初中英语语法知识总结 41页

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  • 2022-08-16 发布

初中英语语法知识总结

  • 41页
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答:下面是初中英语语法总结,你可参考学习,或许有不全面的地方,欢迎你有不懂的问题再具体提问。另外,我个人认为猜题对于提高考试成绩没有多大作用和意义,并不可取,建议你进行全面复习,打下扎实的基础知识,以不变应万变。顺祝复习顺利!语法总复习第一节名词与代词名词可分为专有名词和普通名词两类。而普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。其中,个体名词和集体名词为可数名词,而物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。名词的复数构成通常是在其后加—s;但以-s,-x,-ch,-sh和大部分以o结尾的名词后加-es;以“辅音字母+y”结尾的名词把“y”变成“i”,再加-es。有些名词的复数构成是不规则的,有其特殊形式。有些名词在不同的情况下,属不同的名词词类,因此有时为可数,有时则为不可数:名词的格可分为主格(作主语),宾格(作宾语)和所有格(表示所有关系)。代词可分为人称代词,物主代词,反身代词,相互代词,不定代词,指示代词,关系代词,连接代词和疑问代词等九类。名词的用法可数名词除非前面有冠词或表示单数的限定词,否则要用其复数形式,例如:Ifapersondisobeystheorder,hewillbepunishedseverely.Theteacherfirstlydividedhisstudentsintofourgroups.Thereferencebookcanbeusedtoanswerquestions,tosolveproblemsortoobtaininformationonaparticulartopic.Thesecoursesareespeciallydesignedforseniorstudents.有些名词的复数构成是不规则的,如:child-children,foot-feet。goose-geese,mouse-mice,man-men,ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,woman-women等。例如:Everyfallgeesef1yoverthehouse.Thedentisttoldhimthatseveralteethofhisneedtobefilled.Mrs.Smithhasthreechildren,andTonnyistheyoungestone.Ithinkwe'vegotmiceinthekitchen.有些名词的单复数形式是一样的,如:Chinese,Japanese,Burmese(缅甸),Spanish(西班牙),Lebanese(黎巴嫩),Portuguese(葡萄牙),Swiss(瑞士).sheep,deer,swine(猪),fish,carp(鲤鱼),salmon(鲑),means,series,species,aircraft,spacecraft等。例如:Thebestfisharenearthebottom.WhentheygottotheNewWorld,Spanishconstructedtheirhouseswith41\nMoorisharchitecturalfeatures.Isawawhitesheeprunningdowntheroad.Judgingbyhislanguage,hemustbeaJapanese.在表示一类事物时,介词of后的名词要用复数形式。例如:Beethovenisofthegreatestmusiciansintheworld.TheAnimalArtFestivalisbeingheldatShanghaizoo,whichisoneofthemostwelcomefestivalsinthecity.Asoneofthecountriesthatbearresponsibilityfortheincident,GermanChancellorSchroederholdsthattheorganizationshouldapologizetoChinesegovernmentunconditionally.SheisoneofthethreemartyrswhowerekilledinNATO'sbombingontheChineseEmbassyinYugoslavia.大多数集体名词可作单数,也可作复数,如:army,audience,class,committee,crew(全体船员,乘务员),crowd,faculty,family,governmentgrouporchestra,public,team,union等。但有些虽然是单数形式,却用作复数,如:cattle(牡畜)mankind(人类),militia(民兵),people,police,poultry(家畜),staff(全体职员)等。例如:ThepresidentsaidtheChineseGowrnmentispayingcloseattentiontodevelopmentsinthismatter,andcontinuestoreservetherighttotakefutureaction.Thecattle,weregrazingonthemeadownearthefarm.Theaudiencewereamusedbyhishumorousstories.Myfamilyisfarawayfromtheschool.有些名词只有复数形式,而且也只用作复数,如:clothes,glasses,spectacles,pants,arms(武器),belongings(所有物),customs(海关),goods(货物),suburbs(郊区),papers(文件)等;而有些名词形式为复数,却用作单数,如:electronics(电子学),mathematics(数学),optics(光学),politics,statistics(统计学)等。例如:Theshortshewearsaremadeofleather.Linguisticsisadifficultsubjecttostudy.Heusedtostudyelectronicswhichisn’thisfavoritesuject.Ilovetoliveinthesuburbsthatareconclusive.有些名词一般情况下以单数形式出现,表示总体。但如果表示若干、多次或几种时,则要用其复数。这类词有:hair,fruit,pollution,rain,difficulty,success,wind,failure,favour等。例如:ThebarberhadbeencuttinghumanhairfortwoyearsbeforehecametoLosAngeles.41\nMotherboughtoranges,bananasandotherfruits.Thesecavescollapseeasilyinheavyrains,andgreatwinds.He’shavingfinancialdifficulties.有些名词一般只有单数形式,它们通常是表示物质和抽象概念的不可数名词,像:advice,baggage,bread,corn,clothing,equipment,education,fun,furniture,food,fruit,garbage,grass,happiness,homework,housework,humanity,information,knowledge,landscape,1aughter,machinery,mankind,merchandise,money,music,nonsense,nature,population,progress,scenery,smoke,sweat,strength,traffic,thunder,ink,jewellery,damage,mail,work,soap,sugar,gold,chalk,cloth,anger,applause,cake,chocolate,poverty等。例如:Imustseektheadviceofaspecialistinthematterofthetransferofpropertyrights.Headacheisthemostcommondiseaseofhuman.Ireallygetalotoffunfromreadinginleisuretime.ThepopulationofShanghaiisverybig.有些名词单复数的含义不同,使用时要根据上下文的意思进行选择。这类词包括:communication(通讯)—communications(通讯系统,通讯工具),cloth(布)--clothes(衣服),content(内容)--contents(目录),convenience(便利)--conveniences(便利设备),humanity(人类)--humanities(人文科学),necessity(需要)-necessities(必需品),wood(木材)-woods(树林),pain(疼痛)—pains(辛劳),ruin(毁灭)-ruins(废墟,遗迹),sand(沙子)--sands(沙滩),work(工作)--works(工厂,著作)等。例如:“Hometown”isoneofLuXun’smostfamousworks.Theinsurancecompanypaid$98,700indamagesfortheaccident.Mychildenjoysplayingonthesands.Nopains,nogains.有些名词只有复数形式。如:fundamentals(基本原则),goods(货物),means(方法),shorts(短裤),sweets(欢乐),valuables(贵重物品)等。ThefundamentalsaremadetoguaranteethesocialstabilityDon’ttakeanyvaluablesthereforthesakeofsafety.Thegoodswerepurchasedfromhimaren’texpensive.Ithinkourproblemcanbesolvedbymeansofnegotiation.名词做定语时,不能用作复数。例如:Pleasecheckyourexaminationpapercarefullyafterfinishing。TheChina'sCentralTelevisionStationsuppliesweatherreporteveryday,You'dbetterinformmyfamilymembersbeforeleavingforBeijing.41\nTheUnitedStatesandGermanyaretwomemberstatesofNATO.复合名词的复数只把其中所包含的主体名词变成复数。如:looker(s)--on,runner(s)-up,son(s)-in-law,editor(s)-in-chief,passer(s)-by,grand-child(ren),armyman(armymen),room-number(s),shoelace(s),dinnerplate(s),bloodtype(s)等。如果没有主体名词,就在最后一个词上加复数词尾。如:go-between(s),drawback(s)等。注意以man,woman构成的复合名词,全部变成复数。如:man-servant—men-servants,woman-soldier—women-soldiers。例如:Wouldyoubringmesomedinnerplates?Wehadawonderfultalkwithsomewomen-soldiers.Don’tregardyourselvesaspassers-byundersuchcircumstances.Weareofdifferentbloodtypes.名词的所有格一般在词尾加’s,已有复数词尾-s的,只加’。例如:Wemustworkhardtofulfilthecountry’splans.Theschooliswithinastone’sthrow.Nearbyareherrelatives’houses.CouldyoutellmetheSmiths’saddres?名词所有格有时还可以和of构成短语,有以下两种情况:1)它所修饰的词前面有一个表示数量的词,如:a,two,several,some,any,no,few等。2)它所修饰的词前面有+个指示代词,使句子表示某种情绪。例如:SeveralstudentsofLaoYang’sactedintheplay.WesawaplayGuoMoro's.Atbirth,theheadofababyisextremelylargeinrelationtotherestofthebody。IhavesomerecordsofNaYing's.2.代词的用法1)人称代词有主格人称代词,在句中充当主语:I,you,he,she,it,we,you,they和宾格人称代词,在句中充当宾语:me,you,him,her,it,us,you;them。例如:Wehaven'tseeneachotherforalongtimesincehewentabroad.Letyouandmehaveanappointmentforthenextweekend.Haveyougotanyideaaboutthisissue?Telluswhateveryou'veheard.2)物主代词可在句中作定语,有指人的:my,our,your,his,her和their;有指物的:it,his或her(指国家或轮船)。名词性物主代词作表语、主语、宾语,与of连用可作定语:yours,ours,theirs,mine,her,his,its。例如:Tonnyisanoldfriendofmine.Mydormitoryisnexttoyours,andMary'sisonthethirdfloor.41\nTitanicsankwithherseveralthousandpassengers.Nexttimeit'sonmytreat.3)反身代词亦称自身代词,可作宾语、表语,作主语或宾语的同位语,还与某些动词连用,与介词连用构成成语。有:myself,yourself,himself,herself,itself,ourselves,yourselves,themselves。例如:Thesechildrenaretooyoungtotakecareofthemselves.Don'tworry,hewillbehimselfagainsoon.AlthoughUncleGeorgeisabad-temperedman,Ithinkheisakindmaninhimself.Youshouldberesponsibleforyourself.4)相互代词表示相互关系,有:eachother(两者之间)和oneanother(多者之间)。例如:ImetMissScottthismorning,andwegreetedeachother.Weshouldlearnfromoneanotherandmakeprogresstogether,5)指示代词在句中充当主语、宾语和定语,有:this,that,these,those。Such也是指示代词,可作定语、主语和表语,修饰可数名词时要与a连用。例如:NowadaysTVprogramsaremuchmorecolorfulthanthoseOfthepast.Themoneyspentonentertainment,accordingtosomeauthorities,hasexceededthatspentonpublichealth.Iwanttoknowthis:areyoutalkingabouttheaccidentIencounteredyesterday?Hisfutureiscloselyboundwiththatofthecompany。Youshouldn'ttrustonsuchapersonwhoneverkeepshispromise.6)疑问代词有who,whom,whose,whatwhich。who可作主语和表语;whom作宾语,whose,what,which可作主语、表语、宾语和定语,其中作主语时,要看所代表的人或物是单数还是复数,如果不清楚,则动词一般用单数。Whowillseetothismatter?Whomhaveyouchosentoberesponsibleforthework?Itishardtodecidewhoseisbetter.What’sonyourschedule?Whichuniversitydidheenteratlast? 7)关系代词有who,whom,whose,that,which。which代表事物,that代表人或物;在非限制性定语从句中,不能用that,而用who(m)代表人,用which代表物,或代表主句所说的全部内容。在带有a11,something,nothing,anything,much等的句子中不能用which,而用that。例如:Ourfootballteamwasdefeatedagain,whichshowsourplayersneedmuchmoreeffort.41\nThefactorynowhasover1,000workers,halfofwhomarewomen.Hepromisedtotellusallthatheknew.Whoseturntomakepresentationisbcyondme.8)连接代词有:what,who,whonl,whose,which,用来连接主语从句、宾语从句和表浯从句。Whoever,whomever,whichever,whatever为复合代词。例如:Ididn'tknowwhattodoatthatverymoment.ThegovernmentsellpublichousestowhoeverprovidesenoughamountOfmoney.WhomeverIworryaboutisnoneofyourbusiness.Takewhicheveryoulike,please.第二节形容词与副词形容词和副词在语法结构上都有比较级和最高级,它们的构成方法基本上一样,都与音节多少有关,有些形容词和副词有特殊的比较级和最高级形式。二者基本分为同级比较、比较级和最高级三种形式。1.形容词与副词的用法形容词中有词形相近的,也有词义相近的,应注意区别。如:1)behind(在后的)---hind(后部的),considerate(周到的,体贴的)---considerable(应考虑的),eminent(闻名的)--imminent(紧迫的),gracious(亲切的)---graceful(优雅的),like(有生命的)---alive(活的),industrious(勤劳的)--industrial(工业的),like(同样的)---alike(同样的,仅作表语),opposite(相对的)---opposing(反对的),perspective(透视的)---respective(各自的),sensitive(伤感的)---sensible(明显的),etc,。例如:WedidenjoyyourstayinginBeijing,andMrs.Yanisreallyconsiderate.ProfessorLihasmanyworld-famousinventions,andheisrespectabletous.Asanyoneknowsthatweuseourfrontteethforbitingandourhindteethforchewing.It’saconsiderablesuccessforhim.2)elemental(初步的)--fundamental(基本的),eligible(合格的)--capable(能干的),flexible(灵活的)--changeable(可改变的),initial(最初的)--preliminary(初步的,预备的),slack(松弛的)--lazy(懒惰的),valueless(无价值的)--priceless(无价的),vivid(生动的)一living(活的),etc.。例如:Henry’sspeechwassovividthathisaudienceapplaudedagainandagain,Itiseasiertoadapttonewsituationsifonehasaflexibleattitude.Wehavefinishedthepreliminaryexam.Yoursuggestionispriceless,and1willconsidercarefully.41\n3)有些词尾为-ly的并非副词,而是形容词,如:lovdy,likdy,deadly,earthly(现世的),leisurdy(空闲的),weekly,yearly,manly(丈夫气概的),brotherly,friendly等。例如:WhatalovelygirlJennyis.Sheisalwaysreadytohelpothers.ChinaDailyisofcourseadailynewspaperbutnotaweeklyone.Heisaveryfriendlyyoungman.Ashedidn'thaveanyexperience,hewaslikelytohaveproblems.以下情况形容词常用于后置:1)形容词短语,即形容词+副词,介词短语或不定式。2)一些表语性形容词要后置,如:present,available,involved,concerned,etc,。3)形容词修饰不定代词something,anything,everything时要后置。例如:Therewassomethingniceaboutmyfeelingthatsheknewa11.Forthisreason,aswellastheadditionalcostinvolved,flowforcecompensationisgenerallynotdesirable.Icameacrossanotherquestionhardtoanswerthen.Iwonderediftherewasaroomavailable.副词的位置为:修饰哪个词就放在哪个词前面;放在系动词和助动词之后,行为动词和分词之前。例如:Ihadonlyfive-dollarbillwithmewhenlboardedthetownwardtrain.Theoldlawwereinstitutedtoprotectthelongneglectedrightsofchildren.Icanhardlybelievethatheisthemurderer.Althoughhehasadvantages,itisstilltooearlytosaythatheissuretowin.2.比较级与最高级的基本形式和用法形容词的比较级和最高级的构成为:单音节词一般在词尾加-er和-est。如果以-e结尾,仅加-r和-st;如末尾仅有一个辅音字母,须双写词尾冉加-er和-est;如果以y结尾的,把y变i,加-er,-est;多音节单词和双音节词(其中包括由分词和分词演变而来的形容词,如:known,worn,wounded,shocking,striking,interesting,ect,则在其前加more和most;有些形容词的比较级和最高级是不规则的,如:good(well)-better-best,bad(ill)-worse-worst,many(much)-more-most,little-less-least,far-farther(further)-farthest(furthest)。有些形容词没有比较级形式,如:absolute,chief,entire,eternal,excellent,fatal,final,foremost,inevitable,infinite,main,naked,perfect,possible,primary,right,sufficient,supreme,universal,utter,vital,whole,wooden,etc,例如:Maryisthebeststudentintheclass.Furthernegotiationwillbeconductednextmonth.41\nThefoodwehaveissufficient.Needlesstosay,heisstrongerthanhisopponent.一般副词的比较级和最高级与形容词一样,单音节的以在词尾加-er和-est构成,多音节的以加more和most的方法构成;有些比较特殊,如:well—better-best,badly-worse-worst,much-more-most,little-less-least。以-ly结尾的副词,在其前面加more,most,例如:Tonnyrunsmostquicklythananyotherstudentsintheclass.Whichdoyoulikebest,ThornBirds,GoneWiththeWindOrGreatExpectation?Ipreferlesssugarinthemilk.Shegetsmoreincomeeverymonththanherhusband.形容词和副词的原级比较由"as+形容词或副词(或后跟名词或短语)+as"构成,“as…as’’前可加not,just,almost,nearly,quite,twice,severaltimes等词修饰。否定式中not后面的as可改为so。例如:Runningforfifteenminuteswillburnasmanycaloriesaswalkingforthirtyminutes.HenanprovinceisseveraltimesaslargeasShanghai.Jimmyhasasnervousawayspeakingashisfather.Gettingridofabadhabitisn'tsosimpleastakingitup.形容词和副词的比较级形式为:“形容词(副词)比较级+than+…”,应注意than前后相比较的人或物要一致。比较级前可以跟even,much,still等副词修饰比较级,表示强调。例如:Motherworriedmuchmoreaboutmyyoungerbrotherthanshedidaboutme.SoundtravelsfasterthroughwaterthanthroughIair.TheeconomicdevelopmentinSouthChinaisfasterthanthatinNorthChina.MybooksaremuchmorethanLiPing's.形容词和副词的最高级的形式分别为:“the+形容词最高级十名词+范围表达”和“副词最高级+名词+范围表达”,副词的比较级和最高级不需要加the。例如:Ourforeignexchangereservedidn'tdeclinedespitetheworstfloodinsixtyyears.Ifinisbedtheworkmoresuccessfullythanhehadexpected.应注意以下表达式的含义:thesame…as(和……一样),nolessthan(不少于),notlessthan(只有),hadbetter(最好),lessthan(不到),moreorless(或多或少),otherthan(除了),ratherthan(而不是),themore…themore/less(越……就越……)例如:Iamsurethattheamountofmoneyusedinrepayingaloanwouldhavethesamevalueastheamountofmoneyborrowed.Youhadbetterfinisllyourhomeworktodayfortheteacherwillcollectit41\ntomorrow.Wehavereceivedtendozenofpersonalcomputerswhicharelessthantheamountweordered.Thevisltorstotheexhibitionwerenotlessthanthreehundred,whichdisappointedthemverymuch.第三节从句从句分为定语从句,状语从句和名词从句三大类。定语从句又分为限定性和非限定性从句两种,由关系代词或关系副词引导,修饰主句的某个成分。状语从句分为时间、结果、让步、原因、条件及行为方式状语从句。名词从句包括主语、宾语、表语和同位语从句及therebe句型。1.定语从句限定性定语从句中that可代表人和事,而which只代表事;二者在从句中作主语或宾语。that作宾语时常可省略,which则不能,而且其后的“不及物动词+介词’’中的介词不能省略。which作宾语时,先行词与which之间的介词不能省。例如:Thefirstdollthatcouldsay“mama”wasinventedin1830.Thesecondhalfofhisvoyagewasbyfarthemoredangerouspart,duringwhichhesailedroundtheCapeHorn.代表a11,anything,something,nothing,much等词时,用that而不用which,that作宾语可省略。例如:Icareanythingthathassomethingtodowithit.You'dbetterdosomethinghepreferstodotopleasehim.Thatisthelasttimewemeteachother.Icameacrossthewomanyoutoldmeaboutyesterday.who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人,分别作从句的主语和宾语。where是关系副词,用于表示地点的定语从句,而when用来表示时间。whose是关系代词,修饰名词作定语。例如:HenryFordisthepersonwhoismostresponsiblefordevelopingtheideaofmassproduction.Thekneeisthejointwherethethighbonemeetsthelargeboneofthelowerleg.Thenextmorning,whenshecamedowntobreakfast,Marywasbeamingwiththepleasureofanew,greatdiscovery.Thevisitingprofessorisafamousscientistwhosesonstudiesinmydepartment.41\n在下列情况,限定性定语从句的关系代词可以省略:1)当关系代词在从句中作宾语或表语;或它们在从句中作介词的宾语,而该介词又在句末时;2)当先行词是that,all,only,everything,something,nothing等代词时,或先行词前有一个最高级形容词修饰时;3)当先行词前有only,any,all,first,no,last等修饰时,或先行词就是time,moment,way(anyway),direction,distance等名词时,关系代词即可省略。例如:Thedelegationwehadbeenwaitingforfinallyarrived.Imetthewomanyoutoldmeabout.Shegavemeallshecouldafford.WithTVwecanseethingshappenalmostattheexactmomenttheyarehappening.非限定性定语从句,其作用为:对所修饰的成分作进一步的说明,它与主句用逗号隔开。此类从句省略后其余部分仍可成立。在非限定性定语从句中,which可代表前面的整个句子;代表人时只能用who,whom,而不能用that;as也可用作关系代词。例如:Thetelephone,asweknow,wastheinventionofAlexanderGrahamBell.TheLittleWhiteHouseinWarmSpringswastheGeorgiahomePresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt,whodiedthereonApril12,1945.Livinginadamphouseforalongtimeisharmfultoone’shealth,whichisknowntoeveryone.2.状语从句状语从句可分为:时间状语从句(主要由when,whenever,after,before,a5,slnce,once,assoonas,Until,while等连词引导),结果状语从句(由so…that和such…that连接),让步状语从句(由though,although,nomatter,evenif,however,whatever等词引导),原因状语从句(由as,because,since和for引导),条件状语从句(由if,whether,aslongas,providedthat等词引导),地点状语从句(由where引导),行为方式状语从句(由as引导)。有时条件状语从句中,主句不可以用将来时,而用一般时代替。例如:ThesmallgreenishflowersoftheelmtreeappearintheSpring,longbeforetheleavesgrow.QiongYao'snovelsusedtobesopopularthatherbooksappearedonbest-sellerlists.Gasballoonislesssafethanhotballoonbecauseitmaycatchfire.Uniformacceleration(同样的加速)occursiftherateofchangeremainsthesameoversuccessiveequalintervalsoftime.ThousandsofChinesecollegestudentswenttotheUSConsulateShanghai,wheretheyprotestedNATO'sbombingatChina'sEmbassyinYugoslavia.41\n状语从句中的“主语+be”可以省略,前提是:从句主语和主句主语一致,且从句谓语“be”省略后的结构为“连词+现在分词/过去分词介词短语/形容词/名词短语”。)例如:Whenwellfitted,glassescancorrectmostsightdefectsinhealthyeyes.Ifnecessary,Iwouldliketoseeyouinyouroffice.Althoughseriouslywounded,henevercomplained.3.名词从句名词从句包括主语从句、宾语从句,其中有介词与形容词的宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。主语从句主语从句常出现在itis+名词、形容词、分词+主语从句”的形式中。例如:ItisreportedthatTaiwanesepopsingerMengTingweiwillholdasoloconcertinShanghaisomedaythismonth.Itmustbepointedoutthatyouhavefailedtomeetthedeadline.ItusuallyhappenedthatIwaslatebecauseoftrafficjams.主语从句还可用when,where,how,why,whether等连接副词,和who,whom,whose,what,which,whoever,whatever,whichever等连接代词来引起。例如:Howtoarrangethemeetingisnotyourtask.Whosecandidatewillwintheelectionisthequestionbothpoliticalpartiesareasking.WhenIleaveismyowndecision.Whoeverwillgotothepartywon'tchangemymindofstayingathome.2)宾语从句宾语从句可由that,疑问代词或副词how,why和where等引出。例如:Topostponetheconferenceuntilnextmonthindicatedthattheywereunprepared.Nearlya11thestaffagreedwithwhatIsaid.Everyoneworriedaboutherbecausenoonewasawareofwhereshehadgone.Couldyouoffermoredetailsexceptthatithappenedatnight?由what,whether,how引导的宾语从句可用在介词后,而由that引导的从句只跟but,besides,except,in,save之后。例如:Icanhardlybelieveinwhattheyhavedone.Hedoesn’tknowmyphonenumberexceptthatthecitycodeis021.一些表语性的形容词,如:alarmed,amazed,annoyed,astonished,certain,confident,disappointed,glad,pleased,proud,sad,shocked,sure,surprised,worried,ect.做表语时,后面可跟由that,how等引导的宾语从句。例如:Iwasamazedhowhecouldpasstheexamwithoutattendingthelectures.41\nHeisconfidentthathewillpasstheBand6examination.Shewassurprisedhowsimplehisproblemis.Weareallpleasedthathewillbeabletopassthefinalexamination.3)表语从句表语从句对主语的内容起解释和阐述的作用;若表语从句用that引起,that起连接作用,不能省略。b表语从句也可用连接词how,when,where,why,what引起。由because引起的表语从句通常只用在“this/that/itisbecause”结构中。例如:Alogarithm(对数)iswhatisknowninalgebraexponent(代数的指数).OnethingIadmiremostaboutthemisthattheyarehospitable.Sheworkstoohard;Thatiswhysheisexhausted.Imustpointoutthatwhereyouintendtobuildasuper-marketiswheretheelderlydoexerciseeveryday.4)同位语从句同位语从句是由两个或两个以上同一层次语言单位组成的结构,其中前项与后项所指相同,句法功能相同。同位语从句由that引导,也可由whether,how,why,where,when等来引导。例如:Sheignoredtheteacher'sinstructionthatshemuststudyhard.ThequestionwhetherornotIshouldhelphiminsuchacasetroubledmegreatly.第四节动词不定式1.不定式的基本形式与结构动词不定式指通常由to加上动词原形(如towrite)所构成的一种非限定性动词形式,但在有些情况下to可以省略。动词不定式有进行体和完成体(如上tobewriting,tohavewritten),也有被动态(如tobewritten),所有的主动词,不论是及物动词还是不及物动词,也不论是动作动词还是状态动词,都有不定式形式。助动词除be和have外,没有不定式形式。动词不定式在语法功能上可作主语、宾语、表语、定语和状语。2.不定式的用法1)不定式结构作主语TegetcontactwithhisfamilyinTaiwanmadehimextremelyhappysincetheyseparatedmorethan40yearsago.Tofinishthattaskinsuchashorttimeisreallyachallenge.在上述情况下,如果不定式较长,显得头重脚轻,则可由代词让作形式主语(形式主语it不可由that或this等其他代词代替),而将不定式放到后面。如:ItmadehimextremelyhappytogetcontactwithhisfamilyinTaiwansincethey41\nseparatedmorethan40yearsago.Johnadmittedthatitisalwaysdifficultforhimtobeontime.不定式结构所表示的动作是谁做的,即不定式的逻辑主语,通常可以通过forsb.todosth.结构表达:Itisquiteimportantforustoreadgoodbooksduringageneralreview.Itisnotdifficultfotthosetalentedstudentstopasstheexam.在某些形容词(如careless,clever,considerate,foolish,good,impolite,kind,naughty,nice,silly,stupid等)作表语时,不定式后可以加of来引导出其逻辑主语:Itisverykindofyoutotellmethetruth.Itisstupidofhimtodosuchasillything.2)不定式作宾语不定式作宾语有两种:一种是及物动词后直接跟带to的不定式,另一种是“及物动词+疑问词+带to的不定式。及物动词+带to的不定式结构:只能跟动词不定式的动词,常见的有:afford,agree,aim,appear,ask,believe,care,claim,decidedemand,desire,determine,expect,fail,happen,hesitate,hope,intend,learn,long,manage,offer,pretend,promise,prepare,refuse,seek,swear,undertake,want,wish等。Hemanagedtosolvethecomplicatedproblem.Thestrangerofferedtoshowmetheway.Mr.SmithundertooktobuildanewplantinSouthAfrica.动词+疑问代(副)词+不定式:这类动词常见的有advise,decide,findout,forget,inquire,know,learn,see,regard,remember,teach,tell,understand,wonder等。常见的疑问代(副)词有:what,when,where,which,how,whether等。Hedoesnotknowwhentostart.Youcandecidewhethertocontinueortostop.Iwillshowyouhowtodealwithit.有时,不定式可由it代替,而把不定式放到后面去。这可以用这一结构表达:动词(如find,think,consider,feel等)+it+形容词+不定式。Sheconsidersitnecessarytomakefriendswithhim.Wefinditdifficulttofinishallthehomeworkbefore9o’clock.3)不定式做表语一种情况为主语是不定式(表示条件);表语也是不定式(表示结果):Toseeistobelieve.Toworkmeanstoearnaliving.41\n另一种情况为主语是以aim,duty,hope,idea,job,plan,problem,purpose,thing,wish等名词为中心的短语,或以what引导的名词性从句,不定式表语对主语起补充说明作用:Hisaimistostudyabroadinthenearfuture.Themostimportantthingistonegotiatewiththemabouttheprice.WhatIwanttosayistoforgetalltheunhappyexperience.4)不定式作定语不定式结构作名词词组修饰语主要有三种类型:第一种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑宾语。例如:Therewasreallynothingtofear.Hegavemeaninterestingbooktoread.如果不定式是不及物动词,后面就得加相应的介词。例如:Maryneedsafriendtoplaywith.Thatgirlhasnothingtoworryabout.Theyhaveastrictteachertolistento.Althoughthefilmhadbeenonfortenminutes,Istillwasnotabletofindachairtositon.第二种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的逻辑主语;例如:Haveyougotakeytounlockthedoor?Theactiontobetakeniscorrect.Thereisnothingtobegainedbypretending.第三种,被修饰的名词词组是不定式的同位结构。这类名词通常是表示企图、努力、倾向、目的、愿望、is算、能力、意向等意义的名词:ability,attempt,effort,impulse,inclination,wish等。例如:Herdaughterwillmakeanevenbiggerefforttopleaseher.Ihavenowishtoquarrelwithyou.NeitherofthemhadanyinclinationtodobusinesswithMary.5)不定式作状语不定式结构在句中作状语通常都能转换为限制性状语从句。例如作原因状语:Theyarequitesurprisedtoseethegreatchangestakingplaceinthearea.Theyarequitesurprisedbecausetheyseethegreatchangestakingplaceinthearea.Hewasluckytoarrivebeforedark.Hewasluckybecausehearrivedbeforedark.作目的状语:Sheraisedhervoicetobehearedbetter.41\nSheraisedhervoicesothatshecouldheardbetter.WewentviaHeidelbergtomissthetrafficjam.WewentviaHeidelbergsothatwecouldmissthetrafficjam.作结果状语:TheFrenchfootballteamplayedsosuccessfullyastodefeattheBrazilians.TheFrenchfootballteamplayedsosuccessfullythattheyevendefeatedtheBrazilians.Hegottothestationonlytobetoldthetrainhadgone.Hegottothestationandwastoldthatthetrainhadgone.不带to的不定式的使用动词不定式通常带to,但在有些搭配中不带to,在另一些搭配中可带to可不带to。归纳起来,以下情况下使用不带to不定式:1)在can/could,/may/might,will/would,shall/should,must,need,dare等情态动词之后,动词不定式不带to。2)在表示感觉意义的动词,如see,feel,watch,notice,smell,hear,observe等后,或是表示“致使”意义的动词,如have,let,make等后,动词不定式不带to。例如:Ioftenheardhimsaythathewouldstudyhard.Imusthavehimseehisownmistakes.但是,当这类结构转换为被动语态时,后面的不带to不定式一般转换为带to不定式。例如:Hewasoftenheardtosaythathewouldstudyhard.Afterhehadfinishedspeaking,hewasmadetoanswerinnumerablequestions.3)在动词help之后可用不带to的不定式,也可用带to的不定式。例如:Helptheoldlady(to)carrytheheavybox.4)在hadbetter,wouldrather,may/mightaswell,ratherthan,cannotbut等搭配之后,动词不定式也不带to。例如:Unlessyoufeeltoilltogoout,Iwouldrathernotstayathometonight.Shecouldnotbutcriticizehisfoolishbehaviour.5)在makedo,makebelieve,letdrop,1etfall,1etfly,letslip,letdrive,letgooff,hearsay,heartell,leavegoof等固定搭配中,用不带to的动词不定式。例如:Theyletgooftherope.他们松开了绳子。Johnletflyatorrentofabuseatme.约翰朝我痛骂了一顿。I'veheardtellofhim.我听说过他。41\nSomeofthefacultywereletgoforlackofthestudents.由于生源不足,一些教职员工被解雇了。6)在介词but,except之后,如果其前有动词do的某种形式,其后不定式一般不带to,反之则必须带to,表示“不得不,只能”。例如:Hewilldoanythingexceptworkonthefarm.Therewasnothingleftfortheenemytodobutsurrender.Thespywasbothhungryandcold;therewasnothingleftforhimbuttogivein.Ihadnochoicebuttowaittillitstoppedraining.下面一些短语是固定搭配,不带to:cannothelpbut,cannotchoosebut,cannotbut,donothingbut,havenothingtodobut。例如:Icannotbutadmirehiscourage.如果上述句中有do,to省略:IdidnothingbutwatchTVlastnight.如果是下面一个固定搭配,就带to:Ihavenochoicebuttogiveupmyidea.7)紧跟在why或whynot之后的动词不定式总是不带to。但是,紧跟在who,what,which,whether等连接词后的不定式带to。例如:Whystandupifyoucansitdown?Whynotaskyourteacherwhenyoudon'tunderstandthemeaning?Youneedn'tdecideyetwhethertostudyartsorscience.4.不定式的完成式和进行式1)构成完成式:to+havedone进行式:to+bedoing2)用法完成式:如果不定式所表示的动作(状态)发生在主要谓语动作之前,那么不定式就要用其完成式。进行式:如果主要谓语动作(情况)发生时,不定式所表示的动作正在发生,那么不定式就要用其进行式。例如:Shefeelsrelaxedtohavefinishedwritingherthesisbeforethedeadline.TheVikingsarebelievedtohavediscoveredAmerica.Whenyoucalledmelastnight,Ihappenedtobeworkingonthecomputer.5.不定式的被动形式当不定式的逻辑主语是动作的承受者时,不定式要用被动形式,包括它的一般式和完成式。例如:Fortwelveyears,SpanishcensorshipdidnotallowLorca'snametobe41\nmentionedandhisworktobepublished.Thesnowwassupposedtohavebeenblownoffthemountain.6.不定式的否定形式否定形式是在不定式的标志to前加not。例如:Idecidednottoaskhimagain.Pleaseremembernottoleavethelightsonwhenyouareout.第五节动名词1.动名词的形式:动名词是由动词原形+ing构成(如writing),有完成时态和被动语态(如havingwritten,beingwritten)。2.动名词的用法动名词通常在句中作主语和宾语。1)动名词作主语Goingtothecollegeisthelittleboy'sdream.Keepingstudyinghardwillmakeyoupasstheexam.2)动名词作宾语有些动词后面只能带动名词作宾语,不能带不定式作宾语。此类动词常见的有:admit,acknowledge,anticipate,appreciate,avoid,consider,contemplate,defer,delay,deny,detest,dislike,ensure,enjoy,escape,excuse,evade,facilitate,fancy,favour,finish,forbid,imagine,include,keep,mind,miss,postpone,practise,resent,resist,risk,suggest,quit,worth等。例如:Johnwasconsideringbuyinganewcar.Ihopeyoudidn’tcontemplatecomingwithusonthistrip.Thewitnessdeniedhavingseentheaccusedman.Iwouldappreciateyourkeepingitasecret.3)某些短语后面只能接动名词,不能接不定式。此类短语常见的有:be(get)usedto,beaccustomedto,bededicatedto,bedevotedto,bebusy,becommittedto,besujectto,cannothelp,cannotresist,cannotstand,confessto,feellike,giveup,havetrouble(in),havedifficulty(in),haveagood/hardtime(in),havefun(in),haveanobjectionto,itisnogood/use,keepon,insiston,lookforwardto,objectto,payattentionto,putoff,resortto,succeedin等。例如:Icannotstandgettingupearlyinthemorning.Ihavenodifficulty(in)reachingthetopofthemountain.Thereisnousestayingon.41\nIcannotresist(his)bargaining.Althoughpunctualhimself,theprofessorwasquiteusedtostudents’beinglateforhislecture.4)动词或短语后面也可以接动名词的被动形式。用主动形式还是被动形式,要根据句子的意思而定。例如:Carlosjustmissedbeingcaught.Thatpersonworedarkglassestoavoidbeingrecognized.Iobjecttobeingtreatedlikeachild.3.另一类动词后面可以带动名词做宾语,也可以带不定式作宾语。这类动词又可以分为两种:1)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义无多大区别的动词a)在begin,cannotbear,cease,continue,dread,like,love,neglect,omit,prefer,propose等动词之后,如表一般的行为,用动名词作宾语为多;如表示特定的或具体的动作,则用不定式结构作宾语为多。例如:Idon’tlikeswimming.Idon’tliketoswimthisafternoon.Johnprefersdoingithisway.Johnpreferstogooutingtomorrow.b)在begin,start等动词之后,如表示有意的动作,用动名词结构为多;如表示无意的动作,用不定式结构为多。例如:Aftersomehesitation,hebeganspeakingouthisownopinion.Ithasalreadybeguntorain.c)在attempt,intend,plan等动词之后,用不定式结构与用动名词结构意义相同,但以用不定式较为常见。例如:Heintendedtobuyanewcar.Heintendedtravellingabroadnextsummer.d)在encourage,permit,allow,recommend,advise,authorise等动词之后,一般用动名词作宾语,或者用不定式作宾语补足语。即:encourage/permit/allow/recommend/advise/authorise+doing,或encourage/permit/allow/recommend/advise/authorise+somebody+todo。例如:Headvisedgoingoutforawalk.Headvisedustogooutforawalk.e)在agree,decide等动词之后,可以直接跟不定式结构,但如果跟动名词,则动词后必须加适当的介词。例如:Heagreedtodomeafavor.=Heagreedondoingmeafavor.Intheendthemanagerdecidedtodoubletheadvertisingbudget.=41\nIntheendthemanagerdecidedondoublingtheadvertisingbudget.f)在need,want,require,deserve等动词之后,可以用动名词的主动形式表示被动意义,这相当于用不定式的被动形式。例如:Thehouseneedsrepairing.=Thehouseneedstoberepaired.Thedisableddeserverespecting.=Thedisableddeservetoberespected.2)带动名词作宾语与带不定式作宾语而意义不同的动词a)动词remember,forget后可以跟不定式或动名词,但意义有明显区别:跟动名词,其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之前;跟不定式,其动作发生在“记得”或“忘记”的动作之后。试比较:Irememberpostingthisletter.我记得这封信已经寄出了。Iremembertopostthisletterintheafternoon.我记得下午要将这封信寄走。b)动词regret后可以跟不定式或动名词,但意义有明显区别:regretdoing:为做过的事感到抱歉regrettodo:为即将要做的事感到抱歉试比较:IregrettosaythatIcannotgowithyouafterschool.Iregrethavingcriticizedyouseriouslyinclass.c)动词try,mean,cannothelp,usedto后跟不定式还是动名词,取决于这些动词本身的含义。例如:Youshouldtrytoanswerthequestionsbyyourself.(trytodo:设法或努力去做)Wetryusingthisnewmethod.(trydoing:试着做某事)ImeanttogototheexhibitionbutIforgot.(meantodo:is算做某事)Successmeansworkingvery,veryhard.(meandoing:意味着做某事)Ican'thelpapologizing.(cannothelpdoing:忍不住做某事)Ican'thelptoapologizeforhim.(cannothelptodo:不能帮助做某事)Mr.Smithusedtojoginthemorning,butnowhehasstopped.(usedtodo:过去经常或总是干某事)Inlandcanalsareusedtoshipfarmandfactorygoodstonearbytowns.(beusedtodo:被用来干某事)Iamnotusedtogettingupearlyinthemorning.(be/getusedtodoing:习惯于干某事)d)动词stop,continue,goon,leaveoff之后,通常用动名词结构作宾语;如果用不定式结构,则不是宾语而是目的状语,相当于inorderto。试比较:Theystoppedworking.他们停止工作(来做其他事)。Theystoppedtowork。他们停止(做其他事)来工作。Thestudentswentonrecitingthetext.学生们继续背诵课文。Thestudentswentontorecitethetext.学生们停下其他事,继续背诵课文。41\nSheletoffdoingthehousework.她停止做家务(去干其他事)。Sheletofftodothehousework.她停止(干其他事)来做家务。动名词的逻辑主语问题动名词,顾名思义,具有名词的特点,即可以加物主代词和名词的属格来表示其逻辑(这时动名词的逻辑主语与句子主语不一致)。如果动名词的逻辑主语就是句子主语,不用加物主代词或名词的属格。例如:Thewatchmanreportedfindingthedooropen.=Thewatchmanreportedthathehadfoundthedooropen.此处,finding的主语与主句主语一致,都是thewatchman,所以finding前不加物主代词。Iappreciatedverymuchyourhelpingmethroughthetoughperiod.此处,helping的主语是you,而主句的主语是I,两者不一致,所以helping前的物主代词your不能省略。一般说来,能带动名词作宾语的动词都可以根据语义意图在动名词之前加上或略去主语。但有些动词,如excuse,forgive,pardon等,其后的动名词结构总是带有逻辑主语。这些逻辑主语通常由名词或代词宾格表示,也可由名词属格或形容词性物主代词表示。Idomindpeoplesmokinginpublicplaces.(名词宾格作逻辑主语)Wedon'tunderstandhimneedingsomuchmoney.(代词宾格作逻辑主语)Iwillneverforgivehisbetrayingmebybreakinghispromise.(物主代词作逻辑主语)Maryexcusedtheboy’supsettingtheink.(名词属格作逻辑主语)第六节分词1.分词的形式这里所讲的分词包括-ing分词和-ed分词,即传统意义上的现在分词和过去分词。现在分词由动词原形+-ing构成(如listening);过去分词通常由动词原形+-ed构成(如listened),但也有不规则形式(如go-gone)。现代英语的绝大多数都是规则动词,不规则的只是少数。2.分词的基本用法分词在句中通常可以用作表语、定语、补语和状语。下面按照现在分词和过去分词的用法分别作介绍。现在分词的基本用法:现在分词表示主动的意义;表示一般性的或正在进行的动作;在表现形式上有“一般式”和“完成式”与“主动式”和“被动式”之分,1)作表语现在分词作表语通常表示主语所具有的特征。例如:41\nThisstoryisquiteinteresting.Thejourneywithoutyouwillbeboring.2)作定语现在分词可以单独作定语,也可以构成合成词作定语,但在更多情况下是分词短语作定语,包括限定性和非限定性(用逗号与其他部分分开),在意义上相当于一个定语从句。现在分词作定语通常带有主动意义和未完成意义。例如:Themanfollowingwasobviouslyinahurry.(现在分词单独作定语)Theyactedjustlikeaconqueringarmy.(现在分词单独作定语)Doyouknowthemanstandingovertherebythedoor?(分词短语作限定性定语)Lastnight,wecaughtathiefstealingJohn’sbike.(分词短语作限定性定语)ThenameNebraskecomesfromtheOtoIndianword“ebrathka”,meaningflatwater.(分词短语作非限定性定语)3)作宾语补足语a.表示感觉和心理状态的动词,如hear,feel,find,listento,lookat,watch,notice,observe,smell,see等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如:Inoticedhimslippingawaybeforetheendofthemeeting.Icansmellturkeyroasting,andit'smakingmehungry.b.表示“致使”等意义的动词,如catch,get,have,keep,leave,set等词的宾语可以用现在分词作宾语补足语。例如:WhatIsawjustnowsetmethinkingofmychildhoodinthecountryside.Pleasedon'tkeepthemachinerunningwhileyouareaway.4)作状语现在分词作状语表示主语在进行一动作的同时所进行的另一动作,它对谓语动词起修饰或陪衬的作用。这时要注意现在分词与其逻辑主语在时态和意义上的统一。例如:Rushingoutoftheroom,hewasknockeddownbyacar.(作时间状语)=Whenherushedoutoftheroom,hewasknockeddownbyacar.Workingharder,youwillpasstheentranceexam.(作条件状语)=Ifyouworkharder,youwillpasstheentranceexam.Shesatatawindow,readingabook.(作伴随状语)=Shesatatawindowandreadabook.Havingwonthechampionship,hewasawardedamilliondollars.(作原因状语)=Becausehehadwonthechampionship,hewasawardedamilliondollars.41\nEveniftakingataxi,Iwillstillbelateforthemeeting.(作让步状语)=Eveniftakeataxi,Iwillstillbelateforthemeeting.Theroadisunderconstruction,thuscausingthedelay.(作结果状语)=Theroadisunderconstruction,andthuscausedthedelay.注意,当现在分词作让步状语时,一般放在句首,常常由although,though,evenif,unless等连词引入;作结果状语时,一般放在句末,前面可以加so,thus,hence,thereby等副词。过去分词的基本用法:与现在分词不同,过去分词表示被动的意义,表示已经完成和被动的动作。在表现形式上,只有一种形式。1)作表语过去分词作表语表示主浯所处的状态。用作表浯的过去分词大多来自及物动词;不及物动词的过去分词能作表语的只限于少数表示位置转移的动词,如go,come,assemble等,它们用在连系动词之后,表示完成意义,无被动意义。例如:Themanlookedquitedisappointed.Heisgreatlydiscouragedbyherrefusal.Hishairisnearlyallgone.已经形容词化了的过去分词大多可作表语,常见的有:accomplished,amazed,amused,astonished,broken,closed,completed,complicatcd,confused,crowded,devoted,disappointed,discouraged,drunk,excited,frightened,hurt,interested,lost,satisfied,surprised,worried等。做定语a)前置定语的过去分词通常来自及物动词,带有被动意义和完成意义。例如:Welikeskatinginthefrozenlakeinthewinter.=Welikeskatinginthelakewhichhasbeenfrozeninthewinter.Howmanyfinishedproductshaveyougotuptonow?=Howmanyproductsthathavebeenfinishedhaveyougotuptonow?来自不及物动词的过去分词很少能单独用作前置定语,能作这样用的仅限以下几个词,这时仅表示完成意义,不表示被动意义:aretiredworker=aworkerwhohasretiredanescapedprisoner=aprisonerwhohasescapedafaded/witheredflower=aflowerthathasfadedtherisensun=thesunthathasjustrisenareturnedstudent=astudentwhohasreturnedvanishedtreasure=treasurethathasvanished41\nb)用作后置定语的过去分词通常也来自及物动词,表示被动意义和完成意义。这时相当于一个定语从句。例如:Thingsseenarebetterthanthingsheard.=Thingswhichareseenarebetterthanthingswhichareheard.Thelobsterbroiledovercharcoalwasdelicious.=Thelobsterwhichwasbroiledovercharcoalwasdelicious.做宾语补足语a)see,hear,feel,find,think等表示感觉和心理状态的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如:Tomfoundhimselfinvolvedinanawkwardsituation.IsawTomdressedlikeabeggarinthestreet.Everybodythoughtthematchlostuntilthelastminute.d)make,get,have,keep等表示“致使”意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如:Ihavemyclotheswashedeveryday.Don'tgetyourschedulechanged;staywithusintheclass.He’stryingtomakehimselfunderstood.Pleasekeepusinformedofthelatestprice.c)like,want,wish,order等表示希望、要求、命令等意义的动词可以带过去分词作宾语补足语。例如:Wedon'tlikesuchtopics(tobe)discussedinclass.Iwishthisproblem(tobe)solvedthisweek.4)作状语用作状语的过去分词通常来自及物动词。过去分词用作状语时,修饰主句的谓语动词,意义上相当于状语从句,表示时间、条件、原因、伴随状况等。过去分词作状语,前边往往可以加when,while,if,asif,though。一般说来,这种结构的逻辑主语必须与主句的主语一致。例如:Wheneverpraised,sheblushes.(作时间状语)=Wheneversheispraised,sheblushes.United,westand;divided,wefall.(作条件状语)=Ifweareunited,westand;Ifwearedivided,wefall.Writteningreathaste,thisbookisfulloferrors.(作原因状语)=Becausethisbookiswritteningreathaste,itisfulloferrors. Marywasreadingalovestory,completelylosttotheromanticlife.(作伴随状浯)=Marywasreadingalovestory,andwascompletelylosttotheromanticlife.AlthoughborninGermany,JohnlivesandworksinU.S.A.(作让步状语)41\n=AlthoughJohnwasborninGermany,helivesandworksinU.S.A.3.分词的完成式及被动式前面提到过,过去分词只有一种形式,所以这里所讲的完成式及被动式均指现在分词的完成式及被动式。如果现在分词表示的是一般性动作,不表明动作的先后或与谓语动作同时发生,这时要用现在分词的一般形式。例如:Livinginthedowntown,wefoundalotofamusements.如果现在分词所表示的动作先于句子谓语发生,就要用现在分词的完成式“(not)having+过去分词”。例如:Havingheardfrommyfather,Iwasrelieved.Nothavingreceivedanyletterfrommyfamily,Iwasworried.如果现在分词的逻辑主语是现在分词所表示的动作的对象,则要用现在分词的被动形式,包括其一般形式“(not)being+过去分词”和其完成形式“(not)havingbeen+过去分词”。例如:Uponbeingquestioned,hedeniedhavingrobbedthebank.Thenewmethod,havingbeenwidelyusedabroad,canincreasetheworkingefficiency.4.分词独立结构如果过去分词或现在分词带有与句子主语不同的主语,这就构成了独立结构,也叫独立主格结构或垂悬结构,通常在句中起状语丛句的作用,表示原因、时间、条件、方式或伴随状况。例如:Theholidaysbeingover,theybegantogetdowntodotheirworkagain.(原因状语)=Astheholidaywasover,theybegantogetdowntodotheirworkagain.Allthingsconsidered,herpaperisofgreatervaluethanyours.(条件状语)=Allthingsareconsidered,herpaperisofgreatervaluethanyours.Hishomeworkdone,Johanwentouttoplay.(时间状语)=Afterhishomeworkhadbeendone,Johanwentouttoplay.Thegirlwassmilingsweetly,herlonghairflowinginthebreeze.(伴随状语)当独立结构表示伴随状况时,可变为由with引导的介词词组,而表示否定意义的类似结构便可由without引导。例如上例可变为:Thegirlwassmilingsweetlywithherlonghairflowinginthebreeze.Withoutanyonenoticing,Islippedoutoftheroom.独立结构的位置比较灵活,它可以置于句首、句中或句末。另外,独立结构中用作主语的名词之前的限定词有时可以省略。例如:Themanagersatquietlyinhisoffice,(his)eyesclosed.Hestoodinthedoorway,(his)wetcloakdrippingwaterontherug,andwaited41\nforsomesignofrecognition.第七节前后呼应主谓一致的基本原则主谓一致有以下三条原则:1)语法一致原则,即在语法形式上取得一致。例如,主语是单数形式,谓语动词也采取单数形式;主语是复数形式,谓语动词也采取复数形式。例如:Thestudentsareveryyoung.Thispicturelooksbeautiful.2)意义一致原则,即从意义着眼处理一致关系。例如,主语形式虽是单数但意义是复数,谓语动词也采取复数形式;而有些主语形式虽是复数但意义上看作单数,谓语动词也采取单数形式。Thepeopleinthatcountryarefightingforindependence.Thecrowddeeplyrespecttheirleader.Threeyearsinastrangelandseemsalongtime.3)就近原则,即谓语动词的单数或复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。例如:NeitherhenorIamgoingtoseethefilmtonightbecausewearebusy.2.主谓一致的用法根据以上三条原则,主谓一致有如下用法:1)下列结构作主语,谓语动词一般用单数形式a.表示时间、重量、长度、价值的名词作主语,谓语动词通常用单数形式。例如:Twohundredmilesisalongdistance.Tendollarsisahighpriceforthatbook.b.由anyone,anything,anybody,noone,nothing,everyone,everybody,everything,someone,somebody,each,either,neither等不定代词作主语,谓语动词使用单数形式。例如:Someoneisknockingatthedoor.Anythingisbetterthangoingtothemovietonight.c.由“aseriesof,akindof,aportionof+名词”作主语,谓语动词应用单数形式。例如:Aseriesofdebatesisscheduledtobeheldnextweek.d.由“manya,morethanone+单数名词”作主语,尽管意义上表示复数,但谓语动词仍采用单数形式。例如:Manyapersoninthesecircumstanceshashopedforalongbreak.Thereismorethanoneanswertoyourquestion.e.“名词+and+名词”作主语,表示同一人、同一概念或事物时,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:41\nAwriterandeducatorisgivingalecturenow.(这个人既是作家又是教育家)f.“either(neither)+of+复数名词(或代词)”作主语,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:Ifeitherofyoutakesavacationnow,wewillnotbeabletofinishthework.Neitherofthemwantstocome.g.在each…andeach…,every…andevery…等结构之后,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:Eachmanandeachwomanhastherighttovote.h.动词不定式、动名词或分句作主语时,谓语动词一般用单数形式。例如:WhatIwanttosayisnoneofyourbusiness.Listeningtotheclassicalmusicisenjoyable.i.以-ics结尾的复数名词指一门学科时,如politics(政治学),mathematics(数学),statistics(统计学),acoustics(声学),linguistics(语言学)等,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:Mathematicsiswhathemajorsin.2)下列结构作主语,谓语动词单复数形式取决于of后的名词。a.由“a11,none,no,most,half,thelast,therest,theremainder+of+名词”等不定代词作主语,谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如:Noneofthefoodiswasted.Noneofthestudentswereabsent.Therestofthelecturewasdull.Therestofthebikeswereonsaleyesterday.b.由"lotsof,heapsof,loadsOf,scadsof+名词”作主语,谓语动词单复数形式由of后名词的单复数而定。例如:Lotsofworkistobedonethisweek.Lotsofpeoplearegoingtoswimthisafternoon.Thereisloadsofmilkonthefarm.Thereareloadsofbigredapplesontheground.Thereisheapsoffun.c.由“分数或百分数十of+名词或代词”作主语,谓语动词的单复数形式取决于of后名词或代词的单复数形式。例如:Three-quartersoftheareaiscultivated.Ninetypercentofthestudentshavepassedtheexam.3)下列结构作主语,谓语动词的单复数形式根据意义而定。a.由“the+形容词”这种结构作主语,根据意义一致的原则决定谓语动词的单复数形式。如果表示一类人(如therich,thepoor,theblind,the41\ndeaf,thesick,theyoung,theold),谓语动词用复数形式;如果表示个人或抽象概念,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:Theblindaretaughttradesinspecialschools.(表示一类人)Thegoodinhimoverweighsthebad.(表示抽象概念)Thedepartedwasagoodfriendofhis.(表示个人)b.family,crowd,committee,class,audience,group,government,team,public,majority,minority等集合名词作主语,谓语动词单复数形式应根据意义而定。例如:Thefamilyliketolistentothemusic.(thefamily指这家人,用作复数)Thefamilyissmall.(thefamily指这个家庭,用作单数)Thecommitteehasconsideredyourproposal.(thecommittee指委员会,用作单数)Thecommitteewerearguingforanhourbeforetheygavetheirvotes.(thecommittee指委员会的委员们,用作复数)下列结构作主语,谓语动词一般单复数均可。a.以数词为名词词组中心词作主语时,谓语动词一般单复数均可。例如:Fiveandsixmake/makeseleven.Seventimestenareseventy.但是:Twentyfromthirtyleavesten.Sixsevensareforty-two.b.由"onein/outof+名词”作主语,谓语动词单复数均可。例如:Oneintenwere/waspresent.下列结构作主语,谓语动词用复数形式。由and或both…and连接两个单数形式的名词词组作主语时,一般谓语动词用复数形式。例如:Agirlandaboywanttogo.Bothriceandwheataregrowninthatcountry.6)下列结构作主语,谓语动词单复数形式视具体情况而定。a.由aswellas,togetherwith,besides,like,alongwith,withbut,except,accompaniedby,ratherthan,including连接两个名词作主语,谓语单复数形式应由连接词前的名词而定。例如:Thepresidentofthecollege,togetherwiththedeans,isplanningaconferenceforthepurposeoflayingdowncertainregulations.Theyoungmotherwithhertwochildreniscomingnow.Theplantmanager,likemanytechnicians,isexperiencedindesigningnewproducts.b.“名词+of+名词”41\n作主语,谓语动词单复数形式跟of前的名词一致。例如:Thepictureofthechildrenbringsbackmanymemoriesofmypastexperiences.Theeffectsofcigarettesmokinghavebeenprovedtobeextremelyharmful.c.由notonly…butalso,either…or,neither…nor或or连接的并列主语,通常根据就近一致原则,谓语动词的单复数形式由最接近它的名词词组的单复数形式决定。例如:Heoryouhavetakenmypen.Neitherthestudentsnortheteacherknowsanythingaboutit.Oneortwodaysareenoughtovisitthecity.d.therebe句型中的谓语动词单复数形式一般取决于其后的真正主语的单复数形式。例如:Thereisagardeninfrontofthehouse.TherearetwothingsI'dliketosayhere.7)关于几对容易混淆词组的一致用法a.由"this/thatkind/typeof+名词”作主语,谓语动词用单数形式;而由"these/thosekind/typeof+复数名词”作主语,谓语动词用复数形式。例如:Thiskindofapplesishighlypriced.Thosekind(s)oftestsaregood.b.由“anumberof,atotalof,anaverageof+复数名词”作主语,谓语动词用复数形式;由“thenumberof,thetotalof,theaverageof+复数名词”作主语,谓语动词用单数形式。例如:Anumberofstudentsarewaitingforthebus.Thenumberofthestudentsinthisuniversityisincreasingyearly.c.oneof,the(only)oneof的一致用法Thisisoneofthebooksthathavebeenrecommended.Thisisthe(only)oneofthebooksthathasbeenrecommended.3.前后呼应的用法1)当everyone,everybody,noone,nobody,anyone,anybody,someone,somebody,everything,anything,something,nothing等用作主语时,其相应的代词一般用单数形式。例如:Ifanybodycalls,tellhimthatI'mout.Somethingstrangehappened,didn'tit?Everypassengerhastocarryhisownluggage.2)人称代词与名词的呼应:人称代词I(me),he(him),she(her),it(it)都是代替前面的单数名词,而they(them),we41\n(us)则是代替复数名词的,you既可以代表单数,也可以代表复数。但表示泛指的时候,用he或one来表示。例如:Ifayoungpersonentersaclassicalmusicfieldonlyformoney,heisinthewrongprofession.Theleavesoftheredmaplearehighlypoisonoustohorsesandwheningestedcankillthemwithinfifteenhours。3)物主代词与名词的呼应:my,our,his,her,its,their要与代替的名词在数上一致。例如:Thewelfaredepartment,aswellastheothersocialservices,willhaveitsbudgetcut.Delphinsarewarm-blooded;thatis,theirbodytemperaturealwaysstaysaboutthesame,regardlessofthesurroundings.4)反身代词与其所代成分间的呼应。Manyprimitivepeoplebelievedthatbyeatingananimaltheycouldgetsomeofthegoodqualitiesofthatanimalforthemselves.Everybodyclingstothisillusionabouthimself.Ihavejustbeenouttogetmyselfacupoftea.5)指示代词与所代名词间的呼应:this和that指代单数名词或不可数名词,these和those指代复数名词(those还可以用作先行词,引导定语从句,表示“那些人”)。例如:Sheinvitedallthosewhohadbeenherformercolleagues.Theamountofthepressurecausedbytheweightofacolumnoffluidisdeterminedbytheheightofthiscolumn.6)much和muchof后接不可数名词,而many和manyof后接可数名词的复数。例如:Thereisnotmuchcoalleft.Agreatmanyofthehouseswereknockeddownbytheearthquake.7)表示量的词后面有的接可数名词,有的接不可数名词。接可数名词的有:anumberof,arangeof,aseriesof十复数名词;接不可数名词的有:agreatdealof,anamountof十不可数名词;既可接可数又可接不可数名词的有:alotof,avarietyof。例如:Thegovernmentattachedagreatdealofimportancetoeducation.Quiteanumberofwomenappliedforthisjob.Thecollegelibraryhasavarietyofbooks.Anappleisavarietyoffruit.Awiderangeofdisorderscanaffectthehumanmuscularsystem.41\n第八节.反意疑问句1.反意疑问句的形式反意疑问句一般有以下四种形式:肯定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如:Thispencilisred,isn'tit?否定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如:Thispencilisn'tred,isit?肯定陈述句+肯定反意疑问。例如:Thispencilisred,isit?否定陈述句+否定反意疑问。例如:Thispencilisn'tred,isn'tit?前两种形式是主要的,后两种不常见。2.反意疑问句的用法1)当陈述部分是therebe句型时,反意疑问部分的主语用there。例如:Therearen’talotofflowersinthegardeninwinter,arethere?Thereexisteddifferentopinionsonthisissue,didn’tthere?2)当陈述部分是以不定代词one作主语时,反意疑问部分的主语在正式场合用one,在非正式场合用you。例如:Onecannotsucceedatthis,canone?Onecannotsucceedatthis,canyou?3)当陈述部分是I’m…结构时,反意疑问部分一般用aren'tI。例如:Iamastudent,aren’tI?4)当陈述部分是一个带有that引导的宾语从句的复合结构时,反意疑问部分一般根据主句的主语和谓语动词而定。例如:Youtoldme(that)Ihadpassedtheexam,didn’tyou?Hesaysthateverybodyinourclasswillattendthemeeting,doesn’the?但是,当陈述部分的主句是Ithink,Isuppose,Ibelieve等结构时,反意疑问部分则往往由that从句中的主语和谓语动词决定,并且要注意否定的转移。例如:Ibelieve(that)itisgoingtorain,isn’tit?Idon'tthink(that)hewillcome,willhe?5)当陈述部分的谓语动词是have时,反意疑问部分要根据have的意义及形式而定。a.当have表示“所有”含义时,反意疑问可以用have形式,也可以用do形式。例如:Hehasabookinhishand,hasn'the?Hehasabookinhishand,doesn’the?41\nb.当陈述部分的动词是have的否定形式时,反意疑问部分是用have形式还是用do形式,取决于陈述部分的动词形式。例如:Youhaven'tacar,haveyou?Youdon'thaveanymoneywithyou,doyou?c.当have不表示“所有”含义而表示其他含义时,反意疑问句则必须用do的形式。例如:Wehadagoodtimeinthevacation,didn’twe?Hehashisbreakfastatseveneveryday,doesn’the?Youhavetogetupearlytomorrow,don’tyou?6)当陈述部分带有never,nothing,nowhere,seldom,hardly,rarely,few,little等否定词或半否定词时,反意疑问部分的动词用肯定形式。例如:Thesummitmeetingnevertookplace,didit?Youcanhardlybelievewhathesaid,canyou?Thereislittleinkinthebottle,isthere?Fewpeopleknowthisplace,dothey?当陈述部分的谓语动词是带有un-,in-,im-,dis-等否定前缀的动词,则仍然把陈述部分看作肯定句,那么反意疑问部分用否定形式。例如:Heisimpolitetotheteacher,isn’the?Hedistrustedanybodyaroundhim,didn’the?当陈述部分带有情态动词oughtto时,反意疑问部分在英式英语中用oughtto形式,在美式英语中用should形式。例如:Yououghttoseethenewpicture,shouldn’tyou?Teachersoughttobehonoured,oughtn’tthey?8)当陈述部分带有情态动词usedto时,反意疑问部分可以用usedto形式,也可以用did形式。例如:Sheusedtoliveabroad,usedn’tshe?Thereusedtobeanewsstandinthecornerofthestreet,didn’tthere?当陈述部分带有情态动词must时,反意疑问部分需视must的含义而定。a.当must表示“命令或强制”时,反意疑问部分用mustn't。例如:Youmustdoitbyyourself,mustn’tyou?b.当must表示“有必要”时,反意疑问部分用needn't。例如:Youmustseehimtonight,needn’tyou?c.当must表示“一定”或“想必”等推测意义时,反意疑问部分不用mustn't,而要根据must后的动词形式而定。例如:Hemustbecrazytodoso,isn’the?Shemusthavebeenthereforalongtime,hasn’tshe?Theymusthavestayedathomelastnight,didn’tthey?41\n10)当陈述部分带有need时,反意疑问部分需视need的含义而定。如果need用作情态动词,则反意疑问部分用need形式;如果need用作实义动词,表示“需要”,则反意疑问部分用do形式。例如:Youneedn'tgothere,needyou?Sheneedstogothere,doesn’tshe?Plantsneedsuntogrow,don’tthey?11)当陈述部分带有I'dbetter或I’drather时,反意疑问部分用hadn't或wouldn't。例如:You'dbetterfinishthetaskbeforetomorrow,hadn’tyou?He’dratherstaywithus,wouldn'the?12)当陈述部分是祈使句时,反意疑问部分一般用willyou,won'tyou,wouldyou。例如:Don'tbetoolate,willyou?Closethedoor,won’tyou?Comehere,willyou?Openyourbooks,wouldyou?12)陈述部分是以Let’s开头的祈使句时,反意疑问部分用shallwe;若是以Letus开头的祈使句,反意疑问部分则用willyou。例如:Let’shaveapartytonight,shallwe?Letushavealookatyourpictures,willyou?注意,如果祈使句是否定形式,那么反意疑问句只能用willyou。例如:Don'tforgettobringyournotebooksheretomorrow,willyou?第九节强调句这里讲的强调句主要是以it为引导词的分裂句。它的结构形式是:It+be的一定形式+被强调成分+that-/who-分句(只有当被强调成分是句子的人称主语时,连接词才可以用who,此时也可以用that:其余情况下只能用that)。通过这种结构可以强调除谓语动词外的大多数句子成分。例如:ItwasMarythat/whoneededthecash.ItwasthecashthatMaryneeded.ItwasfromHenrythatJohnboughtthecar.ItwasthecarthatJohnboughtfromHenry.此结构可以强调多种多样的状语成分,例如强调时间状语、地点状语、方式状语,也可以强调由because引导的原因状语分句,但不可以强调由since/as引导的原因状语分句,也不可以强调由although和whereas引导的从属或并列分句。例如:Itwasbeforeliberationthatourpeoplesufferedfromtheimperialist41\naggression.ItisinIranthatthefamilymembersparticipateintheweddingpreparations.Itwasbecausehe'dneverhadtheopportunitythatJohnhadn'tlearnedtodrive.如果要强调谓语动词,通常采用另一种句型:主语通常是由what引导的名词性分句;分句的主动词通常是do的一定形式;主语补语通常是不定式结构,可带to,也可不带to。例如:Thepupilselectedhimmonitoroftheclass。强调谓语动词elected,变为:Whatthepupilsdidwaselect/toelecthimmonitoroftheclass.第十节虚拟语气虚拟语气是说话人为表示一种假设的情况或一种主观的愿望,即认为动词所表示的动作或状态并非事实或主观设想时所用的语气。虚拟语气的形式与用法:1.有一类虚拟语气的形式称为be型虚拟式,即不管主语是什么人称,动词一律用原形(或should+动词原形)。以下几种情况必须用be型虚拟式:1)一些表示命令,要求,决定,建议等概念的动词后由that引导的宾语从句中,必须用be型虚拟式。这类动词有:ask(要求),advise(建议),command(命令),decide(决定),demand(命令),insist(坚持),move(提议),order(命令),propose(提议),recommend(建议),request(要求),require(要求),suggest(建议),urge(极力主张)。例如:Westronglysuggestthathe(should)betoldaboutitearlier.Thedoctorinsistedthathispatienttakeiteasyforthreemonths.Irequirethattheycomebyten.Irecommendedthateachcompetitorreceive$100.Thejudgeorderedthatthewitnesstellthetruth.2)一些表示主张、要求、命令、愿望、建议等概念后的主语从句中,必须用be型虚拟式。此类词主要有:Itisnecessary,essential(重要的),advisable(应该的),appropriate(合适的),desirable(值得的),fitting(合适的),important(重要的),imperative(必须的),obligatory(必须的),proper(适当的),strange(奇怪的),urgent(紧要的),vital(极重要的)that…;Itis(was,hasbeen)suggested(decided,desired,ordered,proposed,requested)that…例如:Itishighlydesirablethatanewpresidentbeappointed.Itisimportantthateverybodyhavehishealthcheckedyearly.41\nIthinkitadvisablethatheleavesoon.Itisdecidedthatyoubethefirstonetodotheexperiment.3)一些表示主张、要求、命令等概念的名词后面由that引导的同位语从句中,通常用be型虚拟式。这类词主要有:advice,command,importance,idea,insistence,motion(提议),necessity,order,plan,proposal(建议),recommendation(建议),request,requirement,resolution(决议),suggestion,understanding(协议)。例如:Mysuggestionisthathebesenttohelpthisgroup.4)在lest,forfearthat或incase表示“生怕,以防万一,免得”引导的从句中,从句常常用should。例如:Hestudieddayandnight,lestheshouldfailinthetest.Wedarenotplayjokesonhimforfearthatheshouldbecomeangry.Bequietincaseyoushouldwakethebaby.5)某些表示祝愿、诅咒、禁止等的语句中用be型虚拟式。例如:Godblessyou!Goddamnyou!LongliveChairmanMao!Heavenforbid!2.下列两种句型,从句总是用一般过去式表示虚拟语气。1)Itis(high)timethat(该做……,必须做……),丛句用一般过去时。例如:Itistimethathewenttobednow.Itishightimethatthiswrongspendingwaschecked.2)wouldrather,wouldsooner,hadrather这些表示“宁愿”的短语后面的从句中的谓语动词应使用一般过去时表示虚拟语气。例如:Don'tcometoday.1wouldratheryoucametomorrow.Hehadratherhischildrendidn’tmakesomuchnoise.Iwouldsoonerwehaddinnernow.3.If引导的条件状语从句的虚拟语气用法If引导的从句的虚拟语气主要有三种结构:1)与现在情况相反:主句谓语用“would/could/might+动词原形”,从句谓浯用“动词的一般过去式”(be的过去式一律用were)。例如:IfIhadtime,Iwouldgowithyou.IfIwereyou,Imightrefusetheengagement.2)与过去情况相反:主句谓语用"would/could+havedone'’,从句渭语用“动词的过去完成式”。例如:IfIhadn’tlostmyway,Iwouldhavecaughtthelasttrain.Theywouldhavearrivedearlieriftherehadbeennostorm.41\n3)与将来情况相反:主句谓语用"would/could/might+动词原形”,从句谓语用"wereto/should+动词原形”。例如:IfyouweretoseeMary,whatwouldyoutellher?IfIweretodoit,Iwoulddoitinadifferentway.Ifitshouldraintomorrow,Iwouldstayathome.4)省略if的虚拟语气句。虚拟条件从句中的谓语动词如果是were,should,had等词时,可以省略连词if,但必须将were,should,had等词移至主浯前形成句子倒装。例如:Hadhebeengivensomeinformationaboutit,hecouldhaveansweredthequestion.Wereyoutogetupearlier,youwouldn’tbelate.4.Wish后的宾语从句中的虚拟语气用法动词wish后跟由that引导的宾语从句(that经常被省略)要用虚拟浯气表示一种不可实现的愿望。1)宾语从句用过去式表示与现在事实相反。例如:IwishIhadenoughtimetofinishmyhomeworktoday.MybrotherisinEuropeonvacation,butIwishhewereherewithme.2)宾浯从句用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。例如:Iwish1hadgonetothemovieswithyoulastnight.IwishProfessorLeehadtaughtmethisequation.3)宾语从句用“would/could+动词原型”表示一种愿望或要求。例如:Iwishthatyouwouldcomenexttime.Shewishesthatyoucouldstayherelonger.5.由asif/asthough引导的状语从句表示方式时,意思是“好像”,这时从句中的谓语动词应用虚拟语气。1)状语从句用过去式(be用were的形式)表示与现在的事实相反。例如:HetreatsmeasifIwereastranger.2)状语从句用过去完成式表示与过去的事实相反。例如:HetalkedasifhehadbeentoAustralia.6.介词或介词短语表示虚拟:有时假设的情况并不以条件从句表示出来,而是通过一个介词或介词短语来表示,或通过上下文表示出来。如butfor,butthat,with,without,otherwise,oncondition(that),incaseof,supposing,ontheunderstandingthat等表示让步假设。例如:IfIhadn’tgotyourhelp,Iwouldn'thavefoundmypresentjob.=Withoutyourhelp,Iwouldn'thavefoundmypresentjob.=Butforyourhelp,1wouldn'thavefoundmypresentjob.=Butthatyouhelpedme,Iwouldn'thavefoundmypresentjob.41\n7.错综虚拟条件句:一般来说,主句和从句的谓语动词形式应前后呼应。但是有时主句和从句的动作发生的时间不一致,谓语动词的形式应作相应的调整,如:从句用过去虚拟语气,主句用现在虚拟语气(通常可以根据时间状语而定)。Haditnotbeenforthetimelyinvestmentfromthegeneralpublic,ourcompanywouldnotbesothrivingasitis.IfPaulhadreceivdsixmorevotesinthelastelection,hewouldbeourchairmannow.Ifyouhadstudiedtheproblemcarefullyyesterday,youwouldnotfindanydifficultynow.8.此外,还有省略了结果主句的虚拟语气ifonly结构,一般表示愿望。ifonly从句中的时态有三种:V+ed;be用were;情态动词用could/would/might+v。例如:Ifonlyhesawmenow!要是他现在能看到我那该多好!Ifonlyshehadnotbeenmarried!要是她没有结过婚就好了!Ifonlythecommitteewouldapprovetheregulationsandputtheminto第十一节、倒装倒装(inversion)是一种语法手段,用以表示一定句子结构的需要和强调某一句子成分的需要。英语的最基本的结构是主、谓结构,倒装就是将这种比较固定的词序加以颠倒。倒装有两种。将主语和谓语完全颠倒过来,叫做完全倒装(completeinversion)。如:Howgoesthetime?Thenbeganabitterwarbetweenthetwocountries.于是两国之间开始了恶战。只将助动词(包括情态动词)移至主语之前,叫做部分倒装。如:Atnotimewastheentranceleftunguarded.Seldomhavewefeltascomfortableashere.我们难得像在这里这么舒服。句子结构需要的倒装。为了句子结构的需要而进行倒装的情况有下列几种。1)疑问句。如:Areyoufromhere?Whowasthat?2)祝愿句。如:Longlivepeace!Mayyousucceed!Sobeit.就这样吧。3)某些感叹句。如: Theregoesthebell.打铃了。41\nHerecomesthebus!Judith,howlovelyareyou![注]由副词there和here引导的倒装感叹句不可用人称代词,如不可说Herecomeshe.而须说Herehecomes。4)There+be结构。如:Therelivedanoldpeasantinthathouse.Thereseemstobesomemisunderstandingaboutthematter.5)其直接引语位于句首的陈述句。如:“It’stoolate,”saidMillian.“ThisisthehousewhereShakespearewasborn,”saidGeorge.6)地点状语位于句首、主语为名词而谓语为不及物动词的陈述句。如:Fromthewindowcamesoundofmusic.7)某些条件从句。如:HadIthetime,Iwouldgo.Wereyouinmyposition,youwoulddothesame.She’llbesixteencomeMay.到5月她就16岁了。Allright,ifstayyoumust,goandsitdownproperlyoverthere.好吧,如你必须留下,那你就在那里坐好。8)某些让步从句。如:LookasIwouldupanddown,Icouldseenohumanbeing.我尽管望上望下,还是看不到一个人。Toilashewould,hemightfall,andgodownandbedestroyed!他尽管苦干,还是可能失败、沉沦而被毁灭!Changeyourmindasyouwill,youwillgainnoadditionalsupport.你即使改变主意,也不会再得到援助。9)代词so,neither,nor等副词置于句首时,全句常需倒装。如:Ifyoucandoit,socanI.Ifyoudon'tgo,neithershallI.Idon'tknow,nordoIcare.10)Never,seldom,little,nor,hardly,scarcely,nosooner,notonly等表否定的副词或连词位于句首时,全句需要倒装。如:NeverinmylifehaveIseensuchathing.Seldomhavewefeltascomfortableashere. Nosoonerhadhearrivedthanhefellill.Scarcelyhadhearrivedwhentheyaskedhimtoleaveagain.他刚一到来,他们就又请他离去。 Notonlydidhehearit,buthesawitaswell.41\n11)only位于句首并后跟状语时,全句需要倒装。如:Onlythendidheunderstand.只有那时,他才明白。由only引导的从句位于句首时,主语亦应倒装。如:Onlywhenshecamehomedidhelearnthenews.只有当她回家时他才知道这消息。12)主语部分较长需要后置时,全句需要倒装。如:Theyerectabronzetabletonwhichiscarved“TheYellowRiverSource”.他们立了一面铜牌,上面写着“黄河之源”。(onwhich…是倒装结构)Tothisclassbelongsthemostastonishingworkthattheauthoraccomplished. 属于这一类的有作者所完成的一部最惊人的著作。SittingatherdeskindeepconcentrationwasmysisterFlora.Shelookedasthoughshehadspendasleeplessnight.我妹妹弗洛拉伏案沉思,好像一夜未睡似的。(后一句意义上相等于从句)13)为了上下文的衔接,全句需要倒装。如:“Now,Ihavenoopinionofthatpolicy.”“我可对这项政策没有好感。”“Isurehave,”cameasarcasticgravellygrowlfromtheadmiral.“我当然有啰,”这是发自海军将军的讥讽而粗哑的咆哮声。(用came...admiral倒装结构是为了和上文相衔接)Thegirlwholoveshimsodeeplyfindsherselfunabletoforgivehismistake.Aroundthispointdevelopsthesketch,whichishumorousandfullofastronglocalflavor.那个钟爱他的姑娘觉得她不能饶恕他的错误。围绕这一点就写成了这一短剧,它不但幽默,而且充满了浓郁的地方风味。(第二句倒装。显然由于句首aroundthispoint与上文衔接的缘故)强调需要的倒装这是为了强调某一句子成分而进行的倒装。这种倒装大致有下列几种。1)谓语置于句首。a)谓语动词置于句首。如:I’mgoingbacktoWashingtontofightforit,believeyoume.我要回到华盛顿为此而斗争,你相信我吧。(强调believe)Atlasthefindshimselfinagarden,fullofbeautifulflowersofstrangeforms,andwateredbystreamsofcrystalinwhichareswimmingmarvellousfishwithscalesofrubiesandgold.他终于发现自己来到一个花园,这里到处是奇异的花卉,还有那清澈的溪水,里面游着珍贵的具有红玉般和金黄色的鱼鳞的鱼。(这里将谓语areswimming前置也是由于主语较长之故)有时倒装结构为主要动词+主语+助动词。如:GoIcan't.我不能去。(强调主要动词go)Yieldhewouldnot.屈服他是不干的。(强调主要动词yield)41\n有时倒装结构为主要动词+宾语+主语+助动词,其主要动词往往是重复前文中的动词。如:Theyhavepromisedtofinishtheworkandfinishittheywill.他们保证完成这项工作,而且他们一定会完成的。(强调主要动词finish)Savehimshecouldnot;butsheavengedhiminthemostterriblefashionafterwards.她不能救他,但后来她以最可怕的方式为他报了仇。(此句中的倒装结构强调主要动词save,其上文虽无save一词,但有与其类似的动词)有时倒装结构为助动词+主语+(主要动词),如:Johnwastakencompletelybysurprisebythenews,aswasSusan.这消息完全出乎约翰的意料,也完全出乎苏珊的意料。 (as后的助动词was置于主语之前,是为强调主语;省去了主要动词)Theylookeduponhimasatrustedfriend,asdidmanyothershehaddeceived.他们和他所欺骗的许多人一样,也把他看作可以信赖的朋友。(替代词did置于主语之前以强调主语,省去了主要动词) b)过去分词置于句首。如:Alsodiscussedwasarevenue-raisingproposaltohikethesalestax…也讨论了增加销售税的提高税收建议……(这里倒装是由于主语较长)AlsosaidtobeunderconsiderationisaperformanceinBeijing.据说也考虑在北京上演。(这里过去分词与also连用,全句强调主语performance,倒装亦与上下文衔接有关)c)现在分词+be十主语。如: Coveringmuchoftheearth'ssurfaceisablanketofwater.地球表面上许多地方都布满了水。 Facingthelakewasalittleinnwithitspillaredveranda.湖的对面是一个柱廊的小旅店。这种倒装结构多半已变成词序固定的句型。在新闻文体中,现 在进行时的现在分词亦可进行倒装。如:ThrowingthehammerischampionWilliamAnderson,whoisahard-workingshepherdintheHighlandsofScotland.正在掷链球的是冠军威廉·安德森,他是苏格兰高地上的一位勤劳的牧民。(这里自然是强调现在分词throwing,但倒装亦与主语较长有关)d)引述动词+主语+直接引语。这种结构常用于新闻体。如:DeclaredrosecutorRoyAmlot:“Itwasoneofthemostcallousactsofalltime.”检察官罗伊·阿默朗特宣称:“这是最最淡漠无情的行为之一。”Saidhe:“Weconfrontgreatevilsandweneedgreatsolutions.”他说道:“我们面对着重大的邪恶,我们需要重大的决策。”41\n2)表语置于句首。a)形容词+连系动词+主语。如:PresentatthemeetingwereProfessorSmith,ProfessorBrown,SirHughandmanyothercelebrities.到会的有史密斯教授、勃朗教授、休爵士以及许多其他知名人士。(这种倒装结构已经定型)Farbeitfrommetocondemnhiminanyway.我决不会以任何方式谴责他。(这种倒装结构亦已成定型)b)过去分词十连系动词+主语。如:GonearethedayswhentheycoulddowhattheylikedtotheChinesepeople.他们能够对中国人民为所欲为的日子一去不复返了。(强调过去分词gone,同时也是由于主语较长)c)介词短语十be+主语。如:AmongthegoodsareChristmastrees,flowers,candles,turkeysandtoys.货品中有圣诞树、花卉、蜡烛、火鸡和玩具。(这种倒装结构已成定型)Amidthegaseouspollutantstheyinhalearecarbonmonoxide,sulphurdioxide,nitrogenoxide,hydrochloricacid,ammoniaandhydrocarbons.在他们所呼吸的污染气体中有一氧化碳、二氧化硫、氮氧化物、盐酸、氨和碳氢化合物。(此种倒装亦已定型)d)不定式+be+主语。如:Firsttounfoldwerethetwo14-foot-widedroguechutes,whichcrientedthecraftandcontinuedslowingit.首先要打开的是那两个14英尺宽的拖靶斜槽,这两个东西使飞机定向,并继续使之减速。3)宾语置于句首。如:“Yes,”saidtheyouthshortly.“是的,”那个小伙子简短地说道。SomeoneoncesaidAustraliaisacountryborntoalcoholism.Amanwouldpay$5togetdrunkand$8togethome,goesthejest.有人说过,澳大利亚是生性嗜酒的国家。有一个笑话说,那里的人会花5元钱喝醉后,再花8元钱回家。4)状语置于句首。a)某些副词+倒装结构。如: JustthenaalongcameTom.就在这时,汤姆来了。 JusttheninwalkedIsabellawitharadiantface.正值此时刻,伊莎贝拉容光焕发地走了进来。[注]短语动词的小品词一般不可前置,如不可说Upcrackedthesoldier。又,上述例句中如用人称代词则不可倒装,如必须说,Inshewalked。ThendidIthrowmyselfintoachair,exhausted.这时我累得一下就坐在椅子上了。41\nOnlyinthiswaycanwelearnEnglish.只有这样才能学会英语。[注]副词only后接非状语时则不可倒装。Sobrightwasthemoonthattheflowersbrightasbyday.皓月当空,花朵就像白天那样鲜艳。 Crackgoesthewhip.啪的一声鞭子响了。b)介词短语十倒装结构。如:Byhissidesathisfaithfuldog.在他的旁边蹲着他的忠实的狗。(介词短语表地点)ManyatimeasaboyhaveIclimbedthathill.我在童年时期曾多次爬过那座山。(介词短语表时间)Upthevalleys,downthevalleysgothey,saying,“Hereisaplacetobuildabreast—work;herecanyoupitchafort...”他们沿着山谷走上走下,说着,“这里是筑胸墙的地方,这里可以修一堡垒……”(介词短语表方向)Withitwasmingledfar-awaycheering.远处的欢呼声与此融在一起。(介词短语表伴随)c)表示否定的词语十倒装结构。如:Noroncedidhetalktome.他一次也没有和我谈过。Neverdidhespeakabouthisownmerits.他从不讲他自己的功绩。Seldomhasadevotedteacherbeensosplendidlyrewarded.一位忠诚的教师很少受到如此好的报答。Hardlyhadhearrivedwhenshestartedcomplaining.他一到家,她就抱怨起来。LittledidIthinkthatweweretalkingtogetherforthelasttime.我没有想到我们这次谈话竟成诀别。Nosoonerhadhearrivedthanhewentawayagain.他刚到家就又走了。Notonlydidtheypresentamusicalperformance,buttheyalsogaveabriefintroductiontothehistoryofWesternbrassinstruments.他们不但做了音乐表演,而且简短地介绍了西方铜管乐器的历史。[注]但不是所有以not开头的句子都必须倒装,如下面的句子即可不倒装:Notasoulwastobeseen.一个人也看不见。NotthatIknowof.就我所知不是这样。effectassoonaspossible.要是委员会通过这些规定并尽快实施就好了!41

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