinliterature,theEclogues(orBucolics),theGeorgics,andtheepicAeneid.Anumberofminorpoems,collectedintheAppendixVergiliana,aresometimesattributedtohim.第4题,【解释题】31.Renaissance正确答案:31.TheRenaissancewasaperiodinEuropeanhistory,fromthe14thtothe17thcentury,regardedastheculturalbridgebetweentheMiddleAgesandmodernhistory.ItstartedasaculturalmovementinItalyintheLateMedievalperiodandlaterspreadtotherestofEurope,markingthebeginningoftheEarlyModernAge.TheintellectualnbasisoftheRenaissancewasitsowninventedversionofhumanism,derivedfromtherediscoveryofclassicalGreekphilosophy,suchasthatofProtagoras,whosaidthat"Manisthemeasureofallthings."Thisnewthinkingbecamemanifestinart,architecture,politics,scienceandliterature.Earlyexampleswerethedevelopmentofperspectiveinoilpaintingandtherecycledknowledgeofhowtomakeconcrete.Althoughtheinventionofmetalmovabletypespedthedisseminationofideasfromthelater15thcentury,thechangesoftheRenaissancewerenotuniformlyexperiencedacrossEurope.Asaculturalmovement,theRenaissanceencompassedinnovativefloweringofLatinandvernacularliteratures,beginningwiththe14th-centuryresurgenceoflearningbasedonclassicalsources,whichcontemporariescreditedtoPetrarch;thedevelopmentoflinearperspectiveandothertechniquesofrenderingamorenaturalrealityinpainting;andgradualbutwidespreadeducationalreform.Inpolitics,theRenaissancecontributedtothedevelopmentofthecustomsandconventionsofdiplomacy,andinsciencetoanincreasedrelianceonobservationandinductivereasoning.AlthoughtheRenaissancesawrevolutionsinmanyintellectualpursuits,aswellassocialandpoliticalupheaval,itisperhapsbestknownforitsartisticdevelopmentsandthecontributionsofsuchpolymathsasLeonardodaVinciandMichelangelo,whoinspiredtheterm"Renaissanceman".TheRenaissancebeganinFlorence,inthe14thcentury.Varioustheorieshavebeenproposedtoaccountforitsoriginsandcharacteristics,focusingonavarietyoffactorsincludingthesocialandcivicpeculiaritiesofFlorenceatthetime:itspoliticalstructure;thepatronageofitsdominantfamily,theMedici;andthemigrationofGreekscholarsandtextstoItalyfollowingtheFallofConstantinopletotheOttomanTurks.OthermajorcentreswerenorthernItaliancity-statessuchasVenice,Genoa,Milan,Bologna,andfinallyRomeduringtheRenaissancePapacy.TheRenaissancehasalongandcomplexhistoriography,and,inlinewithgeneralscepticismofdiscreteperiodizations,therehasbeenmuchdebateamonghistoriansreactingtothe19th-centuryglorificationofthe"Renaissance"andindividualcultureheroesas"Renaissancemen",questioningtheusefulnessofRenaissanceasatermandasahistoricaldelineation.第5题,【解释题】43.RenéDescartes正确答案:43.referencetotext-bookpp213-217.RenéDescartes(adjectivalform:"Cartesian";31March1596–11February1650)wasaFrenchphilosopher,mathematician,andscientist.Dubbedthefatherofmodernwesternphilosophy,muchofsubsequentWesternphilosophyisaresponsetohiswritings,whicharestudiedcloselytothisday.Hespentabout20yearsofhislifeintheDutchRepublic.DescartessMeditationsonFirstPhilosophycontinuestobeastandardtextatmostuniversityphilosophydepartments.Descartessinfluenceinmathematicsisequallyapparent;theCartesiancoordinatesystem—allowingreferencetoapointinspaceasasetofnumbers,andallowingalgebraicequationstobeexpressedasgeometricshapesinatwo-orthree-dimensionalcoordinatesystem(andconversely,shapestobedescribedasequations)—wasnamedafterhim.Heiscreditedasthefatherofanalyticalgeometry,thebridgebetweenalgebraandgeometry,usedinthediscoveryofinfinitesimalcalculusandanalysis.Descarteswasalsooneofthekeyfiguresinthescientificrevolution.Descartesrefusedtoaccepttheauthorityofpreviousphilosophers.Henfrequentlysethisviewsapartfromthoseofhispredecessors.IntheopeningsectionofthePassionsoftheSoul,atreatiseontheearlymodernversionofwhatarenowcommonlycalledemotions,Descartesgoessofarastoassertthathewillwriteonthistopic"asifnoonehadwrittenonthesemattersbefore".Hisbestknownphilosophicalstatementis"Cogitoergosum"(French:Jepense,doncjesuis;Ithink,thereforeIam),foundinpartIVofDiscourseontheMethod(1637;writteninFrenchbutwithinclusionof"Cogitoergosum")and§7ofpartIofPrinciplesofPhilosophy(1644;writteninLatin).ManyelementsofhisphilosophyhaveprecedentsinlateAristotelianism,therevivedStoicismofthe16thcentury,orinearlierphilosopherslikeAugustine.Inhisnaturalphilosophy,hedifferedfromtheschoolsontwomajorpoints:First,herejectedthesplittingofcorporealsubstanceintomatterandform;second,herejectedanyappealtofinalends—divineornatural—inexplainingnaturalphenomena.Inhistheology,heinsistsontheabsolutefreedomofGodsactofcreation.Descarteslaidthefoundationfor17th-centurycontinentalrationalism,lateradvocatedbyBaruchSpinozaandGottfriedLeibniz,andopposedbytheempiricistschoolofthoughtconsistingofHobbes,Locke,Berkeley,andHume.Leibniz,Spinoza[11]andDescarteswereallwell-versedinmathematicsaswellasphilosophy,andDescartesandLeibnizcontributedgreatlytoscienceaswell.第6题,【解释题】45.Baroque正确答案:45.referencetotext-bookp225-228.TheBaroqueisoftenthoughtofasaperiodofartisticstylewhichusedexaggeratedmotionandclear,easilyinterpreteddetailtoproducedrama,tension,exuberance,andgrandeurinsculpture,painting,architecture,literature,dance,theatre,andmusic.Thestylebeganaround1600inRomeandItaly,andspreadtomostofEurope.ThepopularityandsuccessoftheBaroquestylewasencouragedbytheCatholicChurch,whichhaddecidedatthetimeoftheCouncilofTrent,inresponsetotheProtestantReformation,thattheartsshouldcommunicatereligiousthemeswithdirectandemotionalinvolvement.ThearistocracyviewedthedramaticstyleofBaroqueartandarchitectureasameansofimpressingvisitorsbyprojectingtriumph,power,andcontrol.Baroquepalacesarebuiltaroundanentranceofcourts,grandstaircases,andreceptionroomsofsequentiallyincreasingopulence.However,"baroque"hasaresonanceandapplicationthatextendbeyondasimplereductiontoeitherastyleorperiod.第7题,【解释题】54.CountLevNikolayevichTolstoy正确答案:54.referencetotextbookpp396-397CountLevNikolayevichTolstoy(9September[O.S.28August]1828–20November[O.S.7November]1910),usuallyreferredtoinEnglishasLeoTolstoy,wasaRussianwriterwhoisregardedasoneofthegreatestauthorsofalltime.BorntoanaristocraticRussianfamilyin1828,heisbestknownforthenovelsWarandPeace(1869)andAnnaKarenina(1877),oftencitedaspinnaclesofrealistfiction.Hefirstachievedliteraryacclaiminhistwentieswithhissemi-autobiographicaltrilogy,Childhood,Boyhood,andYouth(1852–1856),andSevastopolSketches(1855),baseduponhisexperiencesintheCrimeanWar.TolstoysnfictionincludesdozensofshortstoriesandseveralnovellassuchasTheDeathofIvanIlyich,FamilyHappiness,andHadjiMurad.Healsowroteplaysandnumerousphilosophicalessays.Inthe1870sTolstoyexperiencedaprofoundmoralcrisis,followedbywhatheregardedasanequallyprofoundspiritualawakening,asoutlinedinhisnon-fictionworkAConfession.HisliteralinterpretationoftheethicalteachingsofJesus,centeringontheSermonontheMount,causedhimtobecomeaferventChristiananarchistandpacifist.Tolstoysideasonnonviolentresistance,expressedinsuchworksasTheKingdomofGodIsWithinYou,weretohaveaprofoundimpactonsuchpivotal20th-centuryfiguresasMohandasGandhi,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,andJamesBevel.TolstoyalsobecameadedicatedadvocateofGeorgism,theeconomicphilosophyofHenryGeorge,whichheincorporatedintohiswriting,particularlyResurrection.第8题,【解释题】50.JohannSebastianBach正确答案:50.referencetotextbookpp273-274.JohannSebastianBach(31March[O.S.21March]1685–28July1750)wasaGermancomposerandmusicianoftheBaroqueperiod.HeenrichedestablishedGermanstylesthroughhisskillincounterpoint,harmonicandmotivicorganisation,andtheadaptationofrhythms,forms,andtexturesfromabroad,particularlyfromItalyandFrance.BachscompositionsincludetheBrandenburgConcertos,theGoldbergVariations,theMassinBminor,twoPassions,andoverthreehundredcantatasofwhicharoundtwohundredsurvive.Hismusicisreveredforitstechnicalcommand,artisticbeauty,andintellectualdepth.Bachsabilitiesasanorganistwerehighlyrespectedduringhislifetime,althoughhewasnotwidelyrecognisedasagreatcomposeruntilarevivalofinterestinandperformancesofhismusicinthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury.Heisnowgenerallyregardedasoneofthegreatestcomposersofalltime.第9题,【解释题】33.AlbrechtDürer正确答案:33.referencetotext-bookpp168-169.AlbrechtDürer(21May1471–6April1528)wasapainter,printmaker,andtheoristoftheGermanRenaissance.BorninNuremberg,DürerestablishedhisreputationandinfluenceacrossEuropewhenhewasstillinhistwenties,duetohishigh-qualitywoodcutprints.HewasincommunicationwiththemajorItalianartistsofhistime,includingRaphael,GiovanniBelliniandLeonardodaVinci,andfrom1512hewaspatronizedbyemperorMaximilianI.Hisvastbodyofworkincludesengravings,hispreferredtechniqueinhislaterprints,altarpieces,portraitsandself-portraits,watercoloursandbooks.Thewoodcuts,suchastheApocalypseseries(1498),retainamoreGothicflavourthantherestofhiswork.Hiswell-knownengravingsincludetheKnight,Death,andtheDevil(1513),SaintJeromeinhisStudy(1514)andMelencoliaI(1514),whichhasbeenthesubjectofextensiveanalysisandinterpretation.HiswatercoloursalsomarkhimasoneofthefirstEuropeanlandscapeartists,whilehisambitiouswoodcutsrevolutionizedthepotentialofthatmedium.DürersintroductionofclassicalmotifsintoNorthernart,throughhisknowledgeofItalianartistsandGermanhumanists,hassecuredhisreputationasoneofthemostimportantfiguresoftheNorthernRenaissance.Thisisreinforcedbyhistheoreticalntreatises,whichinvolveprinciplesofmathematics,perspective,andidealproportions.第10题,【解释题】59.AntoninDvorak正确答案:59.referencetotextbookp444.AntonínLeopoldDvořák(8September1841–1May1904)wasaCzechcomposer.AfterBedřichSmetana,hewasthesecondCzechcomposertoachieveworldwiderecognition.FollowingSmetanasnationalistexample,Dvořákfrequentlyemployedaspects,specificallyrhythms,ofthefolkmusicofMoraviaandhisnativeBohemia.Dvořák’sownstylehasbeendescribedas‘thefullestrecreationofanationalidiomwiththatofthesymphonictradition,absorbingfolkinfluencesandfindingeffectivewaysofusingthem’.第11题,【解释题】23.TheMiddleAges正确答案:23.Thereferencetoyext-bookp91.InthehistoryofEurope,theMiddleAgesorMedievalPeriodlastedfromthe5thtothe15thcentury.ItbeganwiththefalloftheWesternRomanEmpireandmergedintotheRenaissanceandtheAgeofDiscovery.TheMiddleAgesisthemiddleperiodofthethreetraditionaldivisionsofWesternhistory:classicalantiquity,themedievalperiod,andthemodernperiod.ThemedievalperiodisitselfsubdividedintotheEarly,High,andLateMiddleAges.第12题,【解释题】53.LudwigvanBeethoven正确答案:53.referencetotextbookpp326-329.LudwigvanBeethoven(baptised17December1770–26March1827)wasaGermancomposerandpianist.AcrucialfigureinthetransitionbetweentheClassicalandRomanticerasinWesternartmusic,heremainsoneofthemostfamousandinfluentialofallcomposers.Hisbest-knowncompositionsinclude9symphonies,5pianoconcertos,1violinconcerto,32pianosonatas,16stringquartets,hisgreatMasstheMissasolemnis,andoneopera,Fidelio.BorninBonn,thenthecapitaloftheElectorateofCologneandpartoftheHolyRomanEmpire,BeethovendisplayedhismusicaltalentsatanearlyageandwastaughtbyhisfatherJohannvanBeethovenandbycomposerandconductorChristianGottlobNeefe.Attheageof21hemovedtoVienna,wherehebeganstudyingcompositionwithJosephHaydn,andgainedareputationasavirtuosopianist.HelivedinViennauntilhisdeath.Byhislate20shishearingbegantodeteriorate,andbythelastdecadeofhislifehewasalmostcompletelydeaf.In1811hegaveupconductingandperforminginpublicbutcontinuedtocompose;manyofhismostadmiredworkscomefromtheselast15yearsofhislife.第13题,【解释题】30.LeonardodaVinci正确答案:30.LeonardodiserPierodaVinci(Italian:(15April1452–2May1519),morecommonlyLeonardodaVinciorsimplyLeonardo,wasanItalianpolymathwhoseareasofninterestincludedinvention,painting,sculpting,architecture,science,music,mathematics,engineering,literature,anatomy,geology,astronomy,botany,writing,history,andcartography.Hehasbeenvariouslycalledthefatherofpalaeontology,ichnology,andarchitecture,andiswidelyconsideredoneofthegreatestpaintersofalltime.Sometimescreditedwiththeinventionsoftheparachute,helicopterandtank,heepitomisedtheRenaissancehumanistideal.ManyhistoriansandscholarsregardLeonardoastheprimeexemplarofthe"UniversalGenius"or"RenaissanceMan",anindividualof"unquenchablecuriosity"and"feverishlyinventiveimagination".第14题,【解释题】32.Reformation正确答案:32.referencetotext-bookpp141-142.TheReformation(fromLatinreformatio,lit."restoration,renewal"),alsoreferredtoastheProtestantReformationandtheEuropeanReformation,wasaschismfromtheRomanCatholicChurchinitiatedbyMartinLutherandcontinuedbyJohnCalvin,HuldrychZwingli,andotherearlyProtestantReformersin16thcenturyEurope.TheperiodisusuallyconsideredtohavebegunwiththepublicationoftheNinety-fiveThesesbyLutherin1517totheThirtyYearsWarandendedwiththePeaceofWestphaliain1648.TheinitialmovementwithinGermanydiversified,andotherreformimpulsesaroseindependentlyofLuther.ThespreadofGutenbergsprintingpressprovidedthemeansfortherapiddisseminationofreligiousmaterialsinthevernacular.ThelargestgroupsweretheLutheransandCalvinists.LutheranchurcheswerefoundedmostlyinGermany,theBalticsandScandinavia,whiletheReformedoneswerefoundedinSwitzerland,Hungary,France,theNetherlandsandScotland.ThenewmovementinfluencedtheChurchofEnglanddecisivelyafter1547underEdwardVIandElizabethI,althoughtheChurchofEnglandhadbeenmadeindependentunderHenryVIIIintheearly1530s.第15题,【解释题】41.FrancisBacon正确答案:41.referencetotext-bookpp196-200.FrancisBacon,1stViscountStAlban,PCKC(22January1561–9April1626)wasanEnglishphilosopher,statesman,scientist,jurist,orator,andauthor.HeservedbothasAttorneyGeneralandasLordChancellorofEngland.Afterhisdeath,heremainedextremelyinfluentialthroughhisworks,especiallyasphilosophicaladvocateandpractitionerofthescientificmethodduringthescientificrevolution.Baconhasbeencalledthefatherofempiricism.Hisworksarguedforthepossibilityofscientificknowledgebasedonlyuponinductiveandcarefulobservationofeventsinnature.Mostimportantly,hearguedthiscouldbeachievedbyuseofascepticalandmethodicalapproachwherebyscientistsaimtoavoidmisleadingthemselves.Whilehisownpracticalideasaboutsuchamethod,theBaconianmethod,didnothavealonglastinginfluence,thegeneralideaoftheimportanceandpossibilityofascepticalmethodologymakesBaconthefatherofscientificmethod.Thismarkedanewturnintherhetoricalandtheoreticalframeworkforscience,thepracticaldetailsofwhicharestillcentralindebatesaboutscienceandmethodologytoday.n第16题,【解释题】17.Archimedes正确答案:17.Archimedesc. 287-c. 212BCwasaGreekmathematician,physicist,engineer,inventor,andastronomer.Althoughfewdetailsofhislifeareknown,heisregardedasoneoftheleadingscientistsinclassicalantiquity.Generallyconsideredthegreatestmathematicianofantiquityandoneofthegreatestofalltime,Archimedesanticipatedmoderncalculusandanalysisbyapplyingconceptsofinfinitesimalsandthemethodofexhaustiontoderiveandrigorouslyprovearangeofgeometricaltheorems,includingtheareaofacircle,thesurfaceareaandvolumeofasphere,andtheareaunderaparabola.第17题,【解释题】19.Romanlaw正确答案:19.RomanlawisthelegalsystemofancientRome,includingRomanMilitaryJurisdictionandthelegaldevelopmentsspanningoverathousandyearsofjurisprudence,fromtheTwelveTables(c.449BC),totheCorpusJurisCivilis(AD529)orderedbyEasternRomanEmperorJustinianI.ThehistoricalimportanceofRomanlawisreflectedbythecontinueduseofLatinlegalterminologyinmanylegalsystemsinfluencedbyit.AfterthedissolutionoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theRomanlawremainedineffectintheEasternRomanEmpire.Fromthe7thcenturyonward,thelegallanguageintheEastwasGreek.RomanlawalsodenotesthelegalsystemappliedinmostofWesternEuropeuntiltheendofthe18thcentury.第18题,【解释题】38.NicolausCopernicus正确答案:38.referencetotextbookpp188-189.NicolausCopernicus(19February1473–24May1543)wasaRenaissancemathematicianandastronomerwhoformulatedamodeloftheuniversethatplacedtheSunratherthantheEarthatthecenteroftheuniverse,likelyindependentlyofAristarchusofSamos,whohadformulatedsuchamodelsomeeighteencenturiesearlier.ThepublicationofCopernicusmodelinhisbookDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestium(OntheRevolutionsoftheCelestialSpheres),justbeforehisdeathin1543,wasamajoreventinthehistoryofscience,triggeringtheCopernicanRevolutionandmakinganimportantcontributiontotheScientificRevolution.CopernicuswasbornanddiedinRoyalPrussia,aregionthathadbeenpartoftheKingdomofPolandsince1466.Apolyglotandpolymath,heobtainedadoctorateincanonlawandwasalsoamathematician,astronomer,physician,classicsscholar,translator,governor,diplomat,andeconomist.In1517hederivedaquantitytheoryofmoney–akeyconceptineconomics–andin1519heformulatedaneconomicsprinciplethatlatercametobecalledGreshamslaw.第19题,【解释题】58.Post-Impressionism正确答案:58.referencetotextbookp440.Post-Impressionism(alsospellednPostimpressionism)isapredominantlyFrenchartmovementthatdevelopedroughlybetween1886and1905,fromthelastImpressionistexhibitiontothebirthofFauvism.Post-ImpressionismemergedasareactionagainstImpressionistsconcernforthenaturalisticdepictionoflightandcolour.Duetoitsbroademphasisonabstractqualitiesorsymboliccontent,Post-ImpressionismencompassesNeo-Impressionism,Symbolism,Cloisonnism,Pont-AvenSchool,andSynthetism,alongwithsomelaterImpressionistswork.ThemovementwasledbyPaulCézanne(knownasfatherofpost-impressionism),PaulGauguin,VincentvanGogh,andGeorgesSeurat.ThetermPost-ImpressionismwasfirstusedbyartcriticRogerFryin1906.CriticFrankRutterinareviewoftheSalondAutomnepublishedinArtNews,15October1910,describedOthonFrieszasa"post-impressionistleader";therewasalsoanadvertfortheshowThePost-ImpressionistsofFrance.Threeweekslater,RogerFryusedthetermagainwhenheorganizedthe1910exhibition,ManetandthePost-Impressionists,definingitasthedevelopmentofFrenchartsinceManet.Post-ImpressionistsextendedImpressionismwhilerejectingitslimitations:theycontinuedusingvividcolours,oftenthickapplicationofpaint,andreal-lifesubjectmatter,butweremoreinclinedtoemphasizegeometricforms,distortformforexpressiveeffect,anduseunnaturalorarbitrarycolour.第20题,【解释题】42.JohnMilton正确答案:42.referencetotext-bookpp211-212.JohnMilton(9December1608–8November1674)wasanEnglishpoet,polemicist,manofletters,andcivilservantfortheCommonwealthofEnglandunderOliverCromwell.Hewroteatatimeofreligiousfluxandpoliticalupheaval,andisbestknownforhisepicpoemParadiseLost(1667),writteninblankverse.Miltonspoetryandprosereflectdeeppersonalconvictions,apassionforfreedomandself-determination,andtheurgentissuesandpoliticalturbulenceofhisday.WritinginEnglish,Latin,Greek,andItalian,heachievedinternationalrenownwithinhislifetime,andhiscelebratedAreopagitica(1644)—writtenincondemnationofpre-publicationcensorship—isamonghistorysmostinfluentialandimpassioneddefencesoffreespeechandfreedomofthepress.WilliamHayleys1796biographycalledhimthe"greatestEnglishauthor",andheremainsgenerallyregarded"asoneofthepreeminentwritersintheEnglishlanguage",thoughcriticalreceptionhasoscillatedinthecenturiessincehisdeath(oftenonaccountofhisrepublicanism).SamuelJohnsonpraisedParadiseLostas"apoemwhich...withrespecttodesignmayclaimthefirstplace,andwithrespecttoperformance,thesecond,amongtheproductionsofthehumanmind",thoughhe(aToryandrecipientofroyalpatronage)describedMiltonspoliticsasthoseofan"acrimoniousandsurlyrepublican".第21题,【解释题】40.SirIsaacNewton正确答案:40.referencetotext-bookpp193-194.SirIsaacNewtonPRS(25December1642–20March1726/27)wasanEnglishmathematician,astronomer,andphysicist(describedinhisowndayasa"naturalphilosopher")whoiswidelyrecognisedasoneofthemostinfluentialscientistsofalltimeandakeyfigureinthescientificrevolution.HisnbookPhilosophiæNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica("MathematicalPrinciplesofNaturalPhilosophy"),firstpublishedin1687,laidthefoundationsofclassicalmechanics.Newtonalsomadeseminalcontributionstooptics,andhesharescreditwithGottfriedWilhelmLeibnizfordevelopingtheinfinitesimalcalculus.第22题,【解释题】15.Cubism正确答案:15.referencetotext-bookp500Cubismisanearly-20th-centuryavant-gardeartmovementthatrevolutionizedEuropeanpaintingandsculpture,andinspiredrelatedmovementsinmusic,literatureandarchitecture.Cubismhasbeenconsideredthemostinfluentialartmovementofthe20thcentury.ThetermisbroadlyusedinassociationwithawidevarietyofartproducedinParis(Montmartre,MontparnasseandPuteaux)duringthe1910sandextendingthroughthe1920s.第23题,【解释题】47.TheSpiritoftheLaws正确答案:47.referencetotextbookpp235-236.TheSpiritoftheLaws(sometimescalledTheSpiritofLaws)isatreatiseonpoliticaltheoryfirstpublishedanonymouslybyCharlesdeSecondat,BarondeMontesquieuin1748withthehelpofClaudineGuérindeTencin.OriginallypublishedanonymouslypartlybecauseMontesquieusworksweresubjecttocensorship,itsinfluenceoutsideFrancewasaidedbyitsrapidtranslationintootherlanguages.In1750ThomasNugentpublishedthefirstEnglishtranslation.In1751theCatholicChurchaddedDelespritdesloistoitsIndexLibrorumProhibitorum("ListofProhibitedBooks").YetMontesquieuspoliticaltreatisehadanenormousinfluenceontheworkofmanyothers,mostnotably:CatherinetheGreat,whoproducedNakaz(Instruction);theFoundingFathersoftheUnitedStatesConstitution;andAlexisdeTocqueville,whoappliedMontesquieusmethodstoastudyofAmericansociety,inDemocracyinAmerica.MacaulayoffersusahintofMontesquieusimportancewhenhewritesinhis1827essayentitled"Machiavelli"that"Montesquieuenjoys,perhaps,awidercelebritythananypoliticalwriterofmodernEurope."MontesquieuspentaroundtwentyoneyearsresearchingandwritingDelespritdeslois(TheSpiritoftheLaws),coveringmanythingslikethelaw,sociallife,andthestudyofanthropologyandprovidingmorethan3,000commendations.InthispoliticaltreatiseMontesquieupleadedinfavorofaconstitutionalsystemofgovernmentandtheseparationofpowers,theendingofslavery,thepreservationofcivillibertiesandthelaw,andtheideathatpoliticalinstitutionsoughttoreflectthesocialandgeographicalaspectsofeachcommunity.第24题,【解释题】24.Feudalism正确答案:24,referencetotext-bookp92.FeudalismwasacombinationoflegalandmilitarycustomsinmedievalEuropethatflourishedbetweenthe9thand15thcenturies.Broadlydefined,itwasawayofstructuringsocietyaroundrelationshipsderivedfromtheholdingoflandinexchangeforserviceorlabour.n第25题,【解释题】48.JohannWolfgangvonGoethe正确答案:48.referencetotextbookpp257-258.JohannWolfgangvonGoethe(28August1749–22March1832)wasaGermanwriterandstatesman.Hisbodyofworkincludesepicandlyricpoetrywritteninavarietyofmetresandstyles;proseandversedramas;memoirs;anautobiography;literaryandaestheticcriticism;treatisesonbotany,anatomy,andcolour;andfournovels.Inaddition,numerousliteraryandscientificfragments,morethan10,000letters,andnearly3,000drawingsbyhimexist.第26题,【解释题】14.Fauvism正确答案:14.referencetotext-bookp497FauvismisthestyleoflesFauves(Frenchfor"thewildbeasts"),aloosegroupofearlytwentieth-centurymodernartistswhoseworksemphasizedpainterlyqualitiesandstrongcolorovertherepresentationalorrealisticvaluesretainedbyImpressionism.WhileFauvismasastylebeganaround1900andcontinuedbeyond1910,themovementassuchlastedonlyafewyears,1904–1908,andhadthreeexhibitions.TheleadersofthemovementwereHenriMatisseandAndréDerain.第27题,【解释题】60.Modernism正确答案:60.referencetotextbookpp446-447.Modernismisaphilosophicalmovementthat,alongwithculturaltrendsandchanges,arosefromwide-scaleandfar-reachingtransformationsinWesternsocietyduringthelate19thandearly20thcenturies.Amongthefactorsthatshapedmodernismwerethedevelopmentofmodernindustrialsocietiesandtherapidgrowthofcities,followedthenbyreactionsofhorrortoWorldWarI.ModernismalsorejectedthecertaintyofEnlightenmentthinking,andmanymodernistsrejectedreligiousbelief.Modernism,ingeneral,includestheactivitiesandcreationsofthosewhofeltthetraditionalformsofart,architecture,literature,religiousfaith,philosophy,socialorganization,activitiesofdailylife,andeventhesciences,werebecomingill-fittedtotheirtasksandoutdatedintheneweconomic,social,andpoliticalenvironmentofanemergingfullyindustrializedworld.ThepoetEzraPounds1934injunctionto"Makeitnew!"wasthetouchstoneofthemovementsapproachtowardswhatitsawasthenowobsoletecultureofthepast.Inthisspirit,itsinnovations,likethestream-of-consciousnessnovel,atonal(orpantonal)andtwelve-tonemusic,divisionistpaintingandabstractart,allhadprecursorsinthe19thcentury.Anotablecharacteristicofmodernismisself-consciousnessandironyconcerningliteraryandsocialtraditions,whichoftenledtoexperimentswithform,alongwiththeuseoftechniquesthatdrewattentiontotheprocessesandmaterialsusedincreatingapainting,poem,building,etc.Modernismexplicitlyrejectedtheideologyofrealismandmakesuseoftheworksofthepastbytheemploymentofreprise,incorporation,rewriting,recapitulation,revisionandparody.Somecommentatorsdefinemodernismasamodeofthinking—oneormorephilosophicallydefinedcharacteristics,likenself-consciousnessorself-reference,thatrunacrossallthenoveltiesintheartsandthedisciplines.Morecommon,especiallyintheWest,arethosewhoseeitasasociallyprogressivetrendofthoughtthataffirmsthepowerofhumanbeingstocreate,improveandreshapetheirenvironmentwiththeaidofpracticalexperimentation,scientificknowledge,ortechnology.Fromthisperspective,modernismencouragedthere-examinationofeveryaspectofexistence,fromcommercetophilosophy,withthegoaloffindingthatwhichwasholdingbackprogress,andreplacingitwithnewwaysofreachingthesameend.Othersfocusonmodernismasanaestheticintrospection.ThisfacilitatesconsiderationofspecificreactionstotheuseoftechnologyintheFirstWorldWar,andanti-technologicalandnihilisticaspectsoftheworksofdiversethinkersandartistsspanningtheperiodfromFriedrichNietzsche(1844–1900)toSamuelBeckett(1906–1989).第28题,【解释题】22.Christianity正确答案:22.ChristianityisamonotheisticreligionbasedonthelifeandteachingsofJesusChrist,whoservesasthefocalpointforthereligion.Itistheworldslargestreligion,withover2.4billionfollowers,or33%oftheglobalpopulation,knownasChristians.ChristiansbelievethatJesusistheSonofGodandthesaviorofhumanitywhosecomingastheMessiah(theChrist)wasprophesiedintheOldTestament.Worldwide,thethreelargestbranchesofChristianityaretheCatholicChurch,theEasternOrthodoxChurch,andthevariousdenominationsofProtestantism.TheCatholicandEasternOrthodoxchurchesbrokecommunionwitheachotherintheEast–WestSchismof1054;ProtestantismcameintoexistenceintheReformationofthe16thcentury,splittingfromtheCatholicChurch.第29题,【解释题】52.Romanticism正确答案:52.referencetotextbookpp284-285.Romanticism(alsotheRomanticeraortheRomanticperiod)wasanartistic,literary,musicalandintellectualmovementthatoriginatedinEuropetowardtheendofthe18thcenturyandinmostareaswasatitspeakintheapproximateperiodfrom1800to1850.Romanticismwascharacterizedbyitsemphasisonemotionandindividualismaswellasglorificationofallthepastandnature,preferringthemedievalratherthantheclassical.ItwaspartlyareactiontotheIndustrialRevolution,thearistocraticsocialandpoliticalnormsoftheAgeofEnlightenment,andthescientificrationalizationofnature.Itwasembodiedmoststronglyinthevisualarts,music,andliterature,buthadamajorimpactonhistoriography,education,andthenaturalsciences.Ithadasignificantandcomplexeffectonpolitics,andwhileformuchoftheRomanticperioditwasassociatedwithliberalismandradicalism,itslong-termeffectonthegrowthofnationalismwasperhapsmoresignificant.Themovementemphasizedintenseemotionasanauthenticsourceofaestheticexperience,placingnewemphasisonsuchemotionsasapprehension,horrorandterror,andawe—especiallythatexperiencedinconfrontingthenewaestheticcategoriesofthesublimityandbeautyofnature.Itelevatedfolkartandancientcustomtosomethingnoble,butalsospontaneityadesirablecharacteristic(asinthemusicalnimpromptu).IncontrasttotheRationalismandClassicismoftheEnlightenment,Romanticismrevivedmedievalismandelementsofartandnarrativeperceivedasauthenticallymedievalinanattempttoescapepopulationgrowth,earlyurbansprawl,andindustrialism.AlthoughthemovementwasrootedintheGermanSturmundDrangmovement,whichpreferredintuitionandemotiontotherationalismoftheEnlightenment,theeventsandideologiesoftheFrenchRevolutionwerealsoproximatefactors.Romanticismassignedahighvaluetotheachievementsof"heroic"individualistsandartists,whoseexamples,itmaintained,wouldraisethequalityofsociety.Italsopromotedtheindividualimaginationasacriticalauthorityallowedoffreedomfromclassicalnotionsofforminart.Therewasastrongrecoursetohistoricalandnaturalinevitability,aZeitgeist,intherepresentationofitsideas.Inthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,RealismwasofferedasapolaroppositetoRomanticism.ThedeclineofRomanticismduringthistimewasassociatedwithmultipleprocesses,includingsocialandpoliticalchangesandthespreadofnationalism.第30题,【解释题】56.GeorgeEliot正确答案:56.referencetotextbookpp420-421.MaryAnneEvans(22November1819–22December1880;alternatively"MaryAnn"or"Marian"),knownbyherpennameGeorgeEliot,wasanEnglishnovelist,poet,journalist,translatorandoneoftheleadingwritersoftheVictorianera.Sheistheauthorofsevennovels,includingAdamBede(1859),TheMillontheFloss(1860),SilasMarner(1861),Middlemarch(1871–72),andDanielDeronda(1876),mostofwhicharesetinprovincialEnglandandknownfortheirrealismandpsychologicalinsight.Sheusedamalepenname,shesaid,toensurethatherworkswouldbetakenseriously.FemaleauthorswerepublishedundertheirownnamesduringEliotslife,butshewantedtoescapethestereotypeofwomenwritingonlylightheartedromances.Shealsowishedtohaveherfictionjudgedseparatelyfromheralreadyextensiveandwidelyknownworkasaneditorandcritic.AnadditionalfactorinheruseofapennamemayhavebeenadesiretoshieldherprivatelifefrompublicscrutinyandtopreventscandalsattendingherrelationshipwiththemarriedGeorgeHenryLewes,withwhomshelivedforover20years.EliotsMiddlemarchhasbeendescribedbyMartinAmisandJulianBarnesasthegreatestnovelintheEnglishlanguage.第31题,【解释题】35.WilliamShakespear正确答案:35.referencetotext-bookp176.WilliamShakespeare(26April1564(baptised)–23April1616)wasanEnglishpoet,playwright,andactor,widelyregardedasthegreatestwriterintheEnglishlanguageandtheworldspre-eminentdramatist.HeisoftencalledEnglandsnationalpoet,andthe"BardofAvon".Hisextantworks,includingcollaborations,consistofapproximately38plays,154sonnets,twolongnarrativepoems,andafewotherverses,someofuncertainauthorship.Hisplayshavebeentranslatedintoeverymajorlivinglanguageandareperformedmoreoftenthanthoseofanyotherplaywright.n第32题,【解释题】27.TheDivineComedy正确答案:27.TheDivineComedyisalongnarrativepoembyDanteAlighieri,begunc. 1308andcompleted1320,ayearbeforehisdeathin1321.ItiswidelyconsideredthepreeminentworkofItalianliterature,andisseenasoneofthegreatestworksofworldliterature.Thepoemsimaginativevisionoftheafterlifeisrepresentativeofthemedievalworld-viewasithaddevelopedintheWesternChurchbythe14thcentury.IthelpedestablishtheTuscanlanguage,inwhichitiswritten,asthestandardizedItalianlanguage.Itisdividedintothreeparts:Inferno,Purgatorio,andParadiso.第33题,【解释题】39.GalileoGalilei正确答案:39.referencetotext-bookpp190-192.GalileoGalilei(15February1564–8January1642)wasanItalianpolymath:astronomer,physicist,engineer,philosopher,andmathematician.Heplayedamajorroleinthescientificrevolutionoftheseventeenthcentury.HiscontributionstoobservationalastronomyincludethetelescopicconfirmationofthephasesofVenus,thediscoveryofthefourlargestsatellitesofJupiter(namedtheGalileanmoonsinhishonour),andtheobservationandanalysisofsunspots.Galileoalsoworkedinappliedscienceandtechnology,inventinganimprovedmilitarycompassandotherinstruments.GalileoschampioningofheliocentrismandCopernicanismwascontroversialduringhislifetime,whenmostsubscribedtoeithergeocentrismortheTychonicsystem.Hemetwithoppositionfromastronomers,whodoubtedheliocentrismbecauseoftheabsenceofanobservedstellarparallax.ThematterwasinvestigatedbytheRomanInquisitionin1615,whichconcludedthatheliocentrismwas"foolishandabsurdinphilosophy,andformallyhereticalsinceitexplicitlycontradictsinmanyplacesthesenseofHolyScripture."GalileolaterdefendedhisviewsinDialogueConcerningtheTwoChiefWorldSystems,whichappearedtoattackPopeUrbanVIIIandthusalienatedhimandtheJesuits,whohadbothsupportedGalileoupuntilthispoint.HewastriedbytheInquisition,found"vehementlysuspectofheresy",andforcedtorecant.Hespenttherestofhislifeunderhousearrest.Whileunderhousearrest,hewroteoneofhisbest-knownworks,TwoNewSciences,inwhichhesummarizedworkhehaddonesomefortyyearsearlieronthetwosciencesnowcalledkinematicsandstrengthofmaterials.Hehasbeencalledthe"fatherofobservationalastronomy",the"fatherofmodernphysics",the"fatherofscientificmethod",andthe"fatherofscience".第34题,【解释题】51.Classicalmusic正确答案:51.ClassicalmusicisartmusicproducedorrootedinthetraditionsofWesternmusic,includingbothliturgical(religious)andsecularmusic.Whileamoreaccuratetermisalsousedtorefertotheperiodfrom1750to1820(theClassicalperiod),thisarticleisaboutthebroadspanoftimefromroughlythe11thcenturytothepresentday,whichincludestheClassicalperiodandvariousotherperiods.[1]Thecentralnormsofthistraditionbecamecodifiedbetween1550and1900,whichisknownasthecommon-practiceperiod.ThemajortimedivisionsofWesternartmusicareasfollows:thenearlymusicperiod,whichincludestheMedieval(500–1400)theRenaissance(1400–1600)erasBaroque(1600–1750)thecommon-practiceperiod,whichincludesBaroque(1600–1750)Classical(1750–1820)Romanticeras(1804–1910)the20thcentury(1901–2000)whichincludesthemodern(1890–1930)thatoverlapsfromthelate19th-century,thehighmodern(1950–1969)contemporary(1945or1975–present)orpostmodern(1930–present)eras第35题,【解释题】61.SigmundFreud正确答案:61.referencetotextbookpp449-451.SigmundFreud(bornSigismundSchlomoFreud;6May1856–23September1939)wasanAustrianneurologistandthefounderofpsychoanalysis,aclinicalmethodfortreatingpsychopathologythroughdialoguebetweenapatientandapsychoanalyst.FreudwasborntoGalicianJewishparentsintheMoraviantownofFreiberg,intheAustro-HungarianEmpire.Hequalifiedasadoctorofmedicinein1881attheUniversityofVienna.Uponcompletinghishabilitationin1885,hewasappointedadocentinneuropathologyandbecameanaffiliatedprofessorin1902.FreudlivedandworkedinVienna,havingsetuphisclinicalpracticetherein1886.In1938FreudleftAustriatoescapetheNazis.HediedinexileintheUnitedKingdomin1939.第36题,【解释题】34.ChurchofEngland正确答案:34.referencetopp148-149.TheChurchofEngland(CofE)istheAnglicanChristianstatechurchofEngland.TheArchbishopofCanterbury(currentlyJustinWelby)isthemostseniorcleric,althoughthemonarchisthesupremegovernor.TheChurchofEnglandisalsothemotherchurchoftheinternationalAnglicanCommunion.Itsformalestablishmentasanationalchurchisdatedtothe6th-centuryGregorianmissioninKentledbyAugustineofCanterbury,withconsiderablefeaturesintroducedandestablishedduringandfollowingtheEnglishReformationinthe16thcentury.TheEnglishchurchrenouncedpapalauthoritywhenHenryVIIIsoughttosecureanannulmentfromCatherineofAragoninthe1530s.TheEnglishReformationacceleratedunderEdwardVIsregentsbeforeabriefrestorationofpapalauthorityunderQueenMaryIandKingPhilip.TheActofSupremacy1558renewedthebreachandtheElizabethanSettlementchartedacoursewherebytheEnglishchurchwastobebothCatholicandReformed第37题,【解释题】21.OldTestament正确答案:21.referencetotext-bookp52.OldTestamentisthefirstsectionoftheChristianBible,basedprimarilyupontheHebrewBible(orTanakh),acollectionofreligiouswritingsbyancientIsraelitesbelievedbymostChristiansandreligiousJewstobethesacredWordofGod.ItisthecounterparttotheNewTestament,thesecondportionoftheChristianBible.TheOldTestamentcanonvariesbetweenChristianChurches.Protestantshaveaversionwith39books.Catholicshaveaversionwith46books,andEasternOrthodox,andOrientalOrthodoxChurcheschoosetheOldTestamentnversionwith49books.TheOldTestamentconsistsofmanydistinctbooksbyvariousauthorsoveraperiodofcenturies.Thecanonformedinstages,firstthePentateuchbyaround400BC,thentheProphetsduringtheHasmoneandynasty(140-116BC),andfinallytheremainingbooks.ChristianstraditionallydividetheOldTestamentintofoursections:1)thefirstfivebooksorPentateuch(Torah);2)thehistorybookstellingthehistoryoftheIsraelites,fromtheirconquestofCanaantotheirdefeatandexileinBabylon;3)thepoeticand"Wisdom"booksdealing,invariousforms,withquestionsofgoodandevilintheworld;4)andthebooksofthebiblicalprophets,warningoftheconsequencesofturningawayfromGod.第38题,【解释题】36..ChristopherColumbus正确答案:36.referencetotext-bookp180.ChristopherColumbus(c. 1451–20May1506)wasanItalianexplorer,navigator,colonizer,andcitizenoftheRepublicofGenoa.UndertheauspicesoftheCatholicMonarchsofSpain,hecompletedfourvoyagesacrosstheAtlanticOcean.ThosevoyagesandhiseffortstoestablishpermanentsettlementsontheislandofHispaniolainitiatedtheEuropeancolonizationoftheNewWorld.第39题,【解释题】16.Cynicism正确答案:16.CynicismCynicismisaschoolofAncientGreekphilosophyaspracticedbytheCynics.FortheCynics,thepurposeoflifeistoliveinvirtue,inagreementwithnature.Asreasoningcreatures,peoplecangainhappinessbyrigoroustrainingandbylivinginawaywhichisnaturalforthemselves,rejectingallconventionaldesiresforwealth,power,sex,andfame.Instead,theyweretoleadasimplelifefreefromallpossessions.第40题,【解释题】37.NiccolòMachiavelli正确答案:37.referencetotext-book182.NiccolòMachiavelli(3May1469–21June1527),ormoreformallyNiccolòdiBernardodeiMachiavelli,wasanItalianRenaissancehistorian,politician,diplomat,philosopher,humanist,andwriter.Hehasoftenbeencalledthefounderofmodernpoliticalscience.HewasformanyyearsaseniorofficialintheFlorentineRepublic,withresponsibilitiesindiplomaticandmilitaryaffairs.Healsowrotecomedies,carnivalsongs,andpoetry.HispersonalcorrespondenceisrenownedintheItalianlanguage.HewassecretarytotheSecondChanceryoftheRepublicofFlorencefrom1498to1512,whentheMediciwereoutofpower.HewrotehismostrenownedworkThePrince(IlPrincipe)in1513.第41题,【解释题】28.Gothicarchitecture正确答案:28.GothicarchitectureisastyleofarchitecturethatflourishedinEuropeduringthehighandlatemedievalperiod.ItevolvedfromRomanesquearchitectureandnwassucceededbyRenaissancearchitecture.Originatingin12th-centuryFranceandlastingintothe16thcentury,GothicarchitecturewasknownduringtheperiodasOpusFrancigenum("Frenchwork")withthetermGothicfirstappearingduringthelaterpartoftheRenaissance.Itscharacteristicsincludethepointedarch,theribbedvault(whichevolvedfromthejointvaultingofromanesquearchitecture)andtheflyingbuttress.Gothicarchitectureismostfamiliarasthearchitectureofmanyofthegreatcathedrals,abbeysandchurchesofEurope.Itisalsothearchitectureofmanycastles,palaces,townhalls,guildhalls,universitiesandtoalessprominentextent,privatedwellings,suchasdormsandrooms.第42题,【解释题】46.Enlightenment正确答案:46.referencetotextbookpp231-234.TheEnlightenment(alsoknownastheAgeofEnlightenmentortheAgeofReason;inFrench:leSiècledesLumières,lit.theCenturyofLights;andinGerman:Aufklärung,Enlightenment)wasanintellectualmovementwhichdominatedtheworldofideasinEuropeduringthe18thcentury,TheCenturyofPhilosophy.TheEnlightenmentincludedarangeofideascenteredonreasonastheprimarysourceofauthorityandlegitimacy,andcametoadvanceidealslikeliberty,progress,tolerance,fraternity,constitutionalgovernment,andseparationofchurchandstate.InFrance,thecentraldoctrinesoflesLumièreswereindividuallibertyandreligioustoleranceinoppositiontoanabsolutemonarchyandthefixeddogmasoftheRomanCatholicChurch.TheEnlightenmentwasmarkedbyanemphasisonthescientificmethodandreductionismalongwithincreasedquestioningofreligiousorthodoxy–anattitudecapturedbythephraseSapereaude,"Daretoknow".第43题,【解释题】18.VenusdeMilo正确答案:18.VenusdeMilo,isanancientGreekstatueandoneofthemostfamousworksofancientGreeksculpture.Createdsometimebetween130and100BCE,itisbelievedtodepictAphrodite,theGreekgoddessofloveandbeauty(VenustotheRomans).Itisamarblesculpture,slightlylargerthanlifesizeat203cm(6ft8in)high.Partofanarmandtheoriginalplinthwerelostfollowingitsdiscovery.Fromaninscriptionthatwasonitsplinth,itisthoughttobetheworkofAlexandrosofAntioch;earlier,itwasmistakenlyattributedtothemastersculptorPraxiteles.ItiscurrentlyonpermanentdisplayattheLouvreMuseuminParis.ThestatueisnamedaftertheGreekislandofMilos,whereitwasdiscovered.第44题,【解释题】55.HenriIbsen正确答案:55.referencetotextbookpp407-408.HenrikJohanIbsen(20March1828–23May1906)wasamajor19th-centuryNorwegianplaywright,theatredirector,andpoet.Heisoftenreferredtoas"thefatherofrealism"andisoneofthefoundersofModernismintheatre.HismajorworksincludeBrand,PeerGynt,AnEnemyofthePeople,EmperorandGalilean,ADollsHouse,HeddaGabler,Ghosts,TheWildDuck,WhenWeDeadAwaken,nPillarsofSociety,TheLadyfromtheSea,Rosmersholm,TheMasterBuilderandJohnGabrielBorkman.HeisthemostfrequentlyperformeddramatistintheworldafterShakespeare,andADollsHousebecametheworldsmostperformedplaybytheearly20thcentury.Severalofhislaterdramaswereconsideredscandaloustomanyofhisera,whenEuropeantheatrewasexpectedtomodelstrictmoralsoffamilylifeandpropriety.Ibsenslaterworkexaminedtherealitiesthatlaybehindmanyfaçades,revealingmuchthatwasdisquietingtomanycontemporaries.Itutilizedacriticaleyeandfreeinquiryintotheconditionsoflifeandissuesofmorality.ThepoeticandcinematicearlyplayPeerGynt,however,hasstrongsurrealelements.第45题,【解释题】25.TheChurchFathers正确答案:25.referencetotext-bookpp96-97.TheChurchFathers,EarlyChurchFathers,ChristianFathers,orFathersoftheChurchareancientandgenerallyinfluentialChristiantheologians,someofwhomwereeminentteachersandgreatbishops.ThetermisusedofwritersorteachersoftheChurchnotnecessarilyordainedandnotnecessarily"saints"—OrigenAdamantiusandTertullianareoftenconsideredChurchFathersbutarenotsaintsowingtotheirviewslaterbeingdeemedheretical—althoughmostarehonoredassaintsintheRomanCatholicChurch,theEasternOrthodoxChurch,OrientalOrthodoxy,theChurchoftheEast,AnglicanismandLutheranism,aswellasotherchurchesandgroups.TheeraofthesescholarswhosetthetheologicalandscholarlyfoundationsofChristianitylargelyendedby700AD.WhilewesternchurchesregardonlyearlyteachersofChristianityasFathers,theOrthodoxChurchhonorsas"Fathers"manysaintsfarbeyondtheearlycenturiesofchurchhistory,eventothepresentday.第46题,【解释题】57.WaltWhitman正确答案:57.referencetotextbook428-429.Walter"Walt"Whitman(May31,1819–March26,1892)wasanAmericanpoet,essayist,andjournalist.Ahumanist,hewasapartofthetransitionbetweentranscendentalismandrealism,incorporatingbothviewsinhisworks.WhitmanisamongthemostinfluentialpoetsintheAmericancanon,oftencalledthefatheroffreeverse.[1]Hisworkwasverycontroversialinitstime,particularlyhispoetrycollectionLeavesofGrass,whichwasdescribedasobsceneforitsovertsexuality.第47题,【解释题】44.Molière正确答案:44.referencetotext-bookp223-224.Jean-BaptistePoquelin,knownbyhisstagenameMolière(15January1622–17February1673),wasaFrenchplaywrightandactorwhoisconsideredtobeoneofthegreatestmastersofcomedyinWesternliterature.AmongMolièresbestknownworksareTheMisanthrope,TheSchoolforWives,Tartuffe,TheMiser,TheImaginaryInvalid,andTheBourgeoisGentleman.n第48题,【解释题】13.BlackHumour.正确答案:13.referencetotext-bookpp492.BlackHumor,akindofdrama(or,byextension,anon?dramaticwork)inwhichdisturbingorsinistersubjectslikedeath,disease,orwarfare,aretreatedwithbitteramusement,usuallyinamannercalculatedtooffendandshock.Prominentinthetheatreoftheabsurd,blackcomedyisalsoafeatureofJoeOrton"sLoot(1965).AsimilarblackhumourisstronglyevidentinmodernAmericanfictionfromNathanaelWest"sACoolMillion(1934)toJosephHeller"sCatch-22(1961)andKurtVonnegut"sSlaughterhouse?Five(1969).第49题,【解释题】49.ImmanuelKant正确答案:49.referencetotextbookpp268-272.ImmanuelKant(22April1724–12February1804)wasaGermanphilosopherwhoisconsideredacentralfigureinmodernphilosophy.[7]Kantarguedthatthehumanmindcreatesthestructureofhumanexperience,thatreasonisthesourceofmorality,thataestheticsarisesfromafacultyofdisinterestedjudgment,thatspaceandtimeareformsofoursensibility,andthattheworldasitis"in-itself"isindependentofourconceptsofit.KanttookhimselftohaveeffectedaCopernicanrevolutioninphilosophy,akintoCopernicusreversaloftheage-oldbeliefthatthesunrevolvedaroundtheearth.Hisbeliefscontinuetohaveamajorinfluenceoncontemporaryphilosophy,especiallythefieldsofmetaphysics,epistemology,ethics,politicaltheory,andaesthetics.第50题,【论述题】12.JohnLocke正确答案:12.referencetotext-bookpp204-207.JohnLocke(29August1632-28October1704),widelykn204ownastheFatherofLiberalism,wasanEnglishphilosopherandphysicianregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialofEnlightenmentthinkers.ConsideredoneofthefirstoftheBritishempiricists,followingthetraditionofFrancisBacon,heisequallyimportanttosocialcontracttheory.Hisworkhadagreatimpactuponthedevelopmentofepistemologyandpoliticalphilosophy.HiswritingsinfluencedVoltaireandRousseau,manyScottishEnlightenmentthinkers,aswellastheAmericanrevolutionaries.HiscontributionstoclassicalrepublicanismandliberaltheoryarereflectedintheAmericanDeclarationofIndependence.第51题,【论述题】7.WhatisBeowulf正确答案:7.referencetotext-book,p105BeowulfistheconventionaltitleofanOldEnglishheroicepicpoemconsistingof3182alliterativelonglines,setinScandinavia,commonlycitedasoneofthemostimportantworksofAnglo-Saxonliterature.第52题,【论述题】3.WhatisNeoclassicism?n正确答案:3.NeoclassicismisthenamegiventoWesternmovementsinthedecorativeandvisualarts,literature,theatre,music,andarchitecturethatdrawinspirationfromthe"classical"artandcultureofAncientGreeceorAncientRome.NeoclassicismwasborninRomeinthemid-1700s,butitspopularityspreadalloverEurope,asagenerationofEuropeanartstudentsfinishedtheirGrandTourandreturnedfromItalytotheirhomecountrieswithnewlyrediscoveredGreco-Romanideals.ThemainNeoclassicalmovementcoincidedwiththe18thcenturyAgeofEnlightenment,andcontinuedintotheearly19thcentury,latterlycompetingwithRomanticism.Inarchitecture,thestylecontinuedthroughoutthe19th,20thanduptothe21stcentury.第53题,【论述题】8.ExplaintheLostGeneration.正确答案:8.referencetotext-book,p471The"LostGeneration"isatermusedtorefertothegenerationthatcameofageduringWorldWarI.ThetermwaspopularizedbyErnestHemingwaywhouseditasoneoftwocontrastingepigraphsforhisnovel,TheSunAlsoRises.InthatvolumeHemingwaycreditsthephrasetoGertrudeStein,whowasthenhismentorandpatron.第54题,【论述题】10.WhatisTheHumanComedy?正确答案:10.referencetotext-bookpp380-381,TheHumanComedyisthetitleofHonorédeBalzac"s(1799-1850)multi-volumecollectionofinterlinkednovelsandstoriesdepictingFrenchsocietyintheperiodoftheRestorationandtheJulyMonarchy(1815-1848).第55题,【论述题】1.WhatisMarxism?正确答案:strongstyle=""mso-bidi-font-weight:"1.Marxismb=""isaneconomicandsocio-politicalworldviewthatcontainswithinitapoliticalideologyforhowtochangeandimprovesocietybyimplementingsocialism.Originallydevelopedintheearlytomid19thcenturybytwoGermanémigréslivinginBritain,KarlMarxandFriedrichEngels,Marxismisbaseduponamaterialistinterpretationofhistory.Takingtheideathatsocialchangeoccursbecauseofthestrugglebetweendifferentclasseswithinsocietywhoareundercontradictiononeagainsttheother,theMarxistanalysisleadstotheconclusionthatcapitalism,thecurrentlydominantformofeconomicmanagement,leadstotheoppressionoftheproletariat,whonotonlymakeupthemajorityoftheworld"spopulacebutwhoalsospendtheirlivesworkingforthebenefitofthebourgeoisie,orthewealthyrulingclassinsociety.font=""font=""p=""第56题,【论述题】11.FrancescoPetrarch（彼特拉克）正确答案:11.referencetotext-bookpp133-134,FrancescoPetrarchwasanItalianscholarandpoetinRenaissanceItaly,andoneoftheearliesthumanists.PetrarchsnrediscoveryofCiceroslettersisoftencreditedwithinitiatingthe14th-centuryRenaissance.PetrarchisoftenconsideredthefounderofHumanism.第57题,【论述题】4.WhowasAristotle?Andwhatarehisworks?正确答案:4.referencetotext-book,p27--28.Aristotle(384BC?322BC)wasaGreekphilosopher,astudentofPlatoandteacherofAlexandertheGreat.Hiswritingscovermanysubjects,includingphysics,metaphysics,poetry,theater,music,logic,rhetoric,linguistics,politics,government,ethics,biology,andzoology.TogetherwithPlatoandSocrates(Plato"steacher),AristotleisoneofthemostimportantfoundingfiguresinWesternphilosophy.Aristotle"swritingswerethefirsttocreateacomprehensivesystemofWesternphilosophy,encompassingmoralityandaesthetics,logicandscience,politicsandmetaphysics.第58题,【论述题】5.WhatisBaroqueArt?正确答案:5.referencetotext-book,p225BaroqueArtisanartisticstyleprevalentfromthelate16thcenturytotheearly18thcenturyinEurope.Itismostoftendefinedas"thedominantstyleofartinEuropebetweentheManneristandRococoeras,astylecharacterizedbydynamicmovement,overtemotionandself-confidentrhetoric".第59题,【论述题】2.WhatisDarwinism?正确答案:2.DarwinismisatheoryofbiologicalevolutiondevelopedbyCharlesRobertDarwinandothers,statingthatallspeciesoforganismsariseanddevelopthroughthenaturalselectionofsmall,inheritedvariationsthatincreasetheindividual"sabilitytocompete,survive,andreproduce.AlsocalledDarwiniantheory,itoriginallyincludedthebroadconceptsoftransmutationofspeciesorofevolutionwhichgainedgeneralscientificacceptanceafterCharlesDarwinpublishedOntheOriginofSpeciesin1859,includingconceptswhichpredatedDarwin"stheories,butsubsequentlyreferredtospecificconceptsofnaturalselectionoftheWeismannbarrieroringeneticsofthecentraldogmaofmolecularbiology.Thoughthetermusuallyrefersstrictlytobiologicalevolution,creationistshaveappropriatedittorefertotheoriginoflife,andithasevenbeenappliedtoconceptsofcosmicevolution,bothofwhichhavenoconnectiontoDarwin"swork.ItisthereforeconsideredthebeliefandacceptanceofDarwin"sandofhispredecessors"work-inplaceofothertheories,includingdivinedesignandextraterrestrialorigins.第60题,【论述题】6.WhatisChurchofEngland?正确答案:6.referencetotext-book,p147TheChurchofEnglandistheofficiallyestablishedChristianchurchinEnglandandtheMotherChurchoftheworldwideAnglicanCommunion.TheChurchofEnglandseparatedfromtheRomanCatholicChurchin1534withntheActofSupremacyandunderstandsitselftobebothCatholicandReformed.TheBritishmonarch,atpresentQueenElizabethII,hastheconstitutionaltitleofSupremeGovernoroftheChurchofEngland.