高中英语阅读训练 8页

The IndustrialRevolution wasthetransitiontonewmanufacturingprocessesintheperiodfromabout1760tosometimebetween1820and1840.Thistransitionincludedgoingfromhandproductionmethodstomachines,newchemicalmanufacturingandironproductionprocesses,improvedefficiencyof waterpower,theincreasinguseof steampower,andthedevelopmentof machinetools.Italsoincludedthechangefromwoodandother bio-fuels to coal.TextileswerethedominantindustryoftheIndustrialRevolutionintermsofemployment,valueofoutputandcapitalinvested.Thetextileindustrywasalsothefirsttousemodernproductionmethods.[1]TheIndustrialRevolutionmarksamajorturningpointinhistory;almosteveryaspectofdailylifewasinfluencedinsomeway.Inparticular,averageincomeandpopulationbegantoexhibitunprecedentedsustainedgrowth.Someeconomists,suchasRobertE.Lucas,Jr.,arguethattherealimpactoftheIndustrialRevolutionwasthat"forthefirsttimeinhistory,thelivingstandardsofthemassesofordinarypeoplehavebeguntoundergosustainedgrowth ...Nothingremotelylikethiseconomicbehaviorismentionedbytheclassicaleconomists,evenasatheoreticalpossibility."[2]Others,however,arguethatwhilegrowthoftheeconomy'soverallproductivepowerswasunprecedentedduringtheIndustrialRevolution,livingstandardsforthemajorityofthepopulationdidnotgrowmeaningfullyuntilthelate19thand20thcenturies,andthatinmanywaysworkers'livingstandardsdeclinedunderearlycapitalism:forinstance,studieshaveshownthatrealwagesinBritainonlyincreased15%betweenthe1780sand1850s,andthatlifeexpectancyinBritaindidnotbegintodramaticallyincreaseuntilthe1870s.[3][4]TheIndustrialRevolutionbeganinGreatBritainandspreadtoWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStateswithinafewdecades.[6] TheprecisestartandendoftheIndustrialRevolutionisdebatedamonghistorians. EricHobsbawmheldthatit'brokeout'inBritaininthe1780sandwasnotfullyfeltuntilthe1830sor1840s,[7] while T.S.Ashton heldthatitoccurredroughlybetween1760and1830.[8]Some20thcenturyhistorians,suchas JohnClapham and NicholasCrafts,havearguedthattheeconomicandsocialchangesoccurredgraduallyandthetermrevolution isamisnomer.Thisisstillasubjectofdebateamonghistorians.[9][10] GDP percapitawasbroadlystablebeforetheIndustrialRevolutionandtheemergenceofthemodern capitalist economy.[11] TheIndustrialRevolutionbegananeraofper-capita economicgrowth incapitalisteconomies.[12] EconomichistoriansareinagreementthattheonsetoftheIndustrialRevolutionisthemostimportanteventinthehistoryofhumanitysincethedomesticationofanimals,plants[13] andfire.TheFirstIndustrialRevolutionevolvedintothe SecondIndustrialRevolution inthetransitionyearsbetween1840and1870,whentechnologicalandeconomicprogresscontinuedwiththeincreasingadoptionoftransportsteam(steam-poweredrailways,boats\nandships),thelarge-scalemanufactureofmachinetoolsandtheincreasinguseofmachineryinsteampoweredfactoriesThe AmericanCivilWar,widelyknowninthe UnitedStates assimplythe CivilWar aswellasother sectionalnames,wasacivilwar foughtfrom1861to1865todeterminethesurvivaloftheUnionorindependencefortheConfederacy.Amongthe34statesasofJanuary1861,sevenSouthern slavestatesindividuallydeclaredtheir secession fromtheUnitedStatesandformedthe ConfederateStatesofAmerica,knownasthe"Confederacy"orthe"South".Theygrewtoincludeelevenstates,andalthoughtheyclaimedthirteenstatesandadditionalwesternterritories,theConfederacywasneverdiplomaticallyrecognizedbyaforeigncountry.Thestatesthatremainedloyalanddidnotdeclaresecessionwereknownasthe"Union"orthe"North".The warhaditsorigin inthefractiousissueofslavery,especiallytheextensionofslaveryintothewesternterritories.[N1] Afterfouryearsofbloodycombatthatleftover600,000UnionandConfederatesoldiersdead,anddestroyedmuchoftheSouth'sinfrastructure,theConfederacycollapsed,slaverywasabolished,andthedifficult Reconstruction processofrestoringnationalunityandguaranteeingcivilrightstothefreedslavesbegan.Inthe 1860presidentialelection, Republicans,ledby AbrahamLincoln,opposedtheexpansionofslaveryinto USterritories.Lincolnwon,butbefore hisinauguration onMarch4,1861,sevenslavestateswith cotton-basedeconomiesformedtheConfederacy.Thefirstsixtosecedehadthehighestproportionsofslavesintheirpopulations,atotalof48.8%forthesix.[5] OutgoingDemocratic President JamesBuchanan andtheincomingRepublicansrejectedsecessionasillegal. Lincoln'sinauguraladdressdeclaredhisadministrationwouldnotinitiate civilwar.Eightremainingslavestatescontinuedtorejectcallsforsecession.ConfederateforcesseizednumerousfederalfortswithinterritoryclaimedbytheConfederacy.A peaceconference failedtofindacompromise,andbothsidespreparedforwar.TheConfederatesassumedthat European countriesweresodependenton"KingCotton"thattheywouldintervene;nonedidandnonerecognizedthenewConfederateStatesofAmerica.HostilitiesbeganonApril12,1861,whenConfederateforcesfiredupon FortSumter,akeyfortheldbyUniontroopsin SouthCarolina.Lincolncalledforeverystatetoprovidetroopstoretakethefort;consequently,fourmoreslavestatesjoinedtheConfederacy,bringingtheirtotaltoeleven.Lincolnsooncontrolledthe borderstates,afterarrestingstatelegislatorsandsuspending habeascorpus,[6] ignoringthe ruling oftheSupremeCourt'sChiefJustice thatsuchsuspensionwasunconstitutional,andestablisheda navalblockade thatcrippledthesoutherneconomy.The EasternTheater wasinconclusivein1861–62.Theautumn1862ConfederatecampaignintoMaryland(aUnionstate)endedwithConfederateretreatatthe BattleofAntietam,dissuading British intervention.[7] Tothewest,bysummer1862theUniondestroyedtheConfederaterivernavy,thenmuchoftheirwesternarmies,andtheUnion siegeofVicksburgsplittheConfederacyintwoatthe MississippiRiver.In1863,RobertE.Lee's Confederateincursionnorthendedatthe BattleofGettysburg.Lincolnissuedthe EmancipationProclamation,whichmade\nendingslaveryawargoal.[8] WesternsuccessesledtoUlyssesS.Grant's commandofallUnionarmiesin1864.IntheWesternTheater, WilliamT.Sherman droveeasttocaptureAtlanta and marchedtothesea,destroyingConfederateinfrastructurealongtheway.TheUnionmarshaledtheresourcesandmanpowertoattacktheConfederacyfromalldirections,leadingtotheprotracted SiegeofPetersburg.ThebesiegedConfederatearmyeventuallyabandonedRichmond,seekingtoregroupat AppomattoxCourtHouse,thoughtheretheyfoundthemselvessurroundedbyunionforces.ThisledtoLee'ssurrendertoGrantonApril9,1865.AllConfederategeneralssurrenderedbythatsummer.TheAmericanCivilWarwasoneoftheearliesttrue industrialwars.Railroads,thetelegraph,steamships,andmass-producedweaponswereemployedextensively.Themobilizationofcivilianfactories,mines,shipyards,banks,transportationandfoodsuppliesallforeshadowed WorldWarI.Itremainsthedeadliestwarin Americanhistory,resultinginthedeathsofanestimated750,000soldiersandanundeterminednumberof civiliancasualties.[N2] OneestimateofthedeathtollisthattenpercentofallNorthernmales20–45yearsold,and30percentofallSouthernwhitemalesaged18–40perished.[10] From1861to1865about620,000soldierslosttheirlives.ItwasperhapsoneofthebloodiestwarsinU.Shistory.World War I1.Thewarfrom1914to1918betweentheEntentePowersofthe BritishEmpire, RussianEmpire, France, Italy,the UnitedStates andother allied nations,againstthe CentralPowers representedbythe GermanEmpire, Austria-Hungary,the OttomanEmpire,and Bulgaria.The GreatDepression wasasevereworldwide economicdepression inthedecadepreceding WorldWarII.ThetimingoftheGreatDepressionvariedacrossnations,butinmostcountriesitstartedin1930andlasteduntilthelate1930sormiddle1940s.[1] Itwasthelongest,deepest,andmostwidespreaddepressionofthe20thcentury.[2]Inthe21stcentury,theGreatDepressioniscommonlyusedasanexampleofhowfartheworld'seconomycandecline.[2] Thedepressionoriginatedinthe UnitedStates,afterthefallinstockpricesthatbeganaroundSeptember4,1929,andbecameworldwidenewswiththestockmarketcrash ofOctober29,1929(knownasBlackTuesday).TheGreatDepressionhaddevastatingeffectsincountries rich andpoor. Personalincome,taxrevenue,profitsandpricesdropped,whileinternationaltradeplungedbymorethan50%.UnemploymentintheU.S.roseto25%,andinsomecountriesroseashighas33%.[3]Citiesallaroundtheworld werehithard,especiallythosedependenton heavyindustry.Constructionwasvirtuallyhaltedinmanycountries. Farming andruralareassufferedascroppricesfellbyapproximately60%.[4][5][6] Facingplummetingdemandwithfewalternate\nsourcesofjobs,areasdependenton primarysectorindustries suchascashcropping, mining and logging sufferedthemost.[7]Someeconomiesstartedtorecoverbythemid-1930s.Inmanycountries,thenegativeeffectsoftheGreatDepressionlasteduntilaftertheendofWorldWarII.WorldWarIIFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia"TheSecondWorldWar"and"WWII"redirecthere.Forotheruses,see TheSecondWorldWar(disambiguation)and WWII(disambiguation).Date1 September 1939 –2 September 1945 (6 years,1 day)[a]LocationEurope, Pacific, Atlantic,South-EastAsia, China, MiddleEast, Mediterranean, NorthAfrica and HornofAfrica,briefly North and SouthAmericaResultAllied victory·Collapseofthe ThirdReich·Fallof Japanese and ItalianEmpires·Creationofthe UnitedNations·Emergenceofthe UnitedStates andthe SovietUnionas superpowers·Beginningofthe ColdWar(more...).Alliedleaders JosephStalin FranklinRoosevelt WinstonChurchill ChiangKai-shekAxisleaders AdolfHitler Hirohito BenitoMussoliniCasualtiesandlossesMilitarydead:Militarydead:\nOver16,000,000Civiliandead:Over45,000,000Totaldead:Over61,000,000(1937–45)...furtherdetailsOver8,000,000Civiliandead:Over4,000,000Totaldead:Over12,000,000(1937–45)...furtherdetailsWorldWar II (WWII or WW2),alsoknownasthe SecondWorldWar,wasa globalwar thatlastedfrom1939to1945,thoughrelatedconflictsbeganearlier.Itinvolved thevastmajorityoftheworld'snations—includingallofthe greatpowers—eventuallyformingtwoopposing militaryalliances:the Alliesandthe Axis.Itwasthemostwidespread war inhistory,anddirectlyinvolvedmorethan100millionpeoplefromover30countries.Inastateof"totalwar",themajorparticipantsthrewtheirentireeconomic,industrialandscientificcapabilitiesbehindthe wareffort,erasingthedistinctionbetween civilian and military resources.Markedbymassdeathsofcivilians,includingthe Holocaust (duringwhichapproximately11millionpeoplewerekilled)[1][2] andthestrategicbombingofindustrialandpopulationcentres (duringwhichapproximatelyonemillionpeoplewerekilled,includingthe useoftwonuclearweaponsincombat),[3] itresultedinanestimated 50millionto85millionfatalities.ThesemadeWorldWar IIthe deadliestconflict in humanhistory.[4]The EmpireofJapan aimedtodominate Asia andthe Pacific andwasalready atwar withthe RepublicofChina in1937,[5] buttheworldwarisgenerallysaidtohavebegunon1September1939[6] withthe invasion of Poland by Germany andsubsequentdeclarationsofwaronGermanyby France andthe UnitedKingdom.Fromlate1939toearly1941,inaseriesofcampaignsandtreaties,GermanyconqueredorcontrolledmuchofcontinentalEurope,andformedtheAxisalliancewith Italy and Japan.Followingthe Molotov–RibbentropPact,GermanyandtheSovietUnionpartitionedandannexedterritoriesoftheirEuropeanneighbours, includingPoland, Finland andthe Balticstates.TheUnitedKingdomandthe BritishCommonwealth weretheonlyAlliedforcescontinuingthefightagainsttheAxis,withcampaignsinNorthAfrica andthe HornofAfrica aswellasthelong-runningBattleoftheAtlantic.InJune1941,theEuropeanAxispowerslaunched aninvasionoftheSovietUnion,openingthe largestlandtheatreofwarinhistory,whichtrappedthemajorpartoftheAxis'militaryforcesintoa WarofAttrition.InDecember1941,Japan attackedtheUnitedStates and EuropeanterritoriesinthePacificOcean,andquicklyconqueredmuchoftheWesternPacific.TheAxisadvancehaltedin1942whenJapanlostthecriticalBattleofMidway,near Hawaii,andGermanywasdefeatedin NorthAfrica andthen,decisively,at Stalingrad intheSovietUnion.In1943,withaseriesofGermandefeatsonthe EasternFront,the Alliedinvasion ofItalywhichbroughtaboutItaliansurrender,andAlliedvictoriesinthePacific,theAxislosttheinitiativeandundertookstrategicretreatonallfronts.In1944,theWesternAllies invadedFrance,whiletheSovietUnionregainedallofits\nterritoriallossesandinvadedGermanyanditsallies.During1944and1945theJapanesesufferedmajorreversesinmainlandAsiain South CentralChina and Burma,whiletheAlliescrippledthe JapaneseNavy andcapturedkeyWesternPacificislands.ThewarinEuropeendedwithan invasionofGermany bytheWesternAlliesandtheSovietUnionculminatinginthe captureofBerlin bySovietandPolishtroopsandthesubsequent Germanunconditionalsurrender on 8May1945.Followingthe PotsdamDeclaration bytheAllieson26July1945,theUnitedStatesdroppedatomicbombs ontheJapanesecitiesof Hiroshima andNagasaki on6Augustand9Augustrespectively.Withan invasionoftheJapanesearchipelago imminent,thepossibilityofadditionalatomicbombings,andthe SovietUnion'sdeclarationofwaronJapan and invasionofManchuria, Japansurrendered on15August1945.ThusendedthewarinAsia,andthefinaldestructionoftheAxisbloc.WorldWar IIalteredthepoliticalalignmentandsocialstructureoftheworld.The UnitedNations (UN)wasestablishedtofosterinternationalco-operationandpreventfutureconflicts.Thevictorious greatpowers—theUnitedStates,theSovietUnion,China,theUnitedKingdom,andFrance—becamethepermanentmembers ofthe UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.[7] TheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStatesemergedasrival superpowers,settingthestageforthe ColdWar,whichlastedforthenext46years.Meanwhile,theinfluenceofEuropeangreatpowerswaned,whilethe decolonisationofAsia and Africabegan.Mostcountrieswhoseindustrieshadbeendamagedmovedtowards economicrecovery.Politicalintegration,especially inEurope,emergedasanefforttoendpre-warenmitiesandtocreateacommonidentity.The ColdWar wasastateofpoliticalandmilitarytensionafterWorldWarIIbetweenpowersinthe WesternBloc (theUnitedStates,its NATO alliesandothers)andpowersintheEasternBloc (the SovietUnion anditsalliesinthe WarsawPact).Historianshavenotfullyagreedonthedates,but1947–1991iscommon.Itwastermedas"cold"becausetherewasnolarge-scalefightingdirectlybetweenthetwosides,althoughthereweremajorregionalwarsin Korea, Vietnam andAfghanistan thatthetwosidessupported.TheColdWarsplitthetemporarywartimeallianceagainst NaziGermany,leavingtheUSSRandtheUSastwo superpowers withprofoundeconomicandpoliticaldifferences:theformerbeingasingle-partyMarxist–Leninist state,andthelatterbeingacapitaliststatewithgenerallyfreeelections.Aself-proclaimedneutralblocarosewiththe Non-AlignedMovement foundedbyEgypt, India, Indonesia and Yugoslavia;thisfactionrejectedassociationwitheithertheUS-ledWestortheSoviet-ledEast.Thetwosuperpowersneverengageddirectlyinfull-scalearmedcombatbuttheyeacharmedheavilyinpreparationofapossibleall-outnuclear worldwar.Eachsidehada nucleardeterrent thatdeterredanattackbytheotherside,onthebasisthatsuchanattackwouldleadtototaldestructionoftheattacker:thedoctrineof mutuallyassureddestruction orMAD.Asidefromthe developmentofthetwosides'nucleararsenals,anddeploymentofconventionalmilitaryforces,thestrugglefordominancewasexpressedvia proxywars aroundtheglobe,psychologicalwarfare,propagandaand espionage,andtechnologicalcompetitionssuchasthe SpaceRace.\nThefirstphaseoftheColdWarbeganinthefirsttwoyearsaftertheendoftheSecondWorldWarin1945.TheUSSRconsolidateditscontroloverthestatesoftheEasternBloc whiletheUnitedStatesbeganastrategyofglobal containment tochallengeSovietpower,extendingmilitaryandfinancialaidtothecountriesofWesternEurope(forexample,supportingtheanti-Communistsideinthe GreekCivilWar)andcreatingtheNATOalliance.The BerlinBlockade (1948–49)wasthefirstmajorcrisisoftheColdWar.WithvictoryoftheCommunistsideinthe ChineseCivilWar andtheoutbreakofthe KoreanWar (1950–53),theconflictexpanded.TheUSSRandUSAcompetedforinfluenceinLatinAmericaand decolonizing statesofAfrica,theMiddleEastandSoutheastAsia.Meanwhilethe HungarianRevolutionof1956 wasstoppedbytheSoviets.Theexpansionandescalationsparkedmorecrises,suchasthe SuezCrisis(1956),the BerlinCrisisof1961,the Cubanmissilecrisis of1962.Followingthislastcrisis anewphasebegan thatsawthe Sino-Sovietsplit complicaterelationswithintheCommunistspherewhileUSallies,particularlyFrance,demonstratedgreaterindependenceofaction.TheUSSRcrushedthe1968 PragueSpring liberalizationprogramin Czechoslovakia andthe VietnamWar (1955–1975)endedwithadefeatoftheUS-backed RepublicofSouthVietnam,promptingfurtheradjustments.Bythe1970sbothsideshadbecomeinterestedinaccommodationstocreateamorestableandpredictableinternationalsystem,inauguratingaperiodof détente thatsaw StrategicArmsLimitationTalks andtheUSopeningrelationswiththePeople'sRepublicofChina asastrategiccounterweighttotheSovietUnion.Détentecollapsedattheendofthedecadewiththe SovietwarinAfghanistan beginningin1979.Theearly1980s wereanotherperiodofelevatedtension,withtheSovietdowningof KoreanAirLinesFlight007(1983),andthe "AbleArcher"NATOmilitaryexercises (1983).TheUnitedStatesincreased diplomatic,military,andeconomicpressures ontheSovietUnion,atatimewhenthecommuniststatewasalreadysufferingfromeconomicstagnation.Inthemid-1980s,thenewSovietleader MikhailGorbachev introducedtheliberalizingreformsof perestroika ("reorganization",1987)and glasnost ("openness",ca.1985)andendedSovietinvolvementinAfghanistan.Pressuresfornationalindependencegrewstrongerin EasternEurope,especiallyPoland.GorbachevmeanwhilerefusedtouseSoviettroopstobolsterthefalteringWarsawPactregimesashadoccurredinthepast.Theresultin1989was awaveofrevolutions thatpeacefully(withtheexceptionoftheRomanianRevolution)overthrewalloftheCommunistregimesofCentralandEasternEurope.The CommunistPartyoftheSovietUnion itselflostcontrolandwasbannedfollowingan abortivecoupattempt inAugust1991.Thisinturnledto theformaldissolutionoftheUSSR inDecember1991andthecollapseofCommunistregimesinothercountriessuchas Mongolia, Cambodia and SouthYemen.TheUnitedStatesremainedastheworld'sonlysuperpower.\nTheColdWaranditseventshaveleftasignificantlegacy,anditisoftenreferredtoin popularculture,especiallyinmediafeaturingthemesof espionage (suchastheinternationallysuccessful JamesBond filmseries)andthethreatof nuclearwarfare