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高考英语语法易考知识点最全概括
第一讲座：名词---基础篇
一、名词的复数：
1. 名词变复数的规则形式：
1). 一般情况下直接加s： book------books cup-----cups
2). 以辅音字母+y结尾的，先变y为i再加es：
city-------cities family-----families
3). 以s、x、sh、ch结尾的加es：
bus-----buses wish------wishes watch------watches
4). 以o结尾的多数加S 初中阶段只有三个单词加es：
tomato-----tomatoes potato------potatoes hero-----heroes Negroes
5). 以f、fe 结尾的，先把f、fe变v 再加es：
leaf----leaves self---selves shelf----shelves life----lives thief---thieves
2. 少数名词的复数形式是不规则的：
man----men woman---women child----children foot-----feet tooth----teeth mouse---mice
3. 单数和复数形式相同：
deer---deer fish----fish sheep----sheep Chinese ----Chinese Japanese---Japanese
4. 某国人的复数：
1). 中、日不变：Chinese----Chinese Japanese---Japanese
2). 英、法变： Englishman----Englishmen Frenchman----Frenchmen
3).其余s加后面： American-----Americans German----Germans Australian---Australians
二、不可数名词：
1. 不可数名词：
1). 不能直接用数字表数量； 2). 不能直接加a或an； 3). 没有复数形式；
4). 可用some、any、lots of、plenty of、much 修饰； 5). 可用“量词短语”表示；
2. 不可数名词的数量的表示方法： a / 数字+ 量词 + of + 不可数名词：
a piece of paper a cup of tea a glass of milk
三、名词的所有格：
1. ’s 所有格：
1). 用and连接两个并列的单数名词表示共有关系时，这时只在最后一个名词后加“’s.”：
This is ____________________(Mary and Lily) bedroom.
2). 用and连接两个并列的单数名词表示各有关系时，这时分别在每个名词后加“’s.”：
These are ________________(Tom and Jack ) school bags.
3). 以s结尾的名词，变所有格时在s后加“’”, 不以s 结尾的复数名词，仍加“’s”：
Teachers’ Day Children’s Day
4). 表示店铺、医院、诊所、住宅等名称时，常在名词后加 ’s 代表全称：
at the doctor’s at the Bob’s
5). 由some、any、no、every与one、body 结合的复合不定代词something、anything 等和else 连用时，所有格应加在else的后面：
This is _________________(somebody else ) pencil.
6). 表示时间、距离、国家、城市等无生命的名词，也可在词尾加’s 来构成所有格：
an hour’s ride two weeks’ time China’s capital
2. of 所有格：
1). of 用来表示无生命的名词所有格：
the map of China the door of the room
2). 双重所有格：
of + 名词所有格 of + 名词性的物住代词
He is a friend of my _________(brother ).
Is she a daughter of __________(you)?
四、名词作句子成分：
1. 名词作主语：
1). 表示时间、金钱、距离作主语时，谓语动词用单数：
Two hours ________(be) enough for us to get there.
2). 量词短语“数字+量词+ of +…”作主语时，谓语动词应与量词保持一致：
A pair of shoes _______(be) under the bed.
Two pieces of paper _______(be) on the desk.
3). 名词+介词（with、but、except、along with、as well as …….）+名词作主语时，谓语动词应与前面的名词保持一致：
The teacher with the students _________(be) planting trees on the hill.
4). 短语“neither…nor…、either…or…、not only…but also …”连接主语时，谓语动词实行就近原则：
Neither he nor I ______ (be) a Frenchman.
2. 名词作定语：
1). 名词作定语时，一般用单数形式：
There is a shoe factory near the school.
2). 名词作定语时，个别情况用复数形式：(sport )
The sports meeting will be held next week.
3). man、woman 作定语表示性别时，man、woman随后面的名词单复数而变：
one man teacher two women teachers
第二讲座：名词---提高篇
一、名词的单复数：
1. 可数名词的复数不规则变化：
(1) 单复数同形：deer, sheep, Chinese, means, series, species, works, headquarters
(2) 形单意复：people, police, youth, cattle, staff
(3) 形复意单：news, physics, politics, maths
(4)合成词变复数：passerby→passersby, soninlaw→sonsin-law, lookeron→lookerson, gobetween→go-betweens, grownup→grownups
(5) 词形变化：man→men, child→children，tooth→teeth, foot→feet, mouse→mice，medium→media
2. 不可数名词的数：
(1) 有些抽象名词在具体化时，以复数形式出现；表示特指时，可以和定冠词连用；表示“某种”或“一次”的意义时，可以和不定冠词连用：
in surprise“惊讶地”，a surprise“一件令人惊讶的事”；win success“获得成功”，a success“一个/件成功的人/事”；by experience“靠经验”，an experience“一次经历”；with pleasure“乐意”，a pleasure“一件乐事”。
(2) 物质名词是不可数名词，但表示数量或种类之多时，可以用作可数名词，有单、复数：
some coffee“一些咖啡”，three coffees“三杯咖啡”；some drink“一些饮料”，three drinks“三杯饮料”；his hair“他的头发”，a few grey hairs“几根白发”；glass“玻璃”，a glass“一只玻璃杯”。
(3) 有些不可数名词的复数形式表示特殊的意义：
time“时间”， times“次数，时代，倍”；wood“木头”，woods“树林”；sand“沙子”，sands“沙滩”；work“工作”，works“工厂，著作，工程，工事”。
注意：有些名词的单复数具有不同的含义：
如：game游戏，比赛 → games运动会；mass大量，众多，团，块 → masses群众，民众等。
二、名词的作用：
名词在句中可以作主语、表语、宾语、宾语补足语、定语、同位语、状语。
注意：名词作定语时，一般用单数形式，如：shoe repairers, pencil boxes, tooth brushes。但也有例外，如：a sports car, a customs officer, a clothes shop等。另外，“man / woman +名词”变为复数时，作定语的man / woman和中心词都要变复数。如：men teachers.
三、名词的所有格：
名词的所有格在句中表示所属关系，用来作定语，修饰名词：
1. ’s所有格，多用来表示有生命的东西，如：
Peter and Tom’s school.
2. 如果一个事物为两个人共有，只在后一个名词的词 尾加 “’s”；如果不是共有，就要在两个名词的词尾都加“’s”。如：
Tom and Mike’s room (共有)
Tom’s and Mike’s books (不共有)
3. of所有格（名词+ of +名词）多用来表示无生命的东西，
如：the legs of the chair, the door of the house。
4. 双重所有格指“of +名词的-’s所有格”或“of +名词性的物主代词”，如：a friend of my brother’s, a picture of mine。
5. 表示时间、距离、价格、重量、国家、城市的无生命名词，可以在词尾加“’s”或“’”表示所有格。
today’s papers; ten minutes’ walk; five pounds’ weight; ten dollars’ worth of coffee; the world’s population; China’s industry; New York’s parks
6. 表示店铺或某人的家时，常在名词所有格之后省去shop, house, home.
如：the tailor’s; the doctor’s, my uncle’s.
考点归纳：
考点一： 名词词义辨析：
高考对名词词义辨析的考查主要体现在单项填空和完形填空中，其选项基本上是形似的词、意义相近但用法不同的词或者形式和意义都不相关的词。解这类题的关键是要弄清楚选项中各个名词的含义，同时也要注意联系上下文的搭配和语境。
【考例】She was put under house arrest two years ago but remained a powerful _____ in last year’s election.
A. symbol B. portrait
C. identity D. statue
考点二： 名词固定搭配：
【考例】You are working too hard. You’d better keep a _____ between work and relaxation.
A. promise B. lead
C. balance D. diary
考点三：名词的格：
名词所有格主要体现在短文改错中。如：
When I finally arrived at my friend’s he lent me lots of clothes.
考点四： 名词的数：
对名词单复数的考查主要体现在单词拼写、语法填空以及短文改错中。
第三讲座：冠词---基础篇
考查重点：
冠词的考查重点包括不定冠词a和an的用法，定冠词the的用法和零冠词的用法等。
一. a和an的区别:
不定冠词有a和an两种形式，a用于辅音(不是辅音字母)开头的词前，an用于元音(不是元音字母)开头的词前：
例如：a boy, a university, a European country; an hour, an honor, an island, an elephant, an umbrella, an honest man, a useful book
不看字母看读音, 不见原因(元音)别施恩(n)
二. 不定冠词的用法：
1. 泛指某一类人、事或物；相当于any，这是不定冠词a/an的基本用法：
A horse is an animal.
2. 泛指某人或某物，但不具体说明何人或何物：
A girl is waiting for you.
3. 表示数量，有“一”的意思，但数的概念没有one强烈：
I have a computer.
4. 表示“每一”，相当于every：
I go to school five days a week. 我一周上五天课。
5. 用在序数词前，表示“又一”，“再一”：
I have three books. I want to buy a fourth one.
6. 用在某些固定词组中：
a lot(of), after a while, a few, a little, at a time, have a swim, have a cold, in a hurry, for a long time, have a good time, have a look
三. 定冠词的用法:
1. 特指某(些)人或某(些)物，这是定冠词的基本用法：
The book on the desk is mine.
2. 指谈话双方都知道的人或事物：
Open the window, please.
3. 指上文已经提到的人或事物：
I have a car. The car is red.
4. 指世界上独一无二的事物：
Which is bigger, the sun or the earth?
5. 用在序数词，形容词最高级前：
The first lesson is the easiest one in this book.
6. 用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前：
the Great Wall 长城，the United States 美国
7. 用在某些形容词前，表示某一类人：
the poor穷人, the blind盲人
8. 用在姓氏复数形式前，表示“全家人”或“夫妻俩”：
the Greens 格林一家或格林夫妻俩
9. 用在方位词前：
on the left在左边，in the middle of在中间
10. 用在西方乐器名称前：
She plays the piano every day.
11. 用在表示海洋，河流，山脉，群岛及国家和党派等名词前：
the Black Sea黑海，the Yangzi River长江
12. 用在某些固定词组中：
all the same仍然；all the time一直；at the moment此刻；at the same time同时；by the way顺便说；do the shopping/washing买东西/洗衣服；in the morning/afternoon/evening 在上午/下午/晚上；in the open air 在户外，在野外
四. 零冠词的用法：
1. 棋类, 球类, 一日三餐名词前不用任何冠词：
play chess play football have supper
特例：当football，basketball指具体的某个球时，其前可以用冠词：I can see a football. 我可以看到一只足球。Where’s the football？那只足球在哪儿？(指足球，并非“球类运动”)
2. 季节, 月份, 星期, 节假日名词前不用任何冠词：
In July in summer on Monday on Teachers’ Day
3. 人名, 地名, 国家名前不加冠词：
Beijing is the capital of China.
4. 学科, 语言, 称呼, 语职务名词前不用冠词：
Math is hard to learn.
5. 复数名词表示类别时不加冠词：
They are workers. I like eating apples.
6. 名词前已有物主代词(my，your，his，her等)、指示代词(this/these，that/those)、不定代词(some，any等)及所有格限制时, 不用冠词：
my book(正)；my the book(误)
7. 在表特定的公园，街道，车站，桥，学校等之前：
No.25 Middle School
五. 用与不用冠词的差异:
in hospital住院 /in the hospital在医院里
in front of在…(外部的)前面 /in the front of在…(内部的)前面
at table进餐 /at the table在桌子旁
by sea乘船 /by the sea在海边
go to school(church…) 上学(做礼拜…)
go to the school(church…) 到学校(教堂…)去
two of us我们当中的两人/the two of us 我们两人(共计两人)
next year明年 /the next year 第二年
a teacher and writer一位教师兼作家(一个人)
a teacher and a writer一位教师和一位作家(两个人)
第四讲座：冠词---提高篇
考点一： 基本用法：
1. 定冠词的基本用法：
(1) 用于特指一定的人、事物或上下文提到的人、事物。如：
I woke up with a bad headache, yet by the evening the pain had gone.
(2) 在表示世界上独一无二的事物前。如：
The moon turns round the earth.
Drivers always sit on the left of buses.
(3) 在单数名词前，表示某一类别或某项发明。如：The tiger is a dangerous animal.
(4) 在由普通名词构成的专有名词前及表示江、河、湖、海、山川、群岛等的名词前。如：
We are said to be living in the Information Age, a time of new discoveries and great changes.
(5) 在序数词前、形容词最高级前或用于特指“两者中较……的一个”。如：
As is known to all, the People’s Republic of China is the biggest developing country in the world.
(6) 在方位名词前、某些习惯用语或表示时间的词组中：on the left, in the east / west, on the other hand, in the end, the other day等。
(7) 在形容词前表示一类人或事物。如：the poor / rich / young / dying / good / unknown等。
(8) 在姓氏复数形式前，表示全家人或夫妇二人。如：The Smiths are sitting at the table.
(9) 在表示度量单位的名词前，表示“每一”。如：
—It’s said John will be in a job paying over $60,000 a year.
—Right, he will also get paid by the week.
口诀记忆the的用法：
特指熟悉与复述，独一无二全用the。
方位乐器名词前，序数形最乐位惯。
复数姓氏与专有，习惯用语最后添。
2. 不定冠词的基本用法：
(1) 用在可数名词前表示“一个”，含义上相当于“one”。如：
The development of industry has been a gradual process throughout human existence, from stone tools to modern technology.
(2) 与单数可数名词连用，表示某一类人或事物；亦可泛指某一类人或事物中的“任何一个”。如：
It is generally accepted that a boy must learn to stand up and fight like a man.
(3) 用在抽象名词或物质名词前，表示“一种，一次，一类”等意义。如：
He had a strong dislike for cold weather.
(4) 用在序数词前，表示“再一，又一”。如：
He missed the gold in the high jump, but will get a second chance in the long jump.
(5) 用在专有名词前，相当于“一位，一个，某位，某个”或“……式的人”。如：
Experts think that the recently discovered painting may be a Picasso.
(6) 用在某些固定词组中：all of a sudden, as a matter of fact, go out for a walk, have a good time, make a difference, make a living, have an idea of, have a good knowledge of等。如：
I don’t understand what the engineer means, but I’ve got a rough idea of the project plan.
(7) 用在季节、月份、星期或节日的名词前，表示某个特定的季节、月份、日子或节日。如：
The accident happened on a rainy Sunday towards the end of July.
3. 零冠词的基本用法（不用冠词的情况）：
(1) 复数名词表泛指时，其前不加冠词。如：
The Smiths don’t usually like staying at hotels, but last summer they spent a few days at a very nice hotel by the sea.
(2) 可数名词前有物主代词、指示代词、不定代词、名词所有格时，其前不用冠词。如：
Jack’s English book is lying on his desk.
(3) 专有名词、物质名词、抽象名词和表示人名、地名等的名词前，通常不用冠词。如：
Sarah looked at the finished painting with satisfaction.
(4) 表示季节、月份、星期、节日、一日三餐的名词前，以及表示体育运动项目、学科、运输或通讯方式等的名词前，通常不用冠词。如：
We’re going to watch a match on Sunday.
(5) 表示职务、头衔的名词作表语、同位语、补足语等时，其前不用冠词。如：
Sam has been appointed manager of the engineering department to take place of George.
(6) 在某些固定搭配中, 如：at dawn, on second thoughts, come to light, come to power, give birth to, out of control, in public, ahead of time, in debt, hand in hand, in place of, do harm to等。
考点二：习语、固定短语中的冠词：
1. 不定冠词用于短语搭配中。
(1) “have/take＋a(n)＋与动词同形的名词”，表示动作的一次。
have/take a rest休息一会儿
have/take a look看一下
have/take a bath洗个澡
(2) “go out for a(n)＋名词”，表示从事某项活动。
go out for an outing去郊游
go out for a picnic去野餐
(3) 习惯搭配。
as a matter of fact; in a hurry; in a word; a waste of; in a way; come to an end; all of a sudden; have a(n)...knowledge of; have a(n)...understanding/grasp /feeling of
2. 定冠词用于固定搭配。
in the morning; on the other hand; on the contrary; on the air; in the end; come to the point; the ABC of...
3. 在一些固定短语中，名词前不用冠词。
at night; at home; day after day; by telephone; in danger; on purpose; out of control; under＋n.; be home to.
第五讲座：代词---基础篇
一．人称代词：
单数
复数
主格
宾格
主格
宾格
第一人称
I
me
we
us
第二人称
you
you
you
you
第三人称
it/she/he
it/her/him
they
them
1. 主格作主语, 宾格作动词或介词的宾语：
He teaches ______(we) Chinese.
2. 三种人称代词并列时, 顺序为:
单数: 二, 三, 一 （You, she and I ） 复数: 一, 二, 三 (we, you and they )
注: 若把责任担, 第一人称最当先, (即若做错事时, 把第一人称放在最前面.)
She and I have been to Beijing .
Who broke the window ? I and Mike .
注：it 还有一些特别的用法。
1）用作形式主语, 常用于 “It’s +adj +to do sth”句型中.
2) 用在句型: “It seems that …”中.
3) 用在句型: “It’s one’s turn to do sth”中.
4) 用在句型: “It’s time to do sth / for sth”中.
5) 用在句型: “It’s +adj +that 从句”中.
6) 用作形式宾语, 用来代替动词不定式. make /think /feel/find + it + adj (名词)+ to do sth .
二. 物主代词：
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
单数
复数
单数
复数
单数
复数
形容词性
my
our
your
your
its/his/her
their
名词性
mine
ours
yours
yours
its/his/hers
theirs
形容词性的物主代词作定语放在名词前，不能单独使用。
名词性的物主代词，后面不能加名词。名词性的物主代词常与of 连用。
Our classroom is as big as ______(they).
This is a friend of ______(my).
注: 1) 名词性的物主代词相当于形容词性的物主代词加一个名词.
（名词性的物主代词=形容词性的物主代词+ 名词）
2) 形容词性的物主代词与own 连用时,后面可跟名词也可不跟名词.
My own house = a house of my own
三. 反身代词：
单数
复数
第一人称
myself
ourselves
第二人称
yourself
yourselves
第三人称
himself/herself/itself
themselves
记忆小窍门:
反身代词有规律, 第三人称宾格加self. 其余都要物主加self, 复数ves来把f替.
反身代词的常用搭配:
enjoy oneself hurt oneself teach oneself = learn…by oneslf all by oneself
help oneself to … look after oneself leave sb by oneself lose oneself in
say to oneself for oneself dress oneself improve oneself
see oneself in the mirror
四. 指示代词：
1. 近指: this these 远指: that those
2. 用法:
1) that those 常用来代替前面出现的人或物, 以避免重复. That代替可数名词的单数或不可数名词. Those 代替复数名词.
The weather in Guangdong is hotter than _____ in Qinghai .
The books in that shop are cheaper than ______in this shop.
A.this B.that C.one D.those
2) this, that 可代替句子或句子的一个部分, that代替前面提到的句子而this代替下面提到的句子.
He had a bad cold , that is why he didn’t come .
3) 在电话用语中, this 代替自己, 而that 代替对方.
This is Tom speaking. Who is that ?
五. 不定代词的区别：
1. one与it 的区别：
One 代替同类事物中的一种. 而it代替上文中出现的某事物.
This book is a good one. May I borrow it ?
2. some与any 的区别：
一般情况下, some用于肯定句, any用于否定,疑问句, 条件句中. 但在表建议的疑问句中, 仍用some 代any. 常用于could / would / May 开头或what about /how about …. 的句中。
May I have some water ?
He asked me for some paper, but I didn’t have any .
3. many与much的区别：
Many+可数名词的复数 Much+不可数名词
都相当于 a lot of +复数名词/不可数名词
注: a lot of 不能用于否定句中. 否定句中用many /much .
4. a few /few /a little /little 的区别：
表否定(几乎没有)
表肯定(有一点/几个)
修饰可数名词
few
a few
修饰不可数名词
little
a little
The story is easy to read. there are _____ new words in it .
Hurry up ! There is _____ time left .
5. each / every 的区别：
each 表示两者或两者以上的人或物中的每一个. 而every 表示三者或三者以上的人或物中的每一个.
There are trees and flowers on _____ side of the street .
______ student has read a story .
注: each 可以与of 连用, each of 作主语时, 谓语动词用单数. 而every 不能与of 连用. 只能放在名词前作定语.
Each of us _______(study )hard .
6. no one 与none 的区别：
no one 表示没有人, 不能与of 连用. 而none of +复数名词/ 代词，作主语时，谓语常用单数。
The boys were all tired , but _____ of them stopped to have a rest .
7. both /neither /either /all / none / any 的区别：
都
都不
任何一个
两者之间
both
neither
either
三者或三者以上
all
none
any
There are many trees on ____ side of the river. A. both B.any C. Either D. all
注: 1). both 的否定词是neither, all的否定词是none.
2). both of 作主语时, 谓语动词用复数.
neither of作主语时, 谓语动词用单数.
Neither of the answers ______(be) right .
Both of my parents _______(be) workers.
3). 词组
A) both …and …连接两个主语时, 谓语动词用复数. 同义词组: not only …but also … 反义词组: neither … nor …
Not only you but also she likes watching TV.= ____ you _____ she like watching TV.= You like watching TV, _____ _____ she .
B) either …or … 或者……或者…… , neither…nor… 既不……也不…… 连接两个主语时, 谓语动词实行就近原则.
Neither you nor he ______ (be ) right.
One of Lily and Lucy is going to the park.
= _____ Lily _____Lucy _____ going to the park.
C) either 也可用于否定句中的 “也”
D) neither 也可表示 “ 也不” 句型: neither … sb 某人也不怎么样.
If you don’t go there , _____ _____ I . (我也不去)
4) how many /how much 的回答: 用none回答.
Who 的回答: 用no one 回答.
What 的回答: 用nothing 回答.
How many students are there in the classroom ? __________.
Who can answer the question ? _______.
A. None B. No one C. Nothing
8. other /the other /others /the others 的区别
(空)后面没有名词
(空)后面有名词
有数量限制(特指)
the others
the other
没有数量限制(泛指)
others
other
注: 1) one …the other … 表示两者之间的一个……另一个……
2) some… others… 表示一些…… 一些……
3) another 表示三者以上的不确定数目中的另一个. 只能修饰可数名词的单数.
但 another +数字+ 复数名词= 数字+ more +复数名词 表示 “ 另外几个……”
Would you like ______ apple ?
I have two brothers, one is a teacher, _________ is a worker .
Some are cleaning the classroom, ______ are sweeping the window .
There are 20 teachers in our school. Eight of them are men teachers, and _____ are women teachers.
everyone
每个，人人，大家
不与of 连用
every one
每个人、物
可与of 连用
9.
Every one of us has seen the film .
Everyone should do their best .
10. 复合不定代词：
some
any
no
every
thing
something
anything
nothing
everything
one
someone
anyone
no one
everyone
body
somebody
anybody
nobody
everybody
注: 1. 复合不定代词作主语时, 谓语动词用单数.
2. 形容词修饰不定代词时, 形容词放在不定代词之后.
3. 动词不定式修饰不定代词时, 动词不定式放在不定代词之后.
4. 复合不定代词用于反义疑问句中,
1) 指人的不定代词, 其反义疑问句中的主语用he 或they .
2) 指物的不定代词, 其反义疑问句中的主语用 it .
5. any, anything, anyone, anyboby 也可用于肯定句中, 表示 “任何……/任何物/任何人”
Everything ______(begin ) to grow in spring, _______ _______ ?
Is there ___________(一些有趣的事)in today’s newpaper ?
I want something ________ (eat ).
第六讲座：代词---提高篇
一、人称代词：
人称代词有主格和宾格之分，主格在句中作主语、表语等成分，宾格在句中作动词、介词宾语、同位语等成分，有时也可作表语。不仅指人，也可指物，有人称和数的变化。
【注意】在连词than和as引导的比较状语从句中常常省略从句，只保留人称代词，人称代词作主语时要用主格，在口语中也常用宾格；但当人称代词后有动词时就必须用主格。如：
My sister speaks English as well as me/I. (口语中常用me)
My sister speaks English as well as I do. (此时只能用I)
二、物主代词：
1．物主代词分为形容词性物主代词和名词性物主代词，必须与所指的名词在人称、数和性别方面保持一致。如：
The waiters offered their food to the homeless man.
【注意】单数阳性名词和单数阴性名词连用作主语时，如果前面有every，each修饰，谓语动词用单数，代词用his。如：
Each boy and each girl wants to lend his raincoat to the soldiers.
2. 形容词性物主代词相当于形容词，只能作名词或动名词的定语。
e.g. This is our classroom.
Would you mind my opening the window?
3. 名词性物主代词相当于“形容词性物主代词＋名词”，可单独作主语、宾语、表语。此外，名词性物主代词还可与名词及of连用，构成双重所有格。如：
This is her coat. Mine is over there.
Some friends of mine will attend my birthday party.
三、反身代词：
1. 反身代词通常在enjoy, teach, hurt, buy, introduce, seat, dress, express, amuse, behave等动词和by, for, to, of等介词后作宾语。如：
He was left at home by himself the whole day yesterday.
2. 反身代词可以作主语的同位语，主要起加强语气的作用，意为“亲自，本人，亲身”。
e.g. The teacher and pupils mended the road themselves.
3. 反身代词可以在be, feel, look, seem等系动词后作表语，表示身体或精神状态处于正常。
e.g. —You look pale. What’s wrong with you?
—I’m not feeling myself today, not serious, though.
注意(1)反身代词本身不能单独作主语。
(正) I myself drove the car. 我自己开车。
(误) Myself drove the car.
(2) 在由and, or, nor连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself作主语。
e.g. Charles and myself saw it.
(3) 在不强调的情况下，but, except, for等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词均可。
e.g. No one but myself/me is hurt.
4. 反身代词的习惯搭配
(1) 介词+反身代词
for oneself 为自己；亲自地
to oneself 对自己；独用
of oneself 自动地
by oneself 独自地
(2) 动词＋反身代词
dress oneself 自己穿衣
make oneself at home 不要客气
seat oneself=be seated 就坐
teach oneself 自学
come to oneself 苏醒
devote oneself to = be devoted to 致力于
enjoy oneself 过得愉快，玩得高兴
help oneself to 自行取用，请自便
accustom oneself to=be accustomed to 习惯于
amuse oneself 消遣，自娱
behave oneself 表现良好
apply oneself to sth. 致力于
explain oneself 说明自己的意图
express oneself 表达自己的思想
abandon oneself to 沉迷于，放纵
四、指示代词：
1. 指上文提到的事物，一般用that，有时也用this；指下文将要提到的事物，常用this或these。如：
He said I was lying, and that was unfair. (that指代上文He said I was lying)
What I want you to remember is this：Practise makes perfect. (此句中this指代下文，不能换为that)
2. that/those可作定语从句的先行词，但this/these不能；其中those可指人，但that
不能。如：She has known that which she wanted to know.
I admire those who are always helping others. (those作定语从句的先行词，指人)
五、相互代词：
相互代词是表示相互关系的代词，只有each other和one another两个词组，都表示“互相，相互”。
1. each other和one another在句中可以作动词或介词的宾语。如：
Let’s help each other and learn from each other.
They looked at one another and laughed.
2. 作定语时each other和one another须用所有格，表示“彼此的”。如：
We said hello to one another’s/each other’s family.
六、疑问代词：
1. 疑问代词后接ever的用法。
(1) whatever/whoever/whomever/whichever表泛指，意为“无论……”。如：
You have our support, whatever you decide.
Whichever of you gets here first will get the prize.
I don’t want to see them, whoever they are.
(2) 置于疑问代词后，用于加强语气。如：
Whatever do you mean?
Whoever heard of such a thing!
2. 疑问代词的单复数形式要由所代表的人或事物的单复数形式来确定，如果不清楚代表的人或物是复数还是单数，则谓语动词多用单数形式。who/what/which作主语时，谓语动词既可以用单数形式，也可以用复数形式。如：
What he needs most is his mother’s love.
What we need are good books.
七、复合不定代词：
1. 修饰不定代词的形容词应后置。
e.g. Is there anything wrong with my car?
2. 复合不定代词作主语时，谓语动词往往用第三人称单数形式。
3. 复合不定代词构成的固定短语：
anything but根本不，一点也不nothing but只不过do nothing but 只有，除……之外什么事也不做have something/nothing to do with 与……有/无关something of有点，有几分
八、全部否定与部分否定：
由some和any构成的不定代词的用法与some和any的用法基本一致。all, both, everyone, everybody, everything以及“every＋名词”都表示全部肯定；no one, none, nobody, nothing, not...any以及“no＋名词”都表示全部否定；
但当not出现在含有全部肯定的不定代词的句子中，不管not在它们之前还是在它们之后都表示部分否定。此外not与总括性副词如everywhere, always, wholly, altogether等连用时也表示部分否定。
e.g. All of the boys are clever, but none of them can work out this problem. (all表示全部肯定，none表示全部否定)
Such a thing can’t be found everywhere. (“not＋everywhere”表示部分否定)
The exam is very easy, but not all of the students can pass it. (“not＋all”表示部分否定)
九、both, either, neither, each, all, none：
both表示两者都，具有肯定含义；either表示两者中的任何一个；neither表示两者都不；each表示两者或两者以上的每一个；all表示全部，指三者或三者以上的人或物，也可笼统地表示“一切，所有”；none表示三者或三者以上的人或物的全部否定，与of连用或用来回答how many / much的提问。
十、it作人称代词：
在特定的环境中，it也可指人，如指婴儿、性别不详或身份不明的人。
e.g. The baby stopped crying as soon as it saw the woman.
—Who is it?
—It’s me.
十一、it作形式主语或形式宾语：
it可以作形式主语或形式宾语而把真正的主语或宾语后置。
1. 用it作形式主语的主语从句结构：
(1) It＋系动词＋形容词＋that从句：
It is necessary/important/surprising/strange＋that从句，从句中谓语动词常用“should＋动词原形”形式，且should可省略。
(2) It＋系动词＋名词＋that从句：
It is a pity/a shame/good news/a fact/an honour/a wonder/no wonder/our duty＋that从句。
e.g. It’s no wonder that you’ve achieved so much success.
(3) It＋不及物动词＋that从句：
It seems/happened/turned out /occurs/appears＋that从句。
e.g. It happened that he was out when I called on him.
(4) It＋系动词＋过去分词＋that从句：
It is said/reported/announced/believed/thought/well known/hoped/pointed out/found out/suggested/ordered/advised/requested/insisted/required/demanded＋that从句。
e.g. It’s said that they have succeeded in carrying out this experiment.
【注意】在“It is suggested/advised/ordered/requested/insisted/required/demanded＋that从句”结构中，从句要用虚拟语气，即谓语动词用“should＋动词原形”，should可省略。
e.g. It is suggested that you (should) spend more time in studying English.
(5) 其他句型，如It doesn’t matter.../It makes no difference...等。
e.g. It doesn’t matter what you wear, as long as you look neat and tidy.
It makes no difference to me whether you go or not.
2. it作形式宾语的情况:
(1)动词find, feel, think, consider, make, believe等后有宾语补足语时，则需要用it作形式宾语，把作为真正宾语的that从句后置。
e.g. We make it a rule that we get up at six every day.
We all think it important that we should protect the environment from being polluted.
(2) 有些动词接宾语从句时，需在动词和从句间加it。这些动词有：hate, appreciate,
take, owe, have, like, enjoy, make等。
e.g. I take it that you will agree with us.
(3) “动词＋介词＋it＋that”结构。常见的有see to, depend on, rely on等。
e.g. I will see to it that everything is ready on time.
十二、it可用在强调句型It is/was...that...中：
e.g. It was in the street that I met him yesterday.
【注意】it作形式主语和it引导强调句的区别：it作形式主语代替主语从句，主要是为了平衡句子结构(特别是谓语较短时)，主语从句的连接词没有变化。
it引导的强调句用来对句中某一个成分加以强调，其结构为“It is/was＋被强调部分＋that...”。在正式英语中，无论强调什么部分，都要求用连词that，但是在一般情况下，如果被强调的主语是“人”，也可用who/whom。值得注意的是，当被强调部分是状语时，只能用that，不要误用when，where，how等。be动词的时态，可以随着that从句时态的不同而变化。强调句型中去掉It is/was和that后，句子仍然完整，而it作形式主语的句子则不能。
e.g. It is I who am setting off for London next week.
It was at six o’clock that we arrived at the mountain village.
It was at the hotel room that the gentleman had stayed.
十三、it的特殊用法：
1. 指代时间、距离、自然现象(天气)等。
e.g. It is half past two now. (指时间)
It is 6 miles to the nearest hospital. (指距离)
A lovely day, isn’t it? (指天气)
2. 指环境情况等。
e.g. It is very noisy at the moment.
3. 用于某些习语搭配。
make it 及时赶到；成功完成
catch it 受处罚，被责骂
第七讲座：数词---基础篇
基数词: 表示人或事物数量多少的词.
序数词: 表示人或事物的顺序的词.
一. 基数词:
1. 基数词的读法.
1) 1---12: one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve
2) 13---19: 词尾加-teen: thirteen fourteen fifteen sixteen seventeen eighteen nineteen
3) 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90: 逢十词尾加-ty: twenty thirty forty fifty sixty seventy eighty ninety
4) 21----99: 在十位与个位之间加连字符构成.
21--- twenty-one 99---ninety-nine
5) 101---999: 先说几百, 再加and ,再加末尾两位数或个位数.
101---one hundred and one 238----two hundred and thirty-eight
6) 1000以上的数: 先将数字从右往左数, 每三位数用一个逗号隔开, 从右往左第一个逗号表示 “千”读thousand 第二个逗号表示 “百万”读million 第三个逗号表示 “十亿”读billion
18, 657, 421---eighteen million, six hundred and fifty-seven thousand, four hundred and twenty-one.
二. 序数词:
基数词变序数词:
口诀: 基变序, 有规律, 词尾要加th .一二三, 特殊记, 词尾分别tdd(first second third )八去t , 九去e, ve要用f替. ty变作tie, 再加th莫忘记.若遇几十几, 只变个位就可以.
三. 数词的应用:
1. 表编号:
结构: 名词(首字母要大写) + 基数词 = the +序数词 +名词
Lesson One = the first lesson
注：有些编号，一般仅用第一种表达法。 Room 101 101号房间
2. 序数词前一般加定冠词the 但序数词前与不定冠词a /an 连用时, 表示 “又一,再一”
You’ve done it three times. Why not try ____fourth time ?
A. a B. an C. the D. /
3. 数词前加every, 表示每……/每隔…… .
every ten days =every ninth day 每十天(每隔九天)
注:every +基数词 +复数名词 = every + (序数词-1) +单数名词
4. 基数词的复数形式表示年代和年龄
1) 表示年代: in the + 年份的复数 在几世纪几十年代.
在十九世纪七十年代. _________________________.
2) 表年龄: in one’s + 整十的复数 表示在某人几十岁时
在他四十岁时: ___________________.
5. hundred / thousand /million /billion
1). 若hundred / thousand /million /billion 前有基数词时, 其后不加s, 也不加of .若没有时, 既加s 也要带of .
Every year _______ visitors come to China.
There are two _______ students in our school.
A. thousand B. thousands C. thousands of D. thousand of
2). 若其前有a few 、many、several 修饰时，通常用复数，后接of.
3). 若名词前有the修饰时，用单数，后接of
Two ______the students in our school are from the countryside .
A. hundred B. hundred of C. hundreds of D. hundreds
6. 几个半的表达法:
基数词 + and + a half +名词复数 = 基数词 +名词(单数/复数) +and +a half
two and a half hours = two hours and a half
7. 时刻表达法:
1) 整点: 基数词 + o’clock
2) 几点几分:
A). 直接读法: 先读小时, 后读分钟 3:25 ---- three twenty-five
B). 间接读法:
a)≤30分钟. 分钟+ past + 小时 3：25 ----twenty-five past three
b)＞30分钟. ( 60-分钟 )+ to + (小时数+1) 3:55 ----- five to four
c) 30 分钟 = half 15分钟=a quarter 45分钟= three quarters
3:30 ---half past three 3:15----a quarter past three 3:45 ----a quarter to four
8. 日期表达法:
结构: 1). 月, 日, 年 (日用序数词, 年用基数词)
注:年份的读法: 先读前两位数,再读后两位数. 读日时要加the.
1900---nineteen hundred 1807----eight and seven (eight o seven)
2008---two thousand eight
2007年3月21日.--- March the twenty-first, two thousand and seven.
2). 日 月 年 (the +序数词+of +月, 年)
2007年3月21日---the twenty-first of March, two thousand and seven.
9. 分数词的表达法:
1). 结构:
a). 分子用基数词,分母用序数词. b). 当分子大于1时, 分母加复数.
3/4--- three fourths (three-fourths)
2). 注意:
a). 分数词的几种特殊形式.
1/3—one third = a third 1/4—one fourth = a quarter
1/2—one second = a half 3/4—three fourths = three quarters
b). 分数词作主语时, 谓语动词根据分数词后面的名词来确定.
Two fifths of the milk ______(be ) drunk by Tom .
One third of the students _______(be )girls .
第八讲座：数词---提高篇
1. 基数词、序数词和分数词的构成及基本用法。
2. 数词作主语时的主谓一致。
数词主要包括基数词、序数词和分数词。基数词是表示数目多少的数词，序数词是表示先后顺序的数词。分数词由基数词和序数词构成。
一、基数词：
1. hundred, thousand, million, billion, dozen, score等前有具体数字或several, a few等修饰时，一般不用复数；在表示不确切数目时，可用复数。如：
1、Several million people in the world are using this brand of toothpaste every day.
2、My teacher went to the bookstore and bought dozens of books.
2. 表示年岁时，用“in one’s +逢十的基数词的复数”。如：in his forties。
3. 表示年代时，用“in the +逢十的基数词的复数”。基数词的复数若用阿拉伯数字表示，可直接加s，也可加’s。如：in the 1950’s / 1950s。
二、序数词：
1. 序数词前通常要加定冠词the或与物主代词一起使用，在句中可作主语、宾语、定语和表语等。
2. 序数词前也可加不定冠词，表示“再一，又一”。如：a third time, a third and a fourth等。
三、分数词：
1. 分数词是由基数词和序数词构成，分子用基数词表示，分母用序数词表示；除了分子为1的情况下，序数词都要用复数形式。如：1/3 one third；3/5 three fifths。
2. “分数/百分数+ of +名词/代词”作主语时，谓语动词的数与名词或代词的数保持一致。如：
1、Two-thirds of her spare time is spent on housework.
2、80 percent of the houses were damaged in the big earthquake.
第九讲座：介词---基础篇
一．介词at/ in /on.
1. 表示时间：
1). 表示某一具体时间点，某一时刻/ 年龄
at six o’clock at noon at that time
at the moment at the age of at night
2) in表示时间段, 一天的三个时间段以及月份, 年, 季节, 世纪, 人生的某个时期(某人几十岁时)
in the morning/afternoon /evening
in spring /in 2007/in March
in the twenty-first century
in his fifties
3) on表示星期几/某一具体的日子/具体某天的上午/下午/晚上, 表示一天中的三个时间段名词前有修饰语或后有修饰语时.
On Monday on New Year’s Day
on Sunday morning on a rainy night
on the evening of April 1st, 2007
2. 表地点:
1) at 一般指较小的地点或较具体的位置
at the station at the cinema
2) in 表示在较大的地点或一个有限空间里.
in China in the classroom
3) on 指在某物体的表面上.
on the desk
注意:
写街道时, 若有门牌号用at , 否则用on / in 都可.
He lives at 270 DongChang’an Street.
二. 介词in /on / to 表方位:
1. in表示A地在B地范围之内. (包含关系)
Tanwan is ____ the southeast of China .
2. on表示A, B地接壤. (外切关系)
Hubei is ____ the north of Hunan .
3. to表示A, B两地有一定的间距. (外离关系)
Japan is _____ the east of China .
三. between / among 在……之间：
1. between: 指两者之间. 在…….之间.
2. among : 用于三者或三者以上人或物之间. 在……之中.
You sit _____ him and me .
The song is popular ______ the students.
四. after / in 在……之后：
1. after
1) after + 时间段. 表示以过去某一时刻为起点的一段时间之后, 用于过去时.
2) after 作介词. after doing sth
2. in +一段时间. 表示说话时或以现在为起点的将来一段时间之后.用于将来时.
He came back ______ two days .
He will go home___finishing his homework .
He will come back _____ two days .
五. with / in / by 表示 “用……”：
1. with 表示 “用…” 一般指有形的工具 / 手段 / 人体器官.
He cut the apple into halves ____ a knife .
注: with 表伴随, “带有, 含有”
He came in _____ a big smile on his face .
2. in表示用某种语言, 方式, 途径. 或书写/绘画所用的材料. 也可表交通方式.
Can you say it _____English ?
He wrote a letter ____ blue ink .
3. by表示乘坐交通工具, 表示方式, 方法
I study for a test _____ working with a group.
He makes a living ____ selling newspapers.
注意: 同义词组
1). by phone = on the phone
2). by car = in a car
3). in pen = with a pen = with pens
六. across / through / over / by 经过：
1. across 指横穿, 穿过. 表示动作从某一物体表面上经过.
2. through 指穿过, 透过, 表示从某一物体空间内通过.
3. over 表示从某人或某物的上空经过或越过, 不与表面接触.
4. by 表示从某人/某物的旁边经过.
Can you swim ______ the river?
the elephant is so big that it can’t go _____ the gate.
I don’t think anyone can jump ___ the fence.
I walked _____ the bank of China yesterday.
七. in front of / in the front of ：
1. in the front of 表示在…….内部的前面
2. in front of 表示在……外面的前面
There is a desk in _____ front of our classroom.
There is a big tree in _____ front of our classroom.
八．其它介词的用法：
1. at的其它用法.
1). 表示 “从事或正在做某事”, 其后加的名词往往不加冠词.
She is at work now = She is working now.
2). at表示 “价格或速度”
The train ran at 120 kilometres an hour.
2. in的其它用法:
1) in表示 “在……方面”
词组: do well in = be good at
反义词：be weak in
2) in 表示 “穿着”后接表颜色的词或衣服.
词组: be in +衣服 = be wearing +衣服
3) in作副词, “在家” = at home
3. like 的用法:
1). 像/和……一样. 常与系动词连用.
词组: look like sound like
2). 与what 连用, “是什么样子, 怎样”.
What is he like ? He is kind .
4. off的用法:
1). 从……下来, 脱离某物体.
词组: fall off
2). “休假”通常放在时间名词之后.
词组: have +时间+ off
He hasn’t had a night off for two hours.
5. except / besides
1). except 除了…….之外, 都……. . 不包括在范围之内.
注: nothing but … 除了……之外, 什么也没有.
2). besides除了……之外, 还有…… . 包括在范围之内.
We all went swimming ______ Lucy.
There is _______ a letter in the box.
We study Japanese and French____ English.
6. with / without
1). with具有, 含有 -----反义词: without 没有
词组: with the help of = with one’s help =because of = thanks to
without one’s help
2). without 的用法:
A).without + sb./ sth. 没有某人或某物
B).without + doing sth .
He left here without____(say ) “Goodbye”to us
C). without sth 常与if 引导的否定的条件句.
If there is no water , we can’t live. = We can’t live ______ _______ .
7. on the tree /in the tree
on the tree 表示 “树上本身长的东西” 在树上. 而in the tree 表示 “外界的物体进入树中” 人或物在树上.
There are some apples _____ the tree.
There is a boy ____ the tree.
8. since / for
注: since / for 用于现在完成时.
1). since :
a). since +时间点
b). 现在完成时+ since +一般过去时
c). since +一段时间+ ago.
2) for: for +一段时间= since +一段时间+ ago
9. be made +介词的区别:
be made of 由…制成 (看得见原材料)
be made from由…制成 (看不见原材料)
be made in +地点 由哪儿生产
be made by sb. 由某人制造
10. 表示 “数量的介词”
about, round, around, over
1). about, round around表示 “大约……”
2). over 表示 “超过”= more than.
11. inside / outside
Inside 在……里面 ------反义词: outside在….外面
12. in the wall /on the wall
in the wall 表示“门窗在墙上” on the wall 表示“某东西张贴或挂在墙上”.
九. 不用介词的情况:
1). 当时间状为: tonight, today, yesterday, tomorrow 等时, 不用介词.
What are you going to do tonight ?
2). 含有this, that, these, those, last, next, every, each等时间状语.
He went to Wuhan last week .
3). 以all 开头的时间状语前面不用介词.
He has worked all day .
4). 以some, any, one 等构成的时间状语前不用介词.
He met a bad man one cold morning. = He met a bad man on a cold morning.
第十讲座：介词---提高篇
介词无法在句中独立担当成分，其后一般接名词、代词或动词-ing形式，还可接不定式（如：except, but）或that引导的从句作宾语，构成介词短语，有时还可接另外一个介词短语（如：from among the trees）。
一、介词的分类：
1. 从结构上分，可分为：简单介词（如：at, in, on, for, over, up）、合成介词（如：inside, outside, within, without）、以-ing结尾的介词（如：concerning, including, excluding, following）和短语介词（如：according to, because of, apart from, in case of）。
2. 从含义上分，可分为表示时间（如：at, in, on, before, between）、地点（如：at, in, on, under, behind）、趋向（如：to / towards, across, off, up）、原因（如：for, with, due to）、让步（如：despite, in spite of）和条件（如：in case of, without, but for）等的介词。
二．核心介词必备清单：
1)表示“时间”的介词：
(1) at，on，in
at：用在钟点、黎明、正午、黄昏、午夜、节日等时间名词前或表示一段时间的开头或结尾。
at 12：00，at noon，at night，at midnight, at dawn，at daybreak，at sunrise，at the weekend，at Christmas
on：用在具体的某一天、星期几及某一天的上午、下午、晚上等的时间名词前，即on表示具体的时间。
on October 1st，on a rainy day，on National Day，on the morning of January 3rd，on the afternoon of his arrival
in：用在某年、月、季节、上午、下午、晚上等的时间名词以及较长的时间如世纪、朝代之前。
in the Tang Dynasty，in September，in the morning/afternoon/evening
注意:
当时间名词前有this，that，last，next，some，every等词限定时，通常不用任何介词。
(2) for，during，through
for：指某个动作或状态持续了多少时间。
during：指某个动作或状态在某个时间段里或整个过程中断断续续地发生过多次，或在整个时间段里的某一点发生过，起止时间比较明显。
through：在……期间；从……开头到结尾(最后那天包括在内，此时与throughout相同)
(3) from，since
from: 只用作介词，表示某动作或情况自某时开始，不表示什么时候结束。
since：既可用作介词，也可用作连词，常表示某动作或情况自某时开始，一直持续到说话时刻。
(4) before，by，until，till
before：早于；在……之前
by： ①表示“不迟于……，在(某时)前”。②表示“在……期间，在……时间内”。
until：是比较正式的用法。在肯定句中和持续性动词连用，表示动作一直持续到until后面的时间为止；在否定句中和瞬间性动词连用，表示该动作直到until后面的时间才开始。
till：意义与until相同。
(5)after，in，within
after：后接时间段表示过去“一段时间之后”，与一般过去时态连用；后接时间点表示“某一时刻之后”，与将来时态连用。
in：后接时间段表示“在何时”或将来“一段时间之后”，与将来时态连用。
within：指“在……之内”，强调事情发生的全过程不超过某一段时间。
(1) on，above，over和below，under，beneath
① on，above，over皆可表示“在……之上”。区别是on表示与表面接触的上方；
above表示“在……上方，高于”，但不垂直，表面不接触；
over表示正上方，强调“垂直在……之上”，如果over指上下接触，则含有部分或全部覆盖之意，还可表示动作在某物体的上方进行，意为“越过，通过”。
② below，under，beneath皆可表示“在……之下”。
below表示不垂直并与表面不接触的下方；
under表示垂直并与表面不接触的下方；
beneath表示在某物之下，可以表示垂直或不垂直，也可以表示上下接触的意思。
(2) in front of，in the front of两个介词短语皆有“在前面”的意思，区别是:
in front of通常相对于某物体的外部来说，指某人或某物位于该物前面，意为“在……前面”；
in the front of通常相对于空间而言，指某人或某物位于某个空间的内部，意为“在……的前部”。
(3) near，beside，by
beside和near都有“靠近”的意思，
beside强调“在……旁边(＝at the side of)”，指两者的位置关系，多用于人；
near意为“在……附近(＝at a short distance from)”，表示两者之间的距离，多用于场所，另外near还可表示时间或程度等。
by表示“在……旁边”时含有“倚，凭，靠，沿着”等意。
(4) about，round，around
表示“在……周围”时，
about指的是“靠近……周围”，不表示“把……团团围住”，而round和around指“完全的、封闭的周围”，
round既可表示静态位置，也可表示动态的动作，around通常表示静态的位置。
(5) along，across，through，by
along意为“沿着”，和动态动词连用，也可以和静态动词连用，表示“在空间的某一点上，在某一段空间里”。
across的含义与on有关，表示动作是在某一物体的表面进行的，指从一端到另一端或成十字交叉穿过。
across可以表示“在……对面或另一边”，相当于opposite。
through的含义与in有关，表示动作从物体中间穿过，这个动作是在三维空间进行的。
by表示从某物或某人的旁边经过。
3) 表示“原因，理由”的介词
常见的有for，because of，owing to，due to，on account of，thanks to，out of等。
for：多与表示感情的抽象名词或动词及reason，famous等词连用。
because of：意为“由于，因为”，强调因果关系，在句中仅作状语，修饰句中的一部分，与其他成分不用逗号隔开。
owing to: 与because of一样，也强调因果关系，除作状语外，也可作表语。作状语修饰整个句子，可放在句首或句末，用逗号隔开。
due to：引出造成后果的原因，在句中作表语、状语和定语。作表语和状语时与owing to同义，作状语时，一般不用逗号与其他成分隔开。on account of：与because of，owing to同 义，但语气较为正式。可作状语、表语，但不作定语。
thanks to：只能用作状语，可以表示正面的意思“幸亏”，也可以用在讽刺口吻中(近于讽刺口吻的“感谢”)。
out of：意为“因为，出于，由于”，后面常接抽象名词。
4) 表示“支持，反对”的介词:
against：意为“反对”，指在观点或主张方面与某人采取对立的态度。
for：指在观点或主张等方面与某人采取一致的态度，意思是“支持，赞成”，与in favor of 同义。
注意: against还有“倚着，靠着”的意思。
e.g. His bed is against the wall.
他的床靠墙放着。
5) 表示“除……之外”的介词
except: 指从所提到的人或事物中除去，即从整体中除去一部分。
but: 与except意义相同，但其语气较except弱，常与不定代词和疑问代词连用。
注意:
当except位于句首时，后面往往加上for。
Except for this，everything is in good order.
＝Everything is in good order except this.
除此之外，一切状况良好。
except for：意为“除……之外”，它的含义是肯定句子主体，排除局部。
besides：意为“除……之外(还有……)”。
注意:
besides还可用作副词，意为“而且；还有”。
e.g. I don't want to go; besides, I am too tired.
我不想去了，再说我也太累了。
other than：意为“除……之外”，后可接名词、代词、动名词和动词原形，并且可以与but，except互换；但当except后接副词、介词短语和when从句等时，but/other than不可替换except。
apart from：既可以表示besides，又可以表示except或者except for，还可以表示without的意思。
注意:
用于否定句时，besides，except与but可相互替换。
No other students passed the difficult math exam except/besides/but Lin Tao and Wu Dong.
除林涛和吴东外，其他的学生都没有通过那次很难的数学考试。
三．介词的固定搭配：
1. 介词短语:
on average 平均 in favor of支持
with regard to 关于 rather than而不是
in case of 如果, 假使 in detail详细地
in vain 徒劳地 on purpose故意地
in turn 依次 in general一般来说
on the contrary 相反 in advance提前apart from 除……之外
in addition to 除……之外
instead of 代替
in need 急需, 在危难中
in spite of 不管, 不顾
regardless of 不管, 不顾
in charge of 负责, 主管
in exchange of 作为交换
in return for 作为回报
out of sight 在视野之外
out of question 不成问题
out of order 出故障, 混乱
other than 除了, 不同于
beyond description 难以描述地
by means of 依靠, 借助于
in terms of 就……而言
in honor of 为了纪念, 向……表示敬意
for the benefit of 为了……利益
by accident/by chance 偶然, 意外地
2. 介词在动词短语中的固定搭配用法:
lead to 导致 feel like 想要
go against 违背 call for 需要, 要求
agree with 同意, 赞同 care about关心, 介意
apply to 适用于 contribute to 贡献, 有助于, 促成
appeal to 呼吁, 上诉, 对……感兴趣
remind sb. of sth. 提醒某人某事
inform sb. of sth. 通知某人某事
convince sb. of sth. 使某人确信某事
3. 介词与形容词形成的固定搭配用法:
be crazy about 着迷于, 热衷于
be absorbed in 全神贯注于
be popular with 受……欢迎
be enthusiastic about 热衷于
be afraid of 对……感到害怕的
be proud of 对……感到自豪的
be particular about 对……挑剔的
be bored with 对……感到厌倦的
be strict with 对……要求严格的
第十一讲座：连词---基础及提高篇
一．并列连词和连词短语：
并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组或从句。常见的连词有and, but, or, so, both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only… but also 等。
1. and
1). and 表示 “和、且”在肯定句中连接并列的成分。
He is laughing and talking.
2). 祈使句+ and …… , “and” 表示“那么”之意。= If……
Study hard, and you will succeed .= _____ _____ study hard, you will succeed.
3). adj / adv + and + adj /adv 表示“渐渐”。
He makes mistakes again and again.
2. but
表示转折关系的连词，意为“但是”
He is poor, but honest.
3. or
1). or 有 “或”的意思，表示一种选择
Would you like tea or water?
2). “祈使句……, or …” or 表示否则。= If …not …, ……. .
Study hard, or you will fail. = _____ you _____study hard, you will fail.
3). or 用在否定句中表示并列关系。
He can’t read or write.
4. both
1). both “两者都”, 后面的名词、动词都用复数。
Both the answers are right.
2). both of ….
Both of us are students.
3). both …and…
Both you and she are right.
5. either/ either …or
1). either “两者当中任何一个”, 后有of 时接名词的复数形式，无of时接单数名词，动词用单数形式。
You may wear either of the hats.
2). either …or… “不是……就是……, 或者
……或者…….”动词与临近的主语保持一致。即 “就近原则”.
Either you or he has to go = Either he or you have to go.
6. neither /neither …nor…
1). neither “两者当中都不”, 后有of 时接名词的复数形式，无of时接单数名词，动词用单数形式。
Neither of the answers ______(be) right.
2). neither ….nor… “既不…….也不……”动词与临近的主语保持一致。即 “就近原则”.
Neither you nor I am right. = Neither I nor you are right.
二．从属连词：
从属连词是引导从句的连词。
1. 引导宾语从句的连词
1). that 连接由陈述句转变而来的宾语从句。
2). who, whom, what, which, whose, when, where, why, how连接由特殊疑问句转变而来的宾语从句。
3). if/ whether 连接由一般疑问句转变而来的宾语从句。
2. 引导状语从句的连词
1). 时间状语从句：when, before, after, until, as soon as (主将从现)
2). 条件状语从句：if, unless
3). 原因状语从句：because
4). 方式状语从句：than
5). 结果状语从句：so… that … ,such… that…
6). 让步状语从句：though /although
7). 目的状语从句：so that
3. 不能同时出现在一个句子中的连词。
1). because, so 不能同时出现在一个句子里，只用其中之一。
Because in our school knew him, so we had no trouble in finding him.
2). though /although, but不能同时出现在一个句子里，只用其中之一。但though 可以与yet，still 同时出现在一个句子中。
Though Australia is very large, but the population is quite small.
4. 必须用whether 的情况。
1). discuss 和介词后的宾语从句用whether.
We are discussing ____ we’ll hold a meeting.
I’m worried about ___she can come to the meeting.
2). 和不定式、or not 连用必须用whether.
I don’t know ______ to leave or not.
第十二讲座：形容词和副词---基础篇
I. 形容词:
一、形容词的一般用法:
1. 作定语，一般放在所修饰词的前面。
It’s a cold and windy day.
2. 作表语，放在系动词的后面。(look, feel, smell, sound….)
He looks happy today.
3. 形容词修饰something，anything，nothing，everything等复合不定代词时，须放在其后。
Would you like something hot to drink？
4. 表示长、宽、高、深及年龄的形容词，应放在相应的名词之后。
How long is the river？ It’s about two hundred metres long.
5. 只能作表语的形容词：afraid；alone；asleep；awake；alive；well健康的；ill；frightened
The man is ill.（正） The ill man is my uncle.（误）
6. 只能作定语的形容词：little小的；only唯一的；wooden木质的；woolen羊毛质的；elder年长的
My elder brother is in Beijing.（正） My brother is elder. （误）
7. 貌似副词的形容词：lonely；friendly；lively；lovely
二、形容词常用句型:
1. “It’s +adj.+of+sb. +不定式”表示“某人（做某事）怎么样”。=Sb +be +adj+to do sth
注意：这一句型中常用描述行为者的性格、品质的形容词，如good，kind，nice，polite，clever，foolish，lazy，careful，careless，right（正确的），wrong等。
It’s very kind of you to help me.
=You are very kind to help me.
2. “It’s+adj. +for+sb. +不定式”表示“做某事对某人来说怎么样”。
=To do sth is adj for sb .
注意：这一句型中常用的形容词有important，necessary，difficult，easy，hard，dangerous，safe，useful，pleasant，interesting，impossible等。
It’s not easy for them to learn a foreign language.
=To learn a foreign language is not easy for them.
3. 表示感情或情绪的形容词，如glad，pleased，sad，thankful等常接不定式。
I’m very sad to hear the bad news.
4. 表示能力和意志的形容词，如ready（乐意的，有准备的），able（有能力的），sure（一定），certain（一定）等常接不定式。
Lei Feng is always ready to help others.
He is sure to get to school on time.
Ⅱ副词:
一、副词的分类:
副词按词汇意义可分为：
方式副词：well，fast，slowly，carefully，quickly
程度副词：very，much，enough，almost，rather，quite
地点副词：here，there，out，somewhere，abroad，home
时间副词：today，early，soon，now，then，recently，still
频度副词：always，often，usually，sometimes，seldom，never
否定副词：no，not，neither，nor
疑问副词：where，how，why
其他： also，too，only
二、副词的基本用法：
1). 副词是用来修饰形容词、动词、其他副词, 一般放在被修饰词之前.
He plays the piano very well .
2). 副词是用来修饰动词, 常放在动词之后.
He got up quickly.
3). enough 修饰adj /adv 时, 放在其后.
He is old enough to go to school.
三、常见副词用法辨析:
1. already与yet的区别
already用于肯定句句中，表示“已经”；yet用于否定句句末，表示“还”，用于疑问句句末，表示“已经”
He had_____left when I called.
Have you found your ruler______？
2. very，much和very much. 的区别
very用于修饰形容词或副词的原级；much用于修饰形容词或副词的比较级；修饰动词要用very much.
John is ____ honest.
This garden is_____ bigger than that one.
Thank you _____.
3. so与such的区别
⑴so修饰形容词或副词；such 修饰名词，My brother runs so fast that I can’t follow him.
He is such a boy.
⑵so+形容词+a/an+可数名词单数
such+a/an+形容词+可数名词单数
such+形容词+可数名词复数/不可数名词
He is ___ clever a boy. =He is ____ a clever boy.
It is____cold weather.
They are _____good students.
⑶名词前有many, much, few, little (少量的) 用so 不用such. (多多少少仍用so)
但little 表示 “小的” 用such.
There are ___ little sheep on the hill .
4. also，too，as well与either 的区别
also，as well，too，用于肯定句，also常用于be动词，情态动词，助动词之后，行为动词之前；as well，too用于句末；either用于否定句中，置于句末。
例如，My father is a teacher. My mother is ____a teacher.
=My father is a teacher. My mother is a teacher ______.
=My father is a teacher. My mother is a teacher，_____.
I can’t speak French…… Jenny can’t speak French，_____.
5. sometime，sometimes，some time与some times的区别
sometime：表示将来的或过去的某一个不确定的时间。
sometimes：有时，不时的= at times
some time：一段时间
some times：几次，几倍
We’ll have a test ______next month.
_____ we are busy and sometimes we are not.
He stayed in Beijing for _____ last year.
I have been to Beijing ______.
6. ago与before的区别:
ago表示以现在为起点的“以前”，常与一般过去时连用，不可以单独使用。
before指过去或将来的某时刻“以前”，也可泛指以前，常和完成时连用，可以单独使用。
I saw him ten minutes _______.
He told me that he had seen the film______.
7. now，just与just now的区别:
now：与一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成时连用，意为“现在”
just：与现在完成时连用，表示“刚……”
just now：和过去时连用，表示“刚才”
Where does he live______？
We have _______ seen the film.
He was here______.
8. lonely / alone 的区别:
1). alone 独自一人/没有同伴, 既可作adj 也可作adv.
2). lonely 表示孤独, 寂寞, 也可修饰地点, 表示荒凉, 偏僻的，常与feel 连用。
3). alone 只作表语 (以a开头的形容词一般只作表语, 不作定语)而lonely 既可作表语, 也可作定语)
He lives _____ on a _____ island .
He is _____ , but he doesn’t feel ______.
9. fast /quickly /soon 的区别.
fast 表示速度之快 quickly表示动作之快 soon表示时间之快
I’m leaving home this afternoon. Really ? Why so ______?
A. fast B. soon C. quickly D. early
Ⅲ、形容词，副词的比较级、最高级:
一、规则变化:
1. 一般在词尾直接加er或est， tall-taller-tallest，long-longer-longest
2. 以不发音的字母e结尾的单词在词尾直接加r或st， nice-nicer-nicest
3. 以辅音字母+y结尾的词，把y变为i，再加er或est， heavy-heavier-heaviest
4. 重读闭音节，末尾只有一个辅音字母，双写这个辅音字母，再加er或est， big-bigger-biggest
注: 大, 红, 湿, 热, 悲, 瘦, 胖. 双写末辅再变级.（big/red/wet/hot/sad/thin/fat ）
5. 部分双音节词和多音节词分别在原级前加more构成比较级和most构成最高级， beautiful-more beautiful-most beautiful
注: 表示否定意义在其前加less /least
important----less important----least important
English is more interesting than Chinese =Chinese is less interesting than English .
6. 由 “形容词+ly”构成的副词, 在其前加more/ most
slowly---more slowly----most slowly；但early—earlier---earliest
二、不规则变化:
原级
比较级
最高级
good/well
better
best
many/much
more
most
little
less
least
old
old / elder
old /eldest
bad/badly/ill
worse
worst
far
farther (距离)/further（程度）
farthest /furthest
下列单、双音节词只能加more和most
原级
比较级
最高级
like(想似的)
more like
most like
real(真的)
more real
most real
tired
more tired
most tired
pleased
more pleased
most pleased
often
more often
most often
注: 形容词, 副词同形有: back, high, well, fast, early, late, straight.
Ⅳ.形容词，副词等级的用法:
一、原级的用法:
1. 只能修饰原级的词，very，quite，so，too
He is too tired to walk on.
My brother runs so fast that I can’t follow him.
2. 原级常用的句型结构
（1）A= B-----A+ as +adj / adv的原级+ as +B 表示 “A和B一样”
Tom is as old as Kate.
Tom runs as fast as Mike.
（2）A＜B---A +not+as/so+形容词原级+as+B 表示 “A不如B…”
This room is not as/so big as that one.
He doesn’t walk as slowly as you.
二、比较级的用法:
1. 可以修饰比较级的词.
much，a lot，far，…的多a little，a bit，…一点儿even甚至，still仍然
Lesson One is much easier than Lesson Two. Tom looks even younger than before.
2. 比较级常用的句型结构
“甲+形容词/副词的比较级+than+乙”表示“甲比乙…”
Tom is taller than Kate.
I got up earlier than my mother this morning.
三. 最高级的用法:
1). 结构: the +最高级+ of +人或物( in +地点)
He is the tallest of all the boys
He works hardest in his class .
注: 副词的最高级前the 可省掉
2). the +序数词+形容词的最高级+单数名词
The Yellow River is the second longest river in China .
3). one of +the +形容词的最高级+复数名词
He is one of the cleverest students in our class.
4). “特殊疑问词+be+the+最高级+甲，乙，or丙？”用于三者以上的比较。
Which season do you like （the） best，spring，summer or autumn？
四. 级别的转换:
1). 原级与比较级的转换
a). 倍数+ as …as → (倍数-1)+比较级+than
This room is five times as big as that one = This room is___ ___bigger than that one .
b). not as…as 与比较级的转换
A +not as …as + B → A+比较级(反义词的比较级) +than +B →B+比较级+than+A
Mary is not as old as Tom. = Mary is _____ _____ Tom.
= Tom is ____ _____ Mary.
This book is not as expensive as that one = This book is _____ _____ than that one = That book is _____ ______than this one .
2). 比较级与最高级的转换
a). the +最高级+ of / in ……
b). 比较级+than +any other +单数名词
+the other +复数名词
+anyone else
+any of the other+复数名词
c). Nobody else + 比较级 + than ……
Tom is the tallest boy in our class .
Tom is taller than ____ ____ boy in our class.
Tom is taller than _____ ____ in our class.
_____ _____ is taller than Tom in our class.
五. 级别的惯用法:
1. “比较级+and+比较级”表示“越来越……”。
He is getting taller and taller.
2. “the+比较级，the+比较级”表示“越……，越……”。
The more careful you are，the fewer mistakes you’ll make.
3.“甲+be+the+形容词比较级+of the two+……”表示“甲是两者中较……的”。
(of the twins/parents…)
Look at the two boys. My brother is the taller of the two.
4. 当adj 的最高级前有物主代词, 名词所有格, 指示代词时, 不用the .
This is my best book of all.
5. 相比较的前后两部分必须是同类比较.
My pencil is longer than ______(you).
6. 比较时不能与自身相比
注: 当相比较的两者属于同一范围/类别时, 为了与自身相比较, 要用any other +单数名词. 若两者不属于同一范围/类别时, 不必用other, 直接用any + 单数名词.
He is taller than _____ boy in his class.
He is taller than _____boy in our class .
A. any B. any other
7. 有些含有比较级的句子里，常用that(单数、不可数名词)、those (复数名词)代替前面提到的词，以避免重复。
The weather in Beijing is colder than ____ in Guangzhou in winter .
The boys in our class are more than _____ in your class .
第十三讲座：形容词和副词---提高篇
一、形容词作补语和状语：
1. 形容词作主语补足语和宾语补足语时, 可以 表示“现状, 状态”; 也可以表示某一动作的结果, 常用在表示“认为, 看待”等动词后, 如believe, prove, consider等。
2. 形容词作状语时, 可以看作是“being＋形容词”结构或when, if, because等从句的省略, 表示时间、方式、原因、伴随、让步、条件等, 也可以表示对主语进行解释, 说明主语是什么情况, 或进行强调, 其逻辑主语必须与句子主语保持一致。如:
Hungry and tired, he had to stop working.
Ripe(＝When they are ripe), the oranges taste sweet.
二、表语形容词：
表语形容词是一般只用于系动词后作表语的形容词, 这类动词常见的有remain, stay, stand, keep, lie, grow, turn, get, become, run, come, seem, sound, appear, look, smell, taste, feel等。常见的表语形容词有: 某些以a开头的形容词: afraid “害怕的”; alive “活着的”; alone “单独的”; ashamed “羞愧的”; asleep “睡着的”; awake “醒着的”等。
① 这类形容词除afraid和ashamed可用very修饰外, 一般不用very修饰, 可用其他表程度的副词修饰, 如very much。常用搭配:
wide awake 完全清醒
sound/fast asleep 酣睡
quite alone 非常孤独
still alive 仍然活着
much alike 非常相似
full/well/quite aware of 充分意识到; 对……非常清醒
② 表语形容词还可用作后置定语。如:
He is the most famous scientist alive in the world today.
2. 某些与健康状况有关的形容词: well “健康的”; fine “健康的”; poorly “不适; 不舒服”; unwell “不舒服的”; ill “有病的”; faint “头晕的”等。如:
I’m feeling well today.
He is ill today.
3. 某些描述感觉或心情的形容词: glad “高兴的”; pleased “高兴的”; content “满意的”; sorry “难过的”; upset “难过的”等。如:
I am glad/pleased to hear that you are offered a good job.
4. 其他表语形容词: certain “确认的”; sure “确信的”; fond “喜欢的”; ready “准备好的”; unable “不能……的”等。如:
I’m certain/sure that he will succeed.
三、复合形容词：
1. 副词词干＋分词, 如: hardworking 勤劳的
2. 名词词干＋过去分词, 如: manmade人造的
3. 名词词干＋现在分词, 如: timeconsuming 耗时的
4. 名词词干＋形容词, 如: worldfamous 世界闻名的
5. 数词词干＋名词, 如: fivestar 五星级的
6. 数词词干＋名词ed, 如: threelegged 三条腿的
7. 数词词干＋名词＋形容词, 如: fiveyearold 5岁的
8. 形容词词干＋过去分词, 如: readymade 现成的
9. 形容词词干＋名词ed, 如: kindhearted 好心的
10. 形容词词干＋现在分词, 如: ordinarylooking 相貌一般的
11. 形容词词干＋形容词, 如: redhot 炽热的
四、副词：
1. 派生副词：
1) 最常用的后缀是ly, 即“形容词＋后缀ly”构成副词。
2) 还有加后缀ward(s), ways, wise等构成副词。如: backwards, northwards, sideways, crossways, clockwise等。
2. 复合副词和短语副词：
复合副词是指由两个词共同组成的副词。如anyhow, meantime, nowhere, somehow, therefore等。
短语副词是指用连词把副词连接起来的短语。如back and forth(前后), here and there(到处), now and then(不时)等。
五、形容词和副词原级的常见句型：
1. as＋形容词/副词＋as 如:
He is as tall as his father.
He speaks English as fluently as an Englishman.
注意:
在否定句或疑问句中可用so...as, 即not as/so...as。如:
He can’t run so/as fast as you.
It’s not as/so warm as yesterday.
2. “as＋形容词＋a(n)＋单数名词＋as”或“as＋many/much＋名词＋as”。如:
This is as good an example as the other is.
I can carry as much paper as you can.
There are as many students in your class as in ours.
六、形容词和副词的比较级和最高级的常见句型：
1. more＋原级/名词＋than＋原级/名词, 意为“与其说是……不如说是……”。如:
He is more diligent than clever.
2. “比较级＋and＋比较级”和“more and more＋多音节词原级”, 表示程度递增。这种结构后不可接than引导的从句。如:
Things are getting better and better.
She plays the piano more and more beautifully.
注意:
from bad to worse/worse and worse 越来越糟
make matters worse/what was worse/worse than all/worse than ever 更糟的是. 如:
Things are getting from bad to worse/worse and worse.
The car broke down when I was driving home from work, and to make matters worse it was pouring with rain.
3. 如果比较对象不能相互包容时, 句型有:
比较级＋than ＋any other+单数名词
all (the) other+复数名词
anyone else
any of the other+复数名词
the rest of+复数名词或不可数名词
4. “the＋比较级, the＋比较级”表示两种情况同时变化。这个句型中的第一句相当于状语从句, 不能用将来时态。如:
The more medicine I take, the worse I seem to feel.
5. “no＋比较级＋than...”意为“都不”, 是对两者的共同否定, 侧重前者; “not＋比较级＋than...”意为“不及”, 表示前者不如后者, 隐含对两者的肯定, 侧重后者。如:
He is no taller than I.
My handwriting is not better than yours.
6. “the＋比较级＋of the two(＋名词)”, 表示“两者中较……的一个”。如:
The taller of the two boys is my brother.
7. the＋最高级＋of/in＋比较范围
最高级表示在一定范围内某事物或某人在性质、高低或大小等方面程度最高或最低。“……之中最……”, 用于三者或三者以上的比较。同类范畴用of, 不同类用in。
He talks (the) least and does (the) most in his class.
He is the fastest runner of the three boys.
8. not/never＋比较级 “最……不过”。
在比较级前加上否定意义的词, 表达最高级的含义。如:
His work couldn’t be worse.
He has never spent a more worrying day.
9. “nothing/nobody...＋比较级＋than”意为“没有……更/最”。如:
Nothing is better than a hot drink on a cold winter day.
七、形容词和副词的比较等级的修饰语：
1. almost, exactly, half, just, nearly, quite, twice, three times, a third time等用于原级之前, 表示程度。如:
He is almost as tall as his brother.
This line is twice as long as that one.
2. a bit, a little, rather, any, much/many, far, a great/good deal, a lot, still, even等用于比较级之前, 表示确定的程度。分数或有关长度、时间、重量等名词短语通常放在比较级前, 也可由by引出而置于比较级之后。如:
It’s a little colder today than it was yesterday.
This shirt is much more expensive than that one.
He is two years older than me.
＝He is older than me by two years.
注意:
① 修饰可数名词的比较级不用much, 而用many, 如many more books; 修饰不可数名词的比较级用much, 如much more work, “更多的工作”; much more necessary, “更有必要”。
② 除quite better外, quite不可修饰比较级。3. by far, much, the first/second用于形容词的最高级前。如:
The Yellow River is the second longest river in China.
This is by far the best.
This is much the most important.
八、比较级相关习语：
1. more than
more than＋数词 多于, 超过
more than＋名词 不仅仅是
more than＋形容词 非常, 很
more than＋含有情态动词的从句 超过了……的范围
more A than B 与其说……倒不如说……
2. no more than(＝only) 仅仅, 只有
3. not more than(＝at most) 不超过, 至多
第十四讲座：动词及时态---基础篇
一、一般现在时：
1. 概念：经常、反复发生的动作或行为及现在的某种状况。也可表客观规律以及在时间，条件状语从句中表将来时（主将从现）
2. 时间状语：
always, usually, often, sometimes, every week (day, year, month…), once a week, on Sundays,
3. 基本结构：
①be动词；am/is/are ②行为动词: 动词原形、第三人称单数。
4. 否定形式：
①am/is/are+not; ② don’t /doesn’t +动词原形+……
5. 一般疑问句：
①把be动词放于句首；② Do/Does +…+动词原形+…?
二、一般过去时：
1. 概念：
过去某个时间里发生的动作或状态；过去习惯性、经常性的动作、行为。
2. 时间状语：
ago, yesterday, the day before yesterday, last week(year, night, month…), in 1989, just now, at the age of 5, one day, long long ago, once upon a time, this morning
3. 基本结构：
①be动词；was/were …
②行为动词: 动词的过去式
4. 否定形式：
①was/were+not; ② didn’t +动词原形
5. 一般疑问句：
①was或were放于句首；② Did +…+动词原形……?
三、现在进行时：
1. 概念：
表示现阶段或说话时正在进行的动作及行为。
2. 时间状语：
now, at this time, these days, look, listen, can you see? Can’t you see ?之类的暗示语。
3. 基本结构： am/is/are+doing
4. 否定形式： am/is/are+not+doing.
5. 一般疑问句： Is /Are …+doing sth ?
四、过去进行时：
1. 概念：
表示过去某段时间或某一时刻正在发生或进行的行为或动作。
2. 时间状语：
at this/that time yesterday, at that time, at six yesterday evening, from eight o’clock to nine o’clock, last night 或以when/while引导的时间状语(过去进行时+when+一般过去时/ 一般过去时+while +过去进行时/过去进行时+while +过去进行时)。
3. 基本结构： was/were+doing
4. 否定形式： was/were + not + doing.
5. 一般疑问句： 把was或were放于句首。
五、现在完成时：
1. 概念：
过去发生或已经完成的动作对现在造成的影响或结果，或从过去已经开始，持续到现在的动作或状态。
2. 时间状语：
recently, lately, since…for…, in the past few years, already, yet, never, ever, just, before, so far, once, twice etc.
3. 基本结构： have/has + done
4. 否定形式： have/has + not +done.
5. 一般疑问句： 把have或has放于句首。
6. 反义疑问句： 直接用has /have 进行反问
7. 注意：
1). have been to /have gone to /have been in 的区别
have been to +地点 表示曾经去过某地，现人已返回。(once, twice ….)
have gone to +地点 表示人已去了某地，人还未返回。(where is sb ?)
have been in +地点 表示在某地呆多长时间。（for…../ since …..）
2). 与时间段连用时，短暂性动词应改为相应的延续性动词。
Come/go to ------ be at /in leave ----be away from buy ----have borrow /lend -----keep open ---be open close---be closed die---be dead start/begin ----be on join—--be in /be a member of /be a soldier become –be make friends ---be friend get up ---be up fall asleep ---be asleep catch a cold – have a cold reach/get/arrive---stay/be
3). 现在完成时的四种句型：
A). 主语+短暂性动词的过去式+ 时间+ago
B). 主语+have/has +延续性动词的过去分词+for…./since …. ago .
C). It’s +时间段+since +短暂性动词的过去式
D). 时间段+has passed +since +短暂性动词的过去式
His grandfather died two years ago.
His grandfather has ____ ____ for two years.
_____two years _____ his grandfather ____.
Two years ____ ____ ____ his grandfather _____.
4). 现在完成时与一般过去时的区别
现在完成时与现在有关的时态，他侧重于过去的动作对现在造成的影响。而一般过去时侧重于表示过去的动作与现在无关，若询问该动作发生的具体的时间时，只能用一般现在时。
Has he returned the library book ? Yes, he has.
When ____ he _____(return) it ?He ____ (return)it yesterday afternoon .
六、过去完成时：
1. 概念：
以过去某个时间为标准，在此以前发生的动作或行为，或在过去某动作之前完成的行为，即“过去的过去”。
2. 时间状语：
1). before+过去时间，by+ 过去时间, by the end of last year(term, month…)
2). by the time +从句（一般过去时），主句（过去完成时）
3). 用于由when,after, before 引导的时间状语从句中，前后两动作都发生在过去。
过去完成时+when/before +一般过去时
一般过去时+after +过去完成时
4). 用于宾语从句中。
3. 基本结构：
had + done.
4. 否定形式：
had + not + done.
5. 一般疑问句：
把had放于句首。
七、一般将来时：
1. 概念：
表示将要发生的动作或存在的状态及打算、计划或准备做某事。
2. 时间状语：
tomorrow, next day(week, month, year ), soon, in+一段时间, by…, the day after tomorrow, this evening, tonight
3. 基本结构：
1). am/is/are/going to + do；
2). will/shall + do.
3). 用现在进行时表示将来，动词come, go, start, leave, fly, move, begin, get ….
4). 当主句为一般将来时，由if, as soon as, until, when, before, after, unless 引导的状语从句中用一般现在时代替一般将来时。
4. 否定形式：
①was/were + not; ②在行为动词前加didn't，同时还原行为动词。
5. 一般疑问句：
①be放于句首；②will/shall提到句首。
八、过去将来时：
1. 概念：
立足于过去某一时刻，从过去看将来，常用于宾语从句中。
2. 时间状语：
the next day(morning, year…), the following month(week…), by then ,
3. 基本结构：
①was/were/going to + do；
②would/should + do.
4. 否定形式：
①was/were/not + going to + do;
②would/should + not + do.
5. 一般疑问句：
①was或were放于句首；
②would/should 提到句首。
第十五讲座：动词及时态---提高篇
一．一般现在时：“do/does”：
①表示经常发生的动作或存在的状态。
②表示按计划、规定要发生的动作。
③表示客观存在或普遍真理。
二．一般过去时：“did”：
表示过去发生的动作或存在的状态。
三．现在进行时：“am/is/are doing”：
表示现在正在进行的动作。
四．过去进行时：“was/were doing”：
表示过去某一时间正在进行的动作。
五．一般将来时：“will/shall do”：
表示将来要发生的动作或存在的状态、未来习惯性的动作、提出请求、作出允诺、表示同意等。
六．过去将来时：“would/ should do”：
表示在过去将来的某一时间发生的动作或存在的状态。常用在间接引语中，主句谓语动词为过去时态。
七．现在完成时：“have/has done”：
①表示说话时已经完成的动作，而且这个动作的结果对现在仍有影响。
②表示动作发生在过去，但一直持续到现在，并且有可能继续持续下去。
八．现在完成进行时：“have/has been doing”：
表示过去某时开始一直延续到现在(这个动作可能刚停止, 也可能还在进行), 不少情况下表示与现在状态有联系, 有时表示动作的重复等。
九．过去完成时：“had done”：
表示在过去某一时刻或动作之前已完成的动作，即“过去的过去”。
1．一般现在时的用法：
(1) 表示经常性、习惯性的动作和现在的状态、特征, 句中常用often, usually, every day等时间状语。
e.g. He goes to school every day. (经常性动作)
He is very happy. (现在的状态)
(2) 表示按计划、规定要发生的动作, (句中都带有时间状语) 但限于少数动词。如begin, come, leave, go, arrive, start, stop, return, open, close等。
e.g. The train starts at nine in the morning.
(3) 书报的标题, 小说等情节介绍常用一般现在时。
e.g. Xi meets journalists.
(4) 在时间状语从句和条件状语从句中, 用现在时代替将来时。
e.g. If you come this afternoon, we’ll have a meeting.
2. 一般过去时的用法：
(1) 表示过去某时间发生的事、存在的状态或过去反复发生的动作。
He saw Mr. Wang yesterday.
He worked in a factory in 1986.
(2) 表示过去经常发生的动作(也可用“used to”或“would＋动词原形”代替)。
e.g. During the vacation I often swam/would swim in the sea.
I used to smoke.
注意: used to表示过去常发生而现在不再发生的动作或存在的状态。
3. 一般将来时的用法：
一般将来时表示将来的动作或状态, 其表达形式除了“will或shall＋动词原形”外, 还有以下几种。
(1) “be going to＋动词原形”, 表示即将发生的或最近打算进行的事。
e.g. It is going to rain.
We are going to have a meeting today.
(2) go, come, start, move, sail, leave等可用进行时态表示按计划即将发生的动作。
e.g. I’m coming.
(3) “be to＋动词原形”表示按计划要发生的事或征求对方意见, 也可以表示命令、
禁止等。
e.g. Are we to go on with this work?
(4) “be about to＋动词原形”表示即将发生的动作。
e.g. The plane is about to leave.
(5) 某些表示位移、停留等的动词其现在进行时可表示按计划或不久之后肯定 发生的动作或将要做的事。这类动词有go, come, stay, leave, start等。
4. 现在进行时的用法：
(1) 表示此时此刻正在进行的动作, 由“be＋现在分词”构成。
e.g. What are you doing？
(2) 与always, constantly等连用, 表示感情色彩。
e.g. He is always helping others.
另外“系动词＋介词或副词”也表示进行时的意义。
e.g. The bridge is under construction.
注意：下列动词不宜用进行时
① 感觉类：look, smell, feel, sound, taste, see, hear等；
② 感情类：like, love, prefer, admire, hate, fear等；
③ 所有类：have, contain, own, hold, belong to等。
5. 过去进行时的用法：
(1) 表示过去某一时刻、某一阶段正进行的动作, 由“was (were)＋现在分词”构成。
e.g. He was reading a novel when I came in.
(2) 与always, forever, constantly连用, 表示赞成或厌恶的感情色彩。
e.g. He was always thinking of others, never thinking of himself.
6. 现在完成时的用法：
现在完成时由“have＋过去分词”构成。其使用有两种情况：
(1) 表示的动作在说话之前已完成, 而对现在有影响, 句中没有具体时间状语。
e.g. He has gone to Fuzhou. (说话人认为他不在此地)
He has been to Fuzhou. (说话人认为他在此地)
(2) 现在完成时所表示的动作开始于过去, 持续到现在, 也许还会持续下去。常与for...和since...等表示一段时间的状语或so far等表示包括现在时间在内的状语连用。
e.g. He has studied English for 5 years.
He has studied English since 1985.
注意: 表示短暂时间动作的词, 如come, go, die, marry, buy等的完成时不能与for, since等表示一段时间的词连用。
(3) 还可用在时间和条件状语从句中, 表示将来某时完成的动作, 强调此动作先于主句动作发生。
e.g. I’ll go to your home when I have finished my homework.
Don’t get off the bus until it has stopped.
7. 过去完成时的用法：
(1) 表示过去某一时刻或某一动作之前完成的动作或状态。句中常用by, before, until, when等词引导的时间状语。
e.g. By the time he was twelve, Edison had begun to make a living by himself.
I had learnt 5000 words before I entered the university.
(2) 表示过去某一时刻之前发生的动作或状态持续到过去某个时间或持续下去。
e.g. Before he slept, he had worked for 12 hours.
8. 过去将来时的用法：
表示从过去的某时间看来将要发生的动作或存在的状态。由“should或would＋动词原形”构成。第一人称用should, 其他人称用would。
e.g. They were sure that they would succeed.
十．时态的比较：
1. 一般过去时与现在完成时：
一般过去时只表示过去的动作或状态，不涉及对现在的影响；现在完成时表示过去发生的某一动作对现在造成的影响或结果，强调的是现在的状况。如：
We stayed there two weeks.
The ship has sailed for two weeks.
一般过去时和表示过去的时间状语连用；现在完成时常和一些不明确的或包括“现在”在内的时间状语或表示从过去某一时刻延续到现在的“一段时间”的状语连用，而不与明确的、具体的过去时间状语连用。如：
Tom suddenly fell ill yesterday.
It has been freezing cold since last week.
2. 过去完成时与一般过去时：
过去完成时以过去某时间为起点，表示过去某一时间或动作之前已经发生或完成的动作或存在的状态；一般过去时以现在时间为起点，表示过去发生的动作或存在的状态。如：
He told me that he had seen the film the day before.
He died three years ago.
表示某事继续到过去某时已有一段时间时，用过去完成时；表示两个或两个以上的动作，用and (then), then或but等连接，按照动作发生的顺序表达时，用一般过去时。如：
He said he had worked in that factory since 1984.
He had lunch and then continued his work.
3. 现在完成时与现在完成进行时：
在表示“未完成”且与“一段时间”连用时，两者可互换。如：
We have lived / have been living here for two years.
在没有表示“一段时间”的状语时，现在完成进行时强调继续进行，表示“未完成”，而现在完成时强调结果，表示完成。如：
I have been reading.
He has turned off the light.
第十六讲座：时态及语态---基础篇
一．被动语态的时态：
1. 一般现在时的被动语态： am /is/ are +动词的过去分词
2. 一般过去时的被动语态： was /were +动词的过去分词
3. 一般将来时的被动语态： will be +动词的过去分词
4. 现在进行时的被动语态： am /is /are +being +动词的过去分词
5. 现在完成时的被动语态： have /has +been +动词的过去分词
6. 情态动词的被动语态： 情态动词 + be +动词的过去分词
二．主动语态变被动语态的变法：
口诀：宾变主，主变宾，谓变be done , 时不变，数格必须随被变。
备注：
1. 主动、被动的时态要一致。
2. 主动、被动的句式要一致。
3. 变成的被动语态的主语与谓语在单复数上保持一致。
三．特殊情况的被动语态：
1. 带双宾语的被动语态：
动词+ sb(间宾) +sth(直宾)
口诀：如遇双宾语，一般变间宾，若把直宾变，to /for 间宾连。
1). give/pass /show 与介词to 搭配。
give sb sth —— sb +be given sth 或 sth +be given +to sb .
2). buy/make/cook 与介词for 搭配。
buy sb sth —— sb +be bought + sth 或 sth +be bought +for sb
He gave me a book
I ______ ______ a book by him.
A book ____ ____ _____ me by him .
My mother made me a cake .
I ____ _____ a cake by my mother
A cake ____ ____ ____ me by my mother .
2. 带省to 的不定式作宾补的被动语态：动词+ sb + do sth .
口诀：感使动词真叫怪，to来to去记心怀，主动语态to离去，被动语态to回来。
动词：make / let /have /see /hear /feel /watch
make sb do sth ----sb + be +made +to do sth
The boss made the workers work all day
The workers ____ ____ ____ work all day by the boss.
3. 在see /hear /notice /keep +sb +doing sth 句型中变被动语态时，doing不变。
I heard Tom singing just now
Tom _____ _____ _____ by me just now .
4. 以动词短语作谓语的主动语态变被动语态时，不可丢掉后面的介词或副词。
We should take care of the old .
The old should ______ _____ _____ _____ .
四．注意事项：
1. 有些及物动词或动词短语不能用于被动语态：
last, have, own …..belong to, suit…fine,
2. 不及物动词是没有被动语态：
happen, take place, appear, hold (容纳)
3. 系动词是没有被动语态：
Look, feel, sound, smell, taste ….
The dish tastes good .
4. 有些词组没有被动语态：
sell well, write well, ride well, drive well
This kind of skirt sells well.
5. need表示需要时，后面常接doing 形式表示被动意义，相当于to be done .
All the computers need repairing.
=All the computers need _____ _____ _____ .
6. 在too…to…及enough to …结构中有时表示被动意义。
The problem is too difficult to solve.
第十七讲座：时态及语态---提高篇
英语的语态分为主动语态和被动语态。主动语态表示主语是动作的执行者, 被动语态表示主语是动作的承受者。只有及物动词或含及物意义的短语动词才能转换成被动语态。
一、被动语态的用法：
当我们不知道谁是动作的执行者，或者没有必要指出谁是动作的执行者，或者只需强调动作的承受者时，要用被动语态。
e.g. Such books are written for middle school students.
English is spoken in many countries.
二、被动语态的构成：
被动语态是由“助动词be +及物动词的过去分词”构成，be随主语的人称、数和时态的变化而变化。被动语态可以用于各种时态。
1. 几种形式的被动语态(以动词give为例)：
一般现在时am/is/are +及物动词的过去分词
一般过去时was/were +及物动词的过去分词
一般将来时shall/will/ be going to + be +及物动词的过去分词
一般过去将来时should/would be +及物动词的过去分词
现在进行时am/is/are being +及物动词的过去分词
过去进行时was/were being +及物动词的过去分词
现在完成时has/have been +及物动词的过去分词
过去完成时had been +及物动词的过去分词
将来完成时shall/will have been +及物动词的过去分词
过去将来完成时should/would have been +及物动词的过去分词
2. 特殊结构的被动形式：
(1) 双宾动词的被动结构：
双宾动词变为被动结构时, 一般将主动结构中的间接宾语变为被动结构中的主语, 直接宾语不变。如将主动结构中的直接宾语变为被动结构中的主语, 间接宾语之前则应加介词to或for。
(2) 带复合宾语的动词的被动结构：
带复合宾语的动词变被动语态时, 一般将主动结构中的宾语变为被动结构中的主语, 而将宾语补足语保留不动(这时的宾语补足语为主语补足语)。
(3) 带情态动词的被动语态，由“情态动词+be +及物动词的过去分词”构成：
e.g. The problem may be solved in a number of different ways.
In our school, library books must be returned in two weeks.
(4)“be＋过去分词＋不定式”式的被动结构：
e.g. He is reported to have broken a world record.
She is said to know three languages.
(5) “it＋be＋过去分词＋从句”式的被动结构：
e.g. It’s said that she has some supernatural powers.
It’s reported that they have discovered a new star.
常见的结构还有：
It is known that...众所周知
It is suggested that...有人建议
It is believed that...人们相信
(6) “get＋done”构成被动语态：
此种形式用来表示状态或情况, 常考的形式如下：
get married 结婚；get engaged 订婚；
get hurt/wounded 受伤；get lost 迷路；
get drunk 喝醉了；
get caught/stuck/trapped 被困；
get dressed 穿好衣服；
get run over 被(车)轧等。
3. 主动形式表示被动意义：
★一些感官动词，如feel, sound, smell, look, taste等用作系动词时。如：
It tastes strongly of mint.
★说明主语的性质、特点的动词，如read, write, cut, sell, wash, wear, lock等，其主语往往是物。如：
The pen he bought yesterday writes smoothly.
★在“be +形容词+不定式”结构中，不定式与句子的主语有逻辑上的动宾关系时。用于此结构的形容词常见的有：difficult, hard, easy, light, heavy, expensive, cheap, pleasant, interesting, fit, comfortable等。如：
The man is very easy to get along with.
★当want, need, require表示“需要”时，其宾语用动词-ing形式的主动形式表示被动意义。如：
The house his grandmother lives in needs repairing.
★在be (well) worth doing, be to blame中。如：
The book he borrowed from the library yesterday is well worth reading.
★在have, find, lend, give等动词后的宾语有不定式作定语，不定式与宾语是逻辑上的动宾关系，但是在句子中又有不定式动作的执行者时。如：
He has found nothing to eat since he left home and came into the forest.
4. 不能用于被动语态的情况：
★谓语是及物动词leave, enter, reach, suit, benefit, lack等。
★谓语是不可拆开的take place, consist of, lose heart, belong to等短语动词。
★宾语是无实意的代词it。
★宾语是表示身体的某一部分的名词。
★宾语是某些抽象名词。
★have不论在什么情况下都不能用于被动语态。
★一般来说，当动词的宾语是动词-ing形式或者是不定式时不能变成被动语态。
★将来进行时和完成进行时没有被动语态。如果遇到这种情况时，可以用一般将来时和现在完成时的被动语态来代替。
第十八讲座：情态动词---基础篇
一．情态动词的用法：
1. can 用法：
1）表示能力，与be able to同义，但can只用于现在时和过去时，be able to可用于各种时态。
Two eyes can see more than one.
注：Can you … ? Yes, I can / No, I can’t.
2). 表示允许、请求
用could比can 语气更加委婉客气，常用于could I /you …..? 句型中，若表示同意时，用can回答而不用could.
Could I borrow the book ? No, you can’t.
3). 表示推测 “可能”常用于否定句或疑问句中。（can’t表示一定不是）
It can’t be true.
Can it be true?
2. may 用法
1）表允许，请求= can
表示许可或征求对方的许可，常于第一人称连用。
注：May I ….? Yes, you may. No, you can’t / mustn’t.
在回答以may引起的问句时，多避免用这个词，而用其它方式，如Yes, please. / Certainly.
2）表推测，可能、也许。常用于肯定句中。
Maybe he knows the news. =
He _____ _____ the news.
3. must
1）表示义务。意为“必须”（主观意志）。
We must do everything step by step.
注：Must I ….? Yes, you must / No, you needn’t (don’t have to ).
--Must we hand in our exercise—books now?
--No, you needn’t. / No, you don’t have to.
2）mustn’t 表禁止、不允许。
You mustn’t talk to her like that.
3）表示揣测。意为“想必、准是、一定”等，只用于肯定句。否定、疑问句中must改为can.
He must be ill. He looks so pale.
She’s wearing a diamond necklace. She must have a lot of money.
注：must表推测时，其反义疑问句与must后面的动词一致。
There must be something wrong, ____ ____?
4. need的用法
need既可用作情态动词，也可用作实义动词。用作情态动词时，主要否定句或疑问句中。用作实义动词时，可用于各种句式。
1). 用作情态动词，用于否定句和疑问句中。
a). Need I ….? Yes, you must / No, you needn’t .
Need we finish the work today ? Yes you __?
A. need B. can C. may D. must
b). need + do sth . 变否定句：needn’t do sth
变疑问句：Need sb do sth ?
2). 用作实义动词
a). need + to do sth . We need _______(buy) some school things .
变否定句：don’t /doesn’t /didn’t +need to do sth .
变疑问句：Do / Does /Did sb + need to sth ?
Yes , … do/ does / did No, sb don’t / doesn’t /didn’t.
You don’t need to do it yourself.
b). 当主语是物时。Sth + need + doing sth = Sth +need to be done .
The table needs painting. =The table needs _____ _____ _____ .
5. had better 的用法
1). had better + 动词原形 = It’s best to do sth.
You had better ______ (stay )at home. = _____ ______ ______ stay at home.
2). Had better not +动词原形
We had better ________(not play ) the computer games.
6. must 与have to
1). 一般情况下，两者可互换。 must = have to
2). must “必须，应该”表示说话人的主观看法，即说话人认为必须干某事。
（内在原因）
have to “必须，不得不”强调客观需要，即外界因素迫使某人不得不干某事。（外界原因）
I can’t stop playing the computer games. For your health, I’m afraid you ______.
A. can B. may C. must D. had to
二．情态动词后跟完成式和进行式的用法：
1. 情态动词后跟完成式，表“原本应该干某事，而实际上没干”
I should have finished the work earlier.
He isn’t here. He must have missed the train.
2. 情态动词后跟进行式，表示“想必正在……”，“可能正在……”，“应当正在”等意。
It’s twelve o’clock. They must be having lunch.
They may be discussing this problem.
He can’t be telling the truth.
She shouldn’t be working like that. She’s still so weak.
三．情态动词的同义转换：
1. can = be able to.
2. must = have to.
3. needn’t = don’t have to.
4. need do sth = need to do sth.
第十九讲座：情态动词---提高篇
一. will, would:
1) 用于表示意志或意愿。will指现在，would指过去。
e.g. I will never do that again.
They said that they would help us.
2) 表示“请求；建议”。用would比will委婉、客气些。
e.g. Will you please take a message for him?
Would you please pass him the book？
3) 表示习惯性动作，“总是”“惯于”，will指现 在，would指过去。
e.g. Fish will die without water.
4) 表示预料或猜想。
e.g. It would be about ten when he left home.
5) 表示规律性的“注定”用will。
e.g. People will die without water or air.
can, could
1) 表示能力。
e.g. My grandma is well over eighty, but she can read without glasses.
2) 表示客观可能性。
e.g. Accidents can happen to any drunken driver.
3) 表示请求和允许。
e.g. — Can I have a look at your design?
— Yes, of course you can.
4) 表示惊讶、怀疑、不相信的态度。（主要用于否定句，疑问句和惊叹句）。
e.g. What can he be doing at this time of night?
5) 表示请求，口语中常用could代替can, 使语气更委婉。
e.g. Could you please help me with this furniture?
二．may, might：
1) 表示允许、许可。否定回答时，一般用mustn’t，“禁止、阻止”。
e.g. —May I watch TV after supper?
—Yes, you may. / No, you mustn't.
2) 表示请求、允许时，might比may的语气更委婉；用May I…？征询对方许可在语气上比较客气；用Can I…？征询对方意见更常见。
e.g. —Might I use your telephone?
—Yes, please.
—May / Can I go home now?
—Yes, you may / can.
3) 表示可能性的推测，“或许，可能”，用might代替may时，语气显得更加不肯定，用于陈述句中。
e.g. It may be true.
She may come tomorrow.
He might have some fever.
4) may用于祈使句中表示祝愿。
e.g. May you succeed！
三．must：
1) 表示“必须；应该”。以must开头的问句，否定回答常用needn’t或don’t have to，肯定回答用must。
e.g. You must come to school on time.
2) 表示有把握的推测，只用于肯定句中。
e.g. You must be ill. I can see it from your face.
3) 表示“非要；偏要”。
e.g. They are sleeping. Must you play the piano at this time？
四．have to：
表示“必须；不得不”，强调客观需要， 有时态，人称的变化。
e.g. I can’t see things clearly. I have to wear glasses.
五．shall：
1) 用于第一人称，表示征求对方的意见。
e.g. What shall we do next？
2) 用于第一、三人称的疑问句，表示说话人征求对方的意见和向对方请示。
e.g. Shall we begin our lesson?
Shall the driver wait？
3) 用于第二、三人称的陈述句，表示说话人给对方的命令、警告、允诺和威胁。
e.g. You shall go with me.
He shall be punished.
六．should：
1) 表示劝告或建议，“应该”。
e.g. We should be strict with ourselves.
2) 表示推测，“可能”或“应该”。
e.g. They should have arrived by two o’clock.
3) 用于第一人称表示说话人的一种谦逊、客气、委婉的语气。
e.g. I should advise you not to do that.
You are mistaken, I should say.
4) 用在if条件句中，表示可能性很小，但也不是完全不可能。
e.g. Ask Tom to ring me up if you should see him.
5) Why / how + should，表示意外，惊异，“竟会”。
e.g. Why should you be so late today？
七．need：
表示“需要；必要”，用于否定句、疑问句中，只有现在时，其他时态用have to的相应形式代替。
e.g. You needn’t ask him the question.
Need I finish the work before ten?
八．dare：
表示“敢；敢于”，主要用于疑问句、否定句和条件从句中，一般不用于肯定句(I dare say除外)。
e.g. Dare you go alone there?
The boy daren’t say so before the teacher.
How dare he do such a thing？
九．ought to：
1) 表示“应该”。
e.g. You ought to take care of him.
2) 表示推测。
e.g. He ought to be home by now.
十．used to：
表示过去常常(现在已经不再)。
e.g. There used to be a temple here.
十一．had better：
表示“最好”。
e.g. You had better finish it now.
注意】
① could, should, might不一定与过去时间有关, 而是表示可能性弱于与其相应的
现在时形式;
② should/ought to表示推测时, 表示确定或可能性大的合乎理想的情况或结果。
③ need和dare用作实义动词时, 有词形变化, 变成否定句、疑问句时, 要加助动词。如：
You don’t need to do it yourself.
We should dare to give our own opinion.2. 表示推测的情态动词的层次比较情态动词的“推测”功能。如：can, could,
may, might, must皆可表示推测，使用时要注意以下几点：
1) 注意语气。语气较强用must, cannot, couldn’t; 语气较弱用may, might或can, could。
2) 注意句式。在肯定句中，一般用may, might, must; 在否定句、疑问句中常用can, could。
3) 注意时态。表示对现在或将来的情况的推测，此时通常用“情态动词＋动词原形”结构； 表示对现在或将来正在进行的情况进行推测，通常用“情态动词＋进行体”结构； 表示对过去情况的推测，通常用“情态动词＋完成体”结构。
3. 情态动词+ have done
must have done 表示对过去情况的肯定推测。
may / might have done 表示过去可能发生过某事。
3) could have done 表示过去可能发生，但并未发生，含有埋怨或训斥之意；也可表示对过去可能发生的事情的一种推测。
4) should / ought to have done 表示过去本该做（某事）而事实上未做；
should not / ought not to have done 表示过去本不该做（某事）但事实上却做了，含有批评、责备之意。
5) need have done 表示过去本来有必要去做（某事），但事实上没有做；
need not have done表示过去本没有必要做（某事），但事实上做了。
十二．考查情态动词的特殊用法：
1) cannot/can’t 与too/over/enough/perfectly/sufficiently等词连用，“越……越……”“无论怎样……，……也不为过” “决不会……，……够(过)”。
2) can/could与be able to辨析：
情态动词can只有两种时态形式, 现在式can和过去式could, be able to有多种时态形式。语境结果区别could可以表示过去的能力, was/were able to表示经过一番努力后取得了成功, 相当于manage to do或succeed in doing, 而could没有这个含义。
十三．专项练习：
一、从方框内选用合适的情态动词并用其正确形式填空 （包括否定形式）。
1. —Is David coming by train?
—He should, but he _______ not. He likes driving his car.
2. No reader ________ remove a book from the library without the permission of the librarian.
3. The girl ________ be Mary— she's in New York.
4. That the well-dressed young man ________ speak to you like that is quite astonishing.
5.—________ I finish the job right now?
—Yes, you must.
6.—Must we hand in our exercise books today?
—No, you ________.
7. Haven’t you seen the sign “No parking” here? Cars ________ be parked here.
8. —Shall I inform her of the change of the meeting right now?
—I am afraid you ________, in case he comes late for the meeting.
9. ________ you be interested, I’ll tell you the whole story.
10. It was an easy test and he ________ have passed, but he didn’t.
二、根据括号内的汉语提示补全下列句子：
1. She __________________ (不需要亲自来) —a letter would have been enough.
2. I lost your address, otherwise I __________ ____________ (早就写信给你了).
3. They are always making trouble. I think it's high time they _________________ (被教训一顿了).
4. He insisted I _________________ (应该打个车) and offered to pay for it.
5. Your advice that she___________________ _____ (等到下周) is reasonable.
6. I should not have made fool of you if I _____________ (早想到你是认真的).
7.If you had spent more time practicing making it before, you ___________________
____________ (就能把它做得更好) now.
第二十讲座：虚拟语气---基础及提高篇
一．虚拟语气在名词性从句中的用法：
★在“It is / was +形容词或过去分词+ that从句”结构的主语从句中，表示命令、愿望、建议等，谓语动词为“should +动词原形”，should也可省略。如：
It is necessary that a college student (should) master a foreign language.
It is desired that this rule (should) be brought to the attention of the staff.
★动词wish后的宾语从句中，表示与现在事实相反时，从句中动词用过去式；表示与过去事实相反时，从句中动词用“had +过去分词”；表示将来很难实现的愿望时，从句中动词用“would / could / might +动词原形”。如：
How I wish I was there with you.
I wish I hadn’t lost the chance.
I wish he would / could / might go with us to the theatre.
★在would sooner, would rather等后面的宾语从句中动词要用虚拟语气。尚未发生的动作用动词的过去式，已经发生的动作用“had +过去分词”。如：
I would sooner he left on the earlier train.
I’d rather you went tomorrow.
I’d rather you hadn’t done that.
★表示“建议、命令、要求、坚决做”等动词（如suggest, demand, require, request, order, insist等）后的宾语从句中谓语常用“（should +）动词原形”。如：
I suggest you (should) have enough sleep.
I recommend that everyone (should) attend the party.
★虚拟语气还可用在表示愿望、建议、命令、请求等的表语从句或同位语从句中，谓语用“should +动词原形”，should也可省略。如：
Our only request is that this (should) be settled as soon as possible.
He made the decision that nothing (should) hold him back.
二．虚拟语气在条件句中的用法：
★虚拟语气在if条件状语从句中的用法：
条件句
从句中谓语的形式
主句中谓语的形式
表示现在情况
动词过去式（be的过去式用were）
should / would / might / could +动词原形
条件句
从句中谓语的形式
主句中谓语的形式
表示将来情况
should +动词原形；were to +动词原形；动词过去式（be的过去式用were）
should / would / might / could +动词原形
表示过去情况
had +过去分词
should / would / might / could + have +过去分词
★在错综时间虚拟条件句（即主句和从句所指的时间不一致）中，动词的形式需要根据表示的时间来调整。如：
If I had spoken to him yesterday, I should know what to do now.
If it had rained last night, it might be very cold today.
If she were to leave, I would have heard about it.
★含蓄条件句
有时虚拟语气的条件并不是直接通过条件句来表示，而是用一些词或短语（如under, with, without, but for等）或上下文暗示来说明。句中的虚拟语气一般表示过去的情况，这种句子叫含蓄条件句。如：
We could have done better under more favourable conditions
(= if we had been given more favourable conditions).
Without your help (= If you hadn’t helped me), I couldn’t have succeeded.
But for the heavy traffic (= If the traffic had not been so heavy), we would have arrived earlier.
He would have given you more help, but he has been so busy.
(= if he had not been so busy).
三．虚拟语气中if的省略：
如果条件从句的谓语中有were, had或should等词，可将if省略，而把这几个词放在句首，其意义与带有if的条件句相同。如：
If I were to do the work, I should do it some other way.
→ Were I to do the work, I should do it some other way.
四．虚拟语气在其它状语从句中的用法：
★在由as if或as though引导的方式状语中，虚拟语气的形式为动词的过去式（be用were）或“had +过去分词”。如：
She is walking slowly as if she were tired.
★在由lest, for fear that, in case等引导的从句中，虚拟语气的形式为“should +动词原形”。如：
I ran as fast as possible lest I should be too late.
★在由in order that, so that或that引导的目的状语从句中，虚拟语气的形式为“may / might / could +动词原形”。如：
In order that everybody may understand it, write it in simple language.
专项训练：
从A、B、C、D四个选项中，选出可以填入空白处的最佳选项。
1. We would rather our daughter _____ at home with us, but it is her choice, and she is not a child any longer.
A. would stay B. has stayed
C. stayed D. stay
2. _____ the morning train, he would not have been late for the meeting.
A. Did he catch B. Should he catch
C. Has he caught D. Had he caught
3. People are recycling many things which they _____ away in the past.
A. had thrown B. will be throwing
C. were throwing D. would have thrown
4. If Mr. Dewey _____ present, he would have offered any possible assistance to the people there.
A. were B. had been
C. should be D. was
5. We _____ back in the hotel now if you didn’t lose the map.
A. are B. were
C. will be D. would be
6. _____ no modern telecommunications, we would have to wait for weeks to get news from around the world.
A. Were there B. Had there been
C. If there are D. If there have been
7. It was John who broke the window. Why are you talking to me as if I _____ it?
A. had done B. have done
C. did D. am doing
8. They were abroad during the months when we were carrying out the investigation, or they _____ to our help.
A. would have come B. could come
C. have come D. had come
第二十一讲座：非谓语动词---基础篇
一、动词不定式：
1. 动词不定式作宾语。
1). 在动词want, hope, would like, decide, wish,choose, try, need等后常用动词不定式作宾语。
I hope ______(hear)from you soon.
2). think/find /feel /make it + adj + to do sth
He found it difficult _______(get) to sleep.
3) . stop to do sth / stop doing sth
stop to do sth 停下来去做某事 stop doing sth 停止正在做的事。
After working for a long time, He has to stop _______(have ) a rest.
He was very tired, so he had to stop ______(work).
2. 动词不定式作宾语补。
1). 带to的不定式作宾补的动词有：ask / like /would like /teach /tell /want /help +sb +to do sth
Please ask him _________(come) quickly.
2). 省掉to的不定式作宾补的动词有：let /make / hear /see /notice /have/watch+sb +do sth
注：省掉to的不定式的句子变被动语态时，需要还原to.
He made the baby _______(stop) crying.
The baby was made ______ _____ crying.
3. 动词不定式作主语。
1). 动词不定式常可用作句子的主语时，谓语动词用单数形式。
2). 常用it作形式主语，而将不定式放在句子后面。
To do sth +谓语动词+adj /n =It +谓语动词+adj / n + to do sth
To get an injection is a little painful.
_____ a little painful ____ ____ an injection(注射).
4. 动词不定式作定语。
动词不定式作定语放在被修饰词之后名词或代词+to do+(介词)
注：若构成的不定式的动词为不及物动词时，其后加上相应的介词。
I want a pen to write ______.
I want a piece of paper to write ______.
5. 动词不定式与疑问词连用。
疑问词+ to do sth
注：在宾语从句中，若主从句的主语一致时，宾语从句可简化为“疑问词+to do sth”.
Can you tell me how I can get to the hospital?
Can you tell me _____ ____ ____ the hospital.
6. 动词不定式可作状语。
1). 动词不定式可作目的状语。
在come / go / leave 后面接动词不定式作目的状语。
He came here ______(get)his book.
2). 动词不定式可作原因状语。
表语形容词（sorry/sad/happy/ glad /afraid/ pleased）后与动词不定式连用作原因状语
He was glad _______(see) his wife.
3). 动词不定式可作结果状语。
在too…to …, not …enough to …句型中的动词不定式作结果状语。
He was too tired _______(walk) on.
7. 动词不定式作表语。
be + to do sth
注：动词不定式作表语可以和主语的位置互换，且常表将来。
Her wish is _______(become) a doctor.
_____ _____ is her wish.
8. 动词不定式的否定形式。
在动词不定式的前面加not.
He told me _______(not stay) here.
9. 动词不定式符号的省略和保留情况。
1). 动词不定式符号的省略情况。
若两个或两个以上的不定式并列时，第一个不定式符号不能省略，其余的省掉to.但两者有对比关系时，to都不能省略。
Edison’s mother taught him to write and read.
I haven’t decided to go home or to go to the cinema.
2) 省掉不定式而保留动词不定式符号to的情况。
Will you take a walk with me ? I’m glad to.
Would you like to join my birthday party ?
I would love to.
二、动名词：
1. 动名词相当于一个名词，作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
Reading in bed ______(be) bad for your eyes.
2. 有些动词或动词短语后面，只能接动名词作宾语。
三、现在分词：
1. 现在分词常放在see, hear, watch, notice 等之后作宾补。
I saw the boy____(play)in the street just now.
2. 现在分词作定语常放在被修饰词之前，现在分词短语要放在被修饰词的后面，相当于一个定语从句。
A sleeping baby = a baby who is sleeping.
Did you know the man talking to Mr Li?=
Did you know the man who was talking to Mr Li?
3. 现在分词表伴随情况。
He came into the classroom, carrying a book.
四、过去分词：
1. 作宾补。
have /get +sth +done 表示请别人干某事
I had my TV repaired last night.
2. 作定语。
单一的过去分词作定语，要放在被修饰词的前面，过去分词短语作定语要放在被修饰词的后面，相当于一个定语从句。
Have you ever read any books written by Luxun?
Have you ever read any books _____ _____ written by Luxun?
3. 作表语。
过去分词作表语已经形容词化
My cup is broken.
成分形式
主语
宾语
补语
表语
定语
状语
不定式
√
√
√
√
√
√
动名词
√
√
√
√
分词
√
√
√
√
第二十二讲座：非谓语动词---提高篇
考点一. 动词不定式、分词作状语:
1. 动词不定式作状语.
不定式作状语时相当于一个状语从句，往往用来作目的状语、结果状语或原因状语。
(1)不定式用来作目的状语：作目的状语时，不定式的逻辑主语通常也是全句的主语，这里往往译作“为了，想要”。
特别提示：
强调动词不定式所表示的目的时，动词不定式可用in order to/so as to＋动词原形，但so as to不用于句首。
(2)不定式用来作结果状语：作结果状语时，常用于so...as to...，such...as to...，enough to...，too...to...，only to等结构中。
George returned after the war, only _____ that his wife had left him.
A. to be told B. telling
C. being told D. told
选A。only to do sth. 在此表示“令人不快的结果”，又因tell与George之间在逻辑上是动宾关系，故用不定式的被动形式。
特别提示：
不定式作结果状语往往表示意想不到的结果，而现在分词作结果状语则表示自然而然的结果。
(3)不定式用来作原因状语：
不定式与形容词连用时，大多表示原因，用来作原因状语。这些形容词主要有：happy，kind，surprised，frightened，shocked，glad，delighted，disappointed等
2. 过去分词作状语.
(1) 过去分词作状语，修饰谓语动词，进一步说明谓语动词的动作或状态，即动作发生时的背景或状况；其逻辑主语通常就是句子的主语，且主语是过去分词动作的承受者，过去分词与主语之间存在动宾关系。
(2) 过去分词短语作条件、原因及时间状语时，通常放在句首；作伴随、结果状语时，通常放在句末；作方式状语时，一般放在句末，有时也放在句首；作让步状语时，一般放在句首，有时也放在句末。
特别提示：
作状语时，是用现在分词还是用过去分词，取决于该动词与句子主语之间的关系。
过去分词作状语，与句子主语之间在逻辑上是动宾关系；现在分词作状语，句子主语与它之间在逻辑上是主谓关系。句子的主语改变了，分词的形式也要相应地发生变化。
Seen from the top of the hill, the park looks even more beautiful.
(see与主语the park之间存在逻辑上的动宾关系)
Seeing from the top of the hill, we find the park even more beautiful.
(see与主语we之间存在逻辑上的主谓关系)
____ to work overtime that evening, I missed a wonderful film.
A. Having been asked B. To ask
C. Having asked D. To be asked
选A。ask与主语I之间在逻辑上是动宾关系，且“要求”的动作已经发生，故选A项作原因状语。
3. 现在分词的形式和内在含义.
形式
内在含义
doing
与句中主语构成逻辑上的主谓关系，与句中谓语动词同时发生，或基本上同时发生
having done
与句中主语构成逻辑上的主谓关系，先于谓语动词发生
being done
与句中主语构成逻辑的动宾关系且与谓语动词同时发生，一般作定语。
having been
done
与句子主语构成逻辑上的动宾关系，且先于谓语动词发生，一般作状语
“Genius” is a complicated concept, _____ many different factors.
A. involved B. involving
C. to involve D. being involved
4. 独立成分作状语.
有些分词或不定式短语作状语，其形式的选择不受上下文的影响，称作独立成分。
常见的有：
generally speaking... 一般说来……
frankly speaking... 坦白地说……
judging from/by... 根据……来判断
considering.../taking...into consideration 考虑到……
to tell you the truth... 说实话……
supposing... 即使，如果……
compared to/with... 与……相比
5. 独立主格结构作状语.
非谓语动词作状语时，它的逻辑主语应和句子主语保持一致。但有时非谓语动词带有自己的逻辑主语，在句子中作状语，我们称之为独立主格结构。独立主格结构的特点是：
(1) 独立主格结构的逻辑主语不是句子的主语。
(2) 名词或代词与后面的分词、形容词、副词、不定式、介词短语等是逻辑上的主谓关系。
(3) 独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。独立主格结构的构成形式主要有：
① 名词(代词)＋现在分词/过去分词
② 名词(代词)＋形容词
③ 名词(代词)＋副词
④ 名词(代词)＋不定式
⑤ 名词(代词)＋介词短语
⑥ with/without＋名词(代词)＋宾语补足语。
The party will be held in the garden, weather ____.
A. permitting B. to permit
C. permitted D. permit
weather与permit之间在逻辑上是主谓关系，故选permitting。weather permitting相当于if引导的条件状语从句，即if weather permits。
考点二. 动词不定式、分词、动名词作定语:
1. 分词、动词不定式和动名词作定语分述.
(1) 过去分词作定语：单个的分词作定语，一般位于其修饰的名词之前；分词短语作定语，一般位于其修饰的名词之后。
被过去分词所修饰的名词就是该分词的逻辑主语，该分词与被修饰的词之间存在动宾关系。
After completing and signing it, please return the form to us in the envelope _____.
A. providing B. provided
C. having provided D. provide
(2) 现在分词作定语：
单个的分词作定语，一般位于其修饰的名词之前；分词短语作定语，一般位于其修饰的名词之后。
被现在分词所修饰的名词就是该分词的逻辑主语，该分词与被修饰的词之间存在主谓关系。
The lecture, _____ at 7:00 pm last night, was followed by an observation of the moon with telescopes.
A. starting B. being started
C. to start D. to be started
(3) 动词不定式作定语：
动词不定式作定语时，位于被其修饰的词之后。不定式作定语时往往表示将要发生的动作。
在作定语的动词不定式中，如果其中的动词是不及物动词，不定式后面就要用必要的介词.
e.g. He is the man to depend on.
We’re having a meeting in half an hour. The decision _____ at the meeting will influence the future of our company.
A. to be made B. being made
C. made D. having been made
选A。_____ at the meeting作decision的后置定语，make与decision在逻辑上是动宾关系，且还未发生，故用不定式的被动形式。如果被不定式修饰的名词为place，time，way等时，不定式后面的介词习惯上可以省去。
e.g. The old man is looking for a quiet place to live.
(4) 现在分词与动名词作定语的区别：
现在分词作定语表示所修饰的名词的动作，二者是逻辑上的主谓关系，读时都有重音。动名词作定语通常表示它所修饰的名词的用途，二者不存在逻辑上的主谓关系，读时只重读动名词。
动名词作定语只能置于被修饰词的前面，而现在分词作定语有时可置前，有时可置后，尤其是现在分词短语作定语。
2．动词不定式与分词作定语的区别.
(1) 首先表现在时态上：
不定式作定语通常指将来的动作，现在分词作定语表示正在进行的动作而过去分词作定语表示已经完成的动作。
(2) 其次是判断该动词与被修饰的名词之间的关系，如果是动宾关系就要用表示被动的非谓语形式(过去分词，现在分词的被动式，不定式的被动式)，如果是主谓关系则用现在分词或动词不定式的主动形式。
3．易混点.
当作定语的不定式所修饰的名词或代词是不定式动作的承受者时，不定式既可用主动语态，也可用被动语态，但其含义有所不同，试比较：
Have you got anything to buy?
你有什么东西要买吗？
Have you got anything to be bought?
你有什么要(我或别人)买的吗？
考点三. 分词、动词不定式作补语:
1．分词、动词不定式作补语分述
(1) 过去分词作宾语补足语：
句中的宾语往往就是其逻辑主语，该动词与宾语之间存在动宾关系。如：
e.g. I had my bike repaired yesterday.
(2) 现在分词作宾语补足语：
句中的宾语往往就是其逻辑主语，该动词与宾语之间存在主谓关系。
现在分词作宾语补足语强调正在进行中的主动动作，即动作过程的一个部分。可以带有这种复合宾语的动词有see，watch，hear，observe，feel，find，have，keep等。
e.g. We can see steam rising from the wet clothes.
Listen! Do you hear someone _____ for help?
A. calling B. call
C. to call D. called
(2)动词不定式作宾语补足语：
句中的宾语往往就是其逻辑主语，该动词与宾语之间存在主谓关系。动词不定式作宾语补足语强调动作的整个过程。
常用不定式作宾语补足语的几种情况：
主语＋ask/require/tell/order/force/ get/want/ like＋sb. to do sth.，
主语＋think/judge/suppose/believe/consider
/imagine＋sb.＋to be/to have done，
主语＋call on (upon) /depend on/wait for/ask for＋sb.＋to do sth.。
Having finished her project, she was invited by the school _____ to the new students.
A. speaking B. having spoken
C. to speak D. to have spoken
选C。由invite sb. to do sth.可知，此处用to speak。
动词see，watch，notice，hear，observe，make，have等的宾语补足语用动词原形，变被动时要加to，此时的不定式就是主语补足语。
2．分词、动词不定式作补语时的区别.
(1) 现在分词作宾补强调动作的延续性，表示动作正在进行，更具描绘性。而不定式作宾补一般表示动作的全过程，表明动作已经结束或即将发生。
(2) 现在分词或不定式作宾补表示它与宾语之间是主谓关系，用过去分词作宾补一般表示它与宾语之间是动宾关系，完成状态或动作由别人完成。
3．易混点.
现在分词作宾补和动名词复合结构作宾语形式上似乎相同，其区别是：从谓语动词上看，现在分词作宾补属于“主谓宾宾补”的句式，谓语动词必须是能带复合宾语的动词，而动名词复合结构则是“主谓宾”结构，谓语动词必须是能带动名词作宾语的动词。
考点四. 非谓语动词作宾语、表语和主语:
1．非谓语动词作宾语.
(1) 在三种非谓语动词中只有动名词和动词不定式可以用来作宾语，分词不能作宾语。
(2) 动名词作宾语：
以下动词只接动名词作宾语，不能接不定式：admit，advise，allow，appreciate，avoid，consider，delay，dislike，enjoy，escape，excuse，finish，forbid，forgive，imagine，keep, mind，miss，permit，practise，resist，risk，suggest等。
以下动词短语只接动名词作宾语，不能接不定式：can’t help(忍不住)，can’t stand，give up，put off，be/get used to(习惯于)，devote oneself to，get down to，look forward to，lead to，pay attention to，see to，turn to等。
Lydia doesn’t feel like _____ abroad. Her parents are old.
A. study B. studying
C. studied D. to study
(3) 动词不定式作宾语：
不定式作宾语有两种情况，一是及物动词后直接跟带to的不定式，二是“动词＋疑问词＋带to的不定式”。
“动词＋带to的不定式”结构：常见的接不定式作宾语的动词有afford，appear，agree，ask，decide，demand，desire，fail，hope，intend，learn，mean，offer，promise，refuse，wish等。
“动词＋疑问代(副)词＋不定式”结构：
常见的这类动词有advise，decide，forget，know，learn，remember，see，tell，think，teach，wonder，discover，understand，guess，explain等。这类疑问代(副)词有what，when，which，where，how，whether等(不包含why)。
不定式作宾语时，有时我们会使用it作形式宾语，而把不定式放到后面。
The chairman thought ________ necessary to invite Professor Smith to speak at the meeting.
A．that B．it
C．this D．him
(4) 一些动词或动词短语后面接动词不定式和接动名词作宾语在意思上有很大的区别：
can’t help to do sth. 不能帮助做某事
can’t help doing sth. 情不自禁做某事
forget to do sth. 忘记去做某事
forget doing sth. 忘记做过某事
mean to do sth. 打算做……，想要
mean doing sth. 意味着，就是
stop to do sth. 停下来去做另一件事
stop doing sth. 停止做某事
I remembered _____ the door before I left the office, but forgot to turn off the lights.
A. locking B. to lock
C. having locked D. to have locked
选B。根据before I left the office及but forgot to ... lights可知，“我”记得要锁门，所以B项正确。此题易误选A项，remember doing sth. 意为“记得做过某事”，离开之前不可能已经锁上门，所以A项错误。
(5)动词want，need，require意为“需要”时，后面跟动名词或动词不定式的被动式作宾语区别不大。
e.g. The flowers need/want/require watering/to be watered.
(6) 在动词allow，advise，forbid，permit后面直接跟动名词作宾语，如果有名词或代词作宾语，则应构成“allow/advise/forbid/permit＋名词/代词＋动词不定式(作宾语补足语)”。
(7) 动词不定式在but，other than，except后面时，如果之前有行为动词do的某种形式，那么后面的不定式不带to，否则就要带to。
另外，在can’t choose but，can’t help but，can’t but后的不定式也要省略to。
He cannot choose but wait.
在why和why not后省略to
Why not go there by train?
为什么不乘火车去那里？
2．非谓语动词作表语.
不定式、现在分词、过去分词以及动名词都能作表语，其用法注意如下：
(1) 当现在分词和过去分词作表语时，它们大多数是已经形容词化的现在分词或过去分词，而且大多数是与心理状态有联系的词。
现在分词通常表示“(某事/物)令人感到……的”，而过去分词则表示某人的感受，意为“感到……的”。
这样的词常见的有：
interesting“有趣的”，interested“感兴趣的”；exciting“令人兴奋的”，excited“感到兴奋的”；disappointing“令人失望的”，disappointed“感到失望的”等。
这类现在分词作表语时，一般是物作主语；而过去分词作表语时，则一般是人作主语。(2) 表示一般的概念时，不定式、动名词可以互换，而表示具体的个别的动作或有将来含义时，一般用不定式。
e.g. What she likes is watching (to watch) children play.
(3) 动名词作表语说明主语的内容，常可与主语换位，回答what或doing what的问题。现在分词作表语，表示主语的性质和特征，回答how的问题，其主语可以是具体的人或物。现在分词的被动语态不作表语。进行时态说明正在进行的动作。
3．非谓语动词作主语.
(1) 不定式作主语.
不定式(或不定式短语)作主语时常用“it”来代替，称为形式主语。真正主语(不定式)放在句尾。在It is＋adj.＋for/of sb. to do sth.中，当形容词表达人所具有的特性时用of sb.，当形容词表达事物的特征时用for sb.。
(2) 动名词作主语.
动名词作主语时，也常用it句式。
It's no use/good doing, It’s useless doing, There is no doing.
方法技巧总结:
方法一：找准判断主动与被动的依据.
非谓语动词的考查主要在主动还是被动上，若找准判断的依据，问题可以迎刃而解。作状语，主动与被动是相对于句子的主语来讲的；作定语时，主动与被动是相对于所修饰的词而言的；作补语时，主动与被动是相对于宾语而言的。但也要注意作目的状语时，只能用动词不定式。
方法二：正确识别要考查的类型.
with的复合结构和连词＋分词结构是经常考查的类型。但这两种形式都非常简单。with的复合结构考查的重点只有三种形式：
①with＋宾语＋doing(宾语与宾补之间是逻辑上的主谓关系)
②with＋宾语＋done(宾语与宾补之间是逻辑上的动宾关系)
③with＋宾语＋to do(表将来)
连词＋分词结构只有两种形式：①连词＋doing(主动语态)；
②连词＋done(被动语态)。
明白了上述结构可以大大提高做题速度和准确度。
方法三：时间先后判断法.
如果选项中出现了非谓语动词的完成式，就要考虑非谓语动词与谓语动词发生的时间先后问题。如：
to have done表示该动作在谓语动词之前发生；to be doing强调与谓语动词同时发生；doing表示与谓语动词几乎同时发生；having done表示该动作在谓语动词之前发生；done表示在谓语动词之前发生。
方法四：习惯用法.
学习非谓语动词时，要记住某些特殊动词的用法，哪些动词后只能接v.ing形式，哪些动词后两种形式都可以接，且含义有什么不同。
考点归纳:
非谓语动词是高中英语教学的重点和难点，也是历届高考的重点项目。命题热点多是借助于基本概念，在语境中考查常用动词的各种非谓语形式以及个性动词后的非谓语形式。有时也涉及非谓语动词逻辑主语的一致性问题以及独立主格结构中非谓语的各种变化。
其考点主要包括：
1. 考查不定式和动名词作宾语的区别。要求熟记“三类”动词：
(1) 只能接不定式作宾语的动词。
如：seem, attempt, neglect, afford, demand, long, arrange, mean, expect等；
(2) 只能接动名词作宾语的动词。
如：acknowledge, admit, appreciate, avoid, delay, escape, consider, permit, imagine, postpone, risk等；
(3) 接不定式和动名词意义有别的动词。如：remember, try, mean, regret等。
2. 考查不定式、现在分词和过去分词作定语的区别。
不定式表示未来的动作；
现在分词表示进行的动作；
过去分词表示完成的动作。
3. 考查不定式和分词作状语的区别。
(1) 结果状语：
only to do表示“出乎意料的结果”；
thus doing表示“自然而然的结果”。
(2) 原因状语：
be glad (silly，sad，disappointed，satisfied，sorry，surprised…) to have done 表示“很高兴(愚蠢、难过……) 做了……”。
(3) 原因状语：
“being＋形容词(过去分词、副词、介词短语、名词)”通常在句中表示原因。
4. 考查分词、不定式作宾语补足语的区别。
(1) 感官动词see, watch, observe, look at, hear, listen to, notice 等和使役动词have 后面的宾补有三种形式：不带to 的不定式、现在分词和过去分词；
(2) leave 后接三种形式作宾补：
leave sb. doing sth. 让某人一直做某事； leave sth. undone留下某事未做；
leave sth. to be done留下某事要做；
(3) have, get 后接三种形式作宾补：have/get sth. done使/让某事由别人去做 (叫/让某人做某事);
have sb./sth. doing 使/让某人/物持续地做某事(现在分词表示主动或正在进行);
get sb./sth. doing使某人/物开始行动起来；
have sb. do sth. (get sb. to do sth.)使/让/叫某人去做某事；
(4) be said (reported，thought，considered…)＋ to do sth. (据说要……)/to be doing sth. (据说正在……)/to have done sth. (据说已经……)。
5．考查非谓语的时态和语态。
即现在分词的一般体和完成体的区别，过去分词和现在分词的区别。
6．考查非谓语动词的其他结构。
with(out)复合宾语结构、独立主格结构、不定式的复合结构等。
一．非谓语动词作状语:
1. 主要考点:
(1) 不定式作状语。不定式作状语通常表示:
(a) 原因(多用在某些表示喜、怒、哀、乐等的形容词后);
(b) 目的(可用so as to/in order to替换, 但so as to一般不可置于句首);
(c) 结果(常表意想不到的结果, 常为only to do)。
(2) 分词作状语。
① 现在分词作状语时, 现在分词所表示的动作与句子主语之间构成逻辑上的主动关系。
② 过去分词作状语时, 过去分词所表示的动作与句子主语之间构成逻辑上的被动关系。
③ 部分过去分词来源于系表结构, 作状语时不表示被动关系, 其前不用being。
这样的过去分词及短语常见的有: seated(坐着的)、hidden(躲着)、stationed(驻扎)、lost/absorbed in(沉溺于)、born in(出身于)、dressed in(穿着)、tired of(厌烦了)等。
2. 突破技巧:
(1) 把握前后主语一致性, 区别现在分词与过去分词;
(2) 不定式作结果状语为意想不到的结果; 分词作结果状语为顺理成章的结果。
二．非谓语动词作定语:
1. 主要考点:
不定式、动名词、现在分词、过去分词作定语以及区别。
2. 突破技巧:
(1) 把握不定式表示未来, 动名词作定语表示用途, 现在分词表示主动和进行, 过去分词表示被动和完成;
(2) 注意不定式to be done形式、过去分词和现在分词being done形式作定语的区别。
三．非谓语动词作补语:
1. 主要考点:
常见的需接非谓语动词作补语的结构:
(1) “5看2听1感觉”的感官动词
“5看”包括see, watch, observe, notice, look at
“2听”包括hear, listen to
“1感觉”包括feel
(2) make, have, get等使役动词后
(3) 特殊动词、词组、句型:
①leave, catch, keep, find
②advise/allow/ask等动词+sb. to do sth.
③sb. +be said to do sth. 中的不定式作补语。
2. 突破技巧:
(1) 注意作补语的三种形式
(to) do/ doing/ done形式之间的区别。把握动作的主动、进行和被动;
(2) 注意宾语补足语与主语补足语的区别;
(3) 把握补语一般由不定式表示未来(不用to的不定式表示动作全过程); 现在分词表示进行、过去分词表示被动、完成。
四．非谓语动词作宾语:
1. 主要考点:
(1) 只能跟不定式作宾语的动词, 常见的有:
碰巧希望作决定(happen, hope/wish, decide);
准备同意和答应(prepare, agree, promise);
假装没能安排好(pretend, fail, arrange/plan);
学会拒绝难提供(learn, refuse, offer);
决心设法想得分(determine, manage, intend/expect/want);
一往无前任我行。
(2) 只能跟动名词作宾语的动词, 常见的有:
否认错过避逃亡(deny, miss, avoid, escape);
承认推迟被禁止(admit, delay, forbid);
考虑建议准完成(consider, suggest, finish);
介意冒险乱想象(mind, risk, imagine);
答应继续去训练(allow/permit, keep, practise);
设想原谅得欣赏(fancy, excuse/pardon, enjoy/appreciate)。
(3) 特殊动词及短语跟不定式与动名词作宾语的不同
动词
接动名词作宾语
接不定式作宾语
remember
记得曾做过某事
记得要做某事
forget
忘记曾做过某事
忘记要做某事
try
尝试做某事
努力做某事
regret
对做过的事表示后悔
对要做的事表示遗憾
mean
意味着做某事
企图(打算)做某事
can't help
禁不住做某事
不能帮助做某事
go on
继续做未完成的事
做完一件事后,
接着做另一件事
stop
中断正在做的事
中断正在做的事,
去做别的事
(4) 动词allow, advise, permit, forbid后面不出现宾语时直接跟动名词作宾语
(5) 动词need, want, require主语为物时后跟动名词的主动形式表示被动意思, 相当于不定式的被动形式, 在句子中均为宾语
2. 突破技巧:
(1)牢记口诀, 记熟用法; (2)把握特殊词。
五．非谓语动词作主语、表语及其他:
1. 主要考点:
(1) 动名词与不定式作主语:
动名词表示泛指、抽象、反复、习惯; 不定式表示具体、一次、打算、未做的动作。
(2) 现在分词、过去分词、不定式、动名词作表语:
现在分词作表语, 表示主语的特征, 意思“令人……”, 一般是物作主语; 过去分词作表语说明主语的心理状态, 主语是承受者, 表示的是被动。动名词、不定式作表语与作主语是一样的, 可以表语、主语互换。
(3) 其他用法
① 独立主格结构中的分词和不定式
如果分词作状语的逻辑主语不是句子的主语, 要在分词前面加上它自己的主语, 这种结构叫独立主格结构, 其作用相当于状语从句或定语从句; 有时也用with复合结构(with+宾语+宾语补足语)作状语。
② 形式主语或形式宾语中的不定式
③ 固定句式中的不定式
do/have/其他动词+sth. +but (to) do sth. 的固定句式, 遵循前有do后无to, 反之用to原则。
2. 突破技巧:
(1) 分析句子的主谓语是否一致, 如果不一致就可以用独立主格结构;
(2) 弄清独立结构中宾语与后面补语的关系, 然后用相应的形式, 尤其是不定式和分词形式。
I. 用括号内动词的正确形式填空。
1. Without anyone ________ (notice), the little boy slipped through the window.
2. _________________________ (realize) that the files in the computer had gone wrong, she suddenly felt at a loss.
3. We saw the big ship turn upside down, ________ (throw) its passengers into the water.
4. Jack won first place in the 100-metre race in the sports meeting, ________ (set) a new record.
5. ____________ (be) a leader for a long time, Mary found it hard to become an ordinary clerk again.
6. ____________________ (sentence) to ten years in prison, the man lost all hope.
7. Mrs. Yacoub had her watch ________ (rob) on her way home.
8. The door of the house opposite to ours remains ________ (close) all day long.
9. The trees ________ (plant) by the foreign visitors are growing well.
10. —Is that Mr. Brown?
—Sorry, he’s not in at the moment. Shall I have him ________ (return) your call?
◄高考英语常考非谓语动词总结►
一．接动词不定式 （ to do/ do sth ）
1. like to do sth 2. like sb to do sth
3. Let’s (not ) do sth 4. want to do sth
5. want sb to do sth 6. love to do sth
7. ask sb (not ) to do sth 8. stop to do sth
9. tell sb (not ) to do sth 10. watch sb do sth
11. It’s time (for sb) to do sth 12. help sb (to ) do sth
13. help do sth 14. make sb do sth
15. decide (not ) to do sth 16. find it +adj + to do sth
17. have to do sth 18. try (not ) to do sth
19. try one’s best to do sth 20. It’s +adj +(for)of +sb + to do sth
21. plan to do sth 22. S.p.+be a good place to do sth
23. It takes sb +some time + to do sth 24. send sb to do sth
25. invite sb to do sth 26. forget to do sth
27. live to be +时间 28. be able to do sth
29. have sth to do 30. seem to do sth
31. get sb /sth to do sth 32. 疑问词+ to do sth
33. need sth to do sth 34. use sth to do sth
35. follow sb to sth 36. need to do sth
37. a good time to do sth 38. the best time to do sth
39. the best way to do sth 40. be the first / last one to do sth
41. would like to do sth 42. be excited /surprised to do sth
43. be useful to do sth 44. be allowed to do sth
45. allow sb to do sth 46. It’s better to do sth
47. It’s best to do sth 48. take care (not) to do sth
49. see sb do sth 50. why not do sth ?
51. have enough time to do sth 52. too… to do sth
53. not… enough to do sth 54. encourage sb to do sth
55. choose to do sth 56. wait to do sth
57. be happy/glad/pleased to do sth 58. make it +adj + to do sth
59. be careful to do sth 60. be afraid to do sth
61. It’s our duty to do sth 62. used to do sth
63. can’t afford to do sth 64. make a decision to do sth
65. have an opportunity to do sth 66. wait for sb to do sth
67. would do sth rather than do sth 68. would rather do sth than do sth
69. hurry to do sth 70. refuse to do sth
71. agree to do sth 72. pretend to do sth
73. pretend to be doing sth 74. prefer to do sth
75. prefer not to do sth 76. prefer to do sth raher than do sth
77. be willing to do sth 78. volunteer +时间/ 钱 + to do sth
79. volunteer to do sth 80. offer to do sth
81. rush to do sth 82. in order (not ) to do sth
83. be certain to do sth 84. be sure to do sth
85. make plans to do sth 86. go out of their way to do sth
87. lead sb to do sth 88. It’s one’s job to do sth
89. It’s one’s turn to do sth 90. urge sb to do sth 督促...
91. Could /Would you please (not) do sth ? 92. be supposed to do sth
93. warn sb to do sth
二、接动名词 （doing sth ）
1. like doing sth 2. enjoy doing sth
3. have fun doing sth 4. be interested in doing sth
5. Thanks for doing sth 6. look at sb doing sth
7. stop sb doing sth 8. stop sb from doing sth
9. go + v-ing 10. do the (some )+v-ing
11. What/How doing sth ? 12. practice doing sth
13. watch sb doing sth 14. find sb doing sth
15. mind (one’s ) doing sth 16. can’t stand doing sth
17. think about doing sth 18. spend … (in)doing sth
19. finish doing sth 20. be busy doing sth
21. keep doing sth 22. keep sb from doing sth
23. keep sb doing sth 24. be good at doing sth
25. hate doing sth 26. There be +名词+doing sth
27. make a living by doing sth 28. have a difficult time doing sth
29. feel like doing sth 30. allow doing sth
31. see sb doing sth 32. by doing sth
33. end up doing sth 34. do a survey about doing sth
35. be afraid of doing sth 36. be used to doing sth
37. be terrified of doing sth 38. give up doing sth
39. instead of doing sth 40. have nothing against doing sth
41. be serious about doing sth 42. have a chance of doing sth
43. before/ when /while +doing sth 44. start doing sth
45. have a lot of experience doing sth 46. prefer doing sth
47. consider doing sth 48. dream of / about doing sth
49. continue doing sth 50. put off doing sth
51. be used for doing sth =be used to do sth 52. prefer doing sth to doing sth
53. without doing sth 54. be comfortable doing sth
55. can’t stop/help doing sth 56. look forward to doing sth
57. be against doing sth 58. suggest doing sth
59. be busy doing sth 60. be worth doing sth
61. have trouble/problems/difficulty (in) doing sth
◄高考英语常考动词与动词短语总结►
一、及物动词与不及物动词：
常见的跟单宾语的及物动词主要有：accept, admire, admit, affect, afford, discover, educate, enjoy, explain, forget, guess, invent, love, post, raise等。
常见的跟双宾语的及物动词主要有：
1. 直、间接宾语易位需加to的动词：bring, give, hand, pass, post, promise, read, return, show, teach, tell, lend等。
2. 直、间接宾语易位需加for的动词：buy, choose, cook, draw, find, fetch, make, order, paint, purchase, save, spare等。
3. 既可加to，也可加for的动词：do, get, play, sing等。
常见的不及物动词主要有：ache, agree, apologize, appear, arrive, come, go, cry, dance, die, disappear, dream, exist, fall, flow, graduate, sit, stand, stay, wait, rise, lie, happen等。
二、延续性动词与终止性动词：
延续性动词可用于完成时，与以下几种时间状语连用：for +一段时间，since +时间点，since +一段时间+ ago，since +从句（一般过去时）等。常见的这类动词有：have, possess, keep, know, learn, live, read, sleep, wait, work, look, hear, smell等。
终止性动词不可用于现在完成时，不能与表示一段时间的状语连用，其否定形式多与until / till连用，构成“not +终止性动词+ until / till ...”的句型，意为“直到……才……”。如：
I will not go to bed until I finish drawing the picture tonight.
三、常见的短语动词有以下五种：
1. 动词+介词：
“动词+介词”构成的短语相当于一个及物动词，后面跟宾语。在被动语态中，整个短语不可分开。这类短语动词常用的有：agree with, burst into, call on, consist of, deal with, depend / rely on, die of / from, dream of, feel like, get into, hear from, insist on, look / stare / glare at, prepare for, result in, set about等。
2. 动词+副词：
1）及物动词+副词。这类短语动词常用的有：cut off, take down, put out, take over, turn down, turn over, throw away, figure out等。
2）不及物动词+副词。后面不跟宾语，没有被动语态。这类短语动词常用的有：die away, give in, go ahead, hold on, run away, stand out等。
3. 动词+名词+介词：
这类短语动词常用的有：catch sight of, compare notes with, declare war on / upon, get rid of, have a word with, make fun of, make use of, make preparations for, pay attention to, take care of, take hold of, take advantage of, take charge of等。
4. 动词+副词+介词：
这类短语动词常用的有：catch up with, come up with, date back to, put up with, go in for, run out of等。
5. be +形容词+介词：
这类短语动词常用的有：be accustomed / used to, be afraid of, be devoted to, be fond of, be familiar with, be famous for, be fit / suitable for等。
考点归纳：
动词及其词组的灵活运用是英语的特色，也是难点，每年均为重点。历年高考试题中动词所占的比例最大，设题时都是给出不同的动词或短语来测试考生在具体语境中对动词(短语)意义的理解和运用。考点主要包括：
1. 动词词义辨析。包括常见动词用法辨析、近义词辨析、词形相近词辨析和用法相近词辨析。
2.高频动词短语意义辨析。
主要考点: 考查主要集中于高频的动词短语, 如break, bring, call, come, get, go, make, take, turn, put, pick, hold, keep, look, carry, set, cut, show, pull等构成的短语。需要特别关注:
1. break
break away from 放弃, 打破; 脱离关系
break down 发生故障; (计划等)失败; (精神、身体)垮掉; 分解
break in 闯入, 插嘴
break into 闯入
break out (战争、瘟疫等)爆发, 突然发生
break up 打碎, 分手, 分开, 关系破裂
2. bring
bring about 导致, 造成, 引起
bring down 使倒下, 使降低
bring in 引进; 带来; 赚得; 收获
bring forward 提出; 提前
bring out 出版; 生产; 使显现
bring up 抚养, 教育; 提出; 呕吐
3. call
call for 要求; 需要; 去取或去接
call back 回电话; 回忆起
call in 召集; 请; 召来; 顺便来访
call up 打电话给; 召集; 使想起
call off 取消
call on 号召, 拜访
4. come
come about 发生
come to 苏醒; 总计
come across 偶遇; 无意中发现
come true 实现, 成为现实(不及物)
come out 出版; 结果是
come up (建议、计划等)被提出
come up with 提出(建议、计划等)
come on (催促)快点; (鼓励)加油; (不耐烦)得了, 算了吧!
5. get
get across 解释清楚; 使……被理解
get away from 避免; 摆脱, 逃离
get away with 侥幸成功; 侥幸做成
get around 四处走动; 传播开来
get down to 开始认真做某事
get along/on with 进展; 与……相处
get over 克服; 恢复
get rid of 摆脱; 除去
get through 通过; 完成; 接通电话
6. give
give away 赠送; 泄露; 分发
give back 归还
give in 屈服; 让步; 投降; 认输
give out 分发; 发出; 公布; 用尽
give up 放弃
7. go
go against 违背; 不利于; 反对
go ahead 开始(做某事); (表同意)
go around 参观; (消息)传播
go by 过去; 经过
go down 下降; 下沉
go on 继续; 发生; 进行
go over 复习, 仔细检查
go through 穿过; 经历; 仔细检查
go with 与……相配
go without 没有……也行
8. hold
hold back 犹豫; 隐瞒; 阻止
hold on=hang on别挂断; 等一会儿; 坚持
hold out 坚持; 伸出
hold up 举起; 阻挡, 使耽搁
hold on to 紧紧抓住; 保留; 不放弃
9. keep
keep away from 远离; 避开
keep back 留下; 隐瞒; 克制(感情)
keep on 继续; 坚持下去
keep out of 置身于……外; 避开
keep up 保持; 继续; 不低落
keep up with 跟上;
keep an eye out for 密切注意; 留心; 警惕
keep an eye on 照看; 密切注视
10. leave
leave alone 不打扰; 不理, 不管
leave behind 留下; 丢下, 丢弃
leave out 遗漏, 忽略
11. look
look around 环顾四周
look away from 把目光从……移开
look into 调查; 窥视
look back on/upon回忆，回顾
look up 查找, 查询; 向上看
look up to 尊敬; 敬仰
look down upon 歧视, 看不起
look forward to 盼望; 期待
look through 浏览; 快速查看
look out (for) 当心, 留意, 小心
look on 旁观
12. make
make use of 利用
make up 组成; 编造; 化妆; 和解
make up for 补偿; 弥补
make for 走向; 有助于; 促成, 导致
make sense 有意义; 有道理; 讲得通
make sense of 理解; 弄明白
make out 理解; 分辨出, 辨认出
make it 成功
13. put
put aside 撇开; 暂不考虑; 储蓄
put away 收拾, 整理; 储存
put back 把……放回原处; 推迟
put forward 提出; 拨快
put down 记下, 写下, 镇压
put out 伸出; 扑灭; 生产; 出版
put up 建造, 张贴; 提供住宿
put up with 忍受; 容忍
put on 穿上, 增加, 上演
14. set
set aside 划出; 留出; 拨出
set about doing sth. 着手做某事
set out 出发, 动身
set out to do sth. 着手做某事
set off 动身; 引起; 使爆炸
set up 建立, 创立
15. turn
turn away 走开; 转过脸去
turn down 拒绝; 关小, 调低
turn up 开大; 出现, 到场
turn out 结果是, 证明是; 生产
turn over 翻转; 翻阅, 仔细考虑
turn against 反对; 背叛
turn to 转向; 求助于
16. take
take after 长得像某人
take apart 拆开; 拆卸
take back 收回, 撤销
take down 记下; 拆卸; 取下
take away 带走, 拿走, 剥夺
take up 从事; 占据(时间、空间); 着手处理; 接着做
take in 吸收; 接受; 理解, 欺骗
take off 起飞; 脱下; 成功,
take on 呈现; 具有; 承担; 雇用
take over 接管, 接收
take advantage of 利用
take it easy 放松, 别紧张
take your time 慢慢来, 别着急
take measures to do sth. 采取措施做某事
take action 采取行动
常见的系动词的用法：
1. 表示变化类的系动词，如become, go, turn, grow, get, fall, make等。
2. 表示感觉类的系动词，如feel, smell, taste, look, sound等。
3. 表示状态类的系动词，如keep, remain, stand, stay, lie等。
4. 表示“像”类系动词，主要有seem, appear, look, 表示“看起来，似乎，显得”。
5. 此类系动词的特点：①只适用于主动语态；②只用于一般时态(一般现在时和一般过去时，不能用于进行时态)。
动词的一词多义用法：
很多动词在不同的语境中有不同的意义，因此要进行专门复习，常见的有：
1. act (v. & n. 行动)
e.g. It will take several hours before the drug really acts. ( vi. 起作用)
2. address (n. 地址；vt. 写地址)
e.g. President Obama was scheduled to address the American people on the evening of May 7. (vt. 向……做演说)
3. appreciate (vt. 欣赏，感激，感谢)
e.g. They soon appreciated that it must be a well-designed trap. (v. 意识到)
4. attend (vt. 参加，出席)
e.g. With several patients to attend that night, the nurse felt very tired. (vt. 照料，照顾)
With three kids attending high school in the town, the couple had to work day and night to earn more money. (vt. 上学)
5. count (n. & v. 计数，数)
e.g. It is not what you are thinking but what you are doing that counts. (v. 重要，有价值)
6. escape (vi. 逃跑，逃脱)
e.g. I saw a familiar face in the crowd. However, his name escaped me for the moment. (vt. 被忘掉)
The harmful gases are escaping from the pipe. (vi. 泄漏，漏出)
7. fail (vi. 失败)
e.g. Fresh vegetables used to fail in winter. (vi. 不足，缺乏)
With time passing by, his memory is failing. (vi. 衰退)
Try as the family might, they failed to find the lost child in the town. (vi. 未能)
8. introduce (vt. 介绍)
e.g. When tomatoes were first introduced into Europe, they didn’t accept them at all. (vt. 引入)
9. make (vt. 制造)
e.g. New laws have been made to protect the interests of the farmers. (vt. 制定)
He is making his own trouble by doing this. (vt. 引起，导致，造成)
She will make a great teacher. (vt. 成为，使形成)
10. observe (vt. 观察)
e.g. Having lived abroad for many years, he still observed the old traditions and customs. (vt. 遵守)
Every year, we will observe the traditional Spring Festival in different ways. (vt. 庆祝)
11. work (v. & n. 工作)
e.g. The medicine will soon work. (vi. 起作用)
The machine works very well. (vi. 运转)
第二十三讲座：主谓一致---基础篇
一．就近原则：
1. 由并列结构或连词（either…or， neither…nor，not…but， not only…but also， or等）连接的并列主语，谓语动词与较近的那个名词或代词保持一致。
Neither his parents nor Tom_____(be) at home.
2. 在倒装句和there be句型中，谓语动词与后面的第一个主语保持一致。
There _____(be) a book and some pens on the desk.
There ______(come) the bus.
3. 在定语从句中，关系代词作主语，其谓语动词应与它所指代的先行词保持一致。
I know the man who_____(be) talking to my father.
4. 在强调句中，连接代词又在句中作主语，这时它应与被强调的主语保持一致。
It is Mary’s brother who_____(be) injured in the car accident yesterday.
二．意义一致原则：
1. 当主语与谓语动词之间插入along with，with，as well as，together with， besides，except， but， including等短语时，谓语动词与第一个主语保持一致。
I along with my sister_____(be) going to Shanghai next month.
2. 由“what”引导的名词性从句作主语时，谓语动词通常用单数形式。
What I want to say _____(be) just “ Take care!”.
3. “…+ (of) +名词”作主语时，若“of”后的名词为单数（不可数名词），则谓语动词用单数，如果名词为复数，则谓语动词用复数。
Most of the water here ______(be) clean.
80% of cotton ______(have) been sent to America.
Half of the apples ______(be) red.
4. 词组“a number of”作主语时，谓语动词应用复数；“the number of”作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
A number of ancient buildings _____ (be) destroyed in the war.
The number of the visitors _____ (have) decreased this year.
5. 英语的集体名词（family, public, group, team, class等词），指代“整体”时为单数；指代“其中的各成员”则为复数。
My family ____(be) very poor when I was a little girl.
My family ______(be) all looking forward for your coming.
三．整体原则：
1. 从句、不定式、动名词等作主语时谓语动词用单数。
When to leave _____(have) not been decided.
Watching TV too much _____(be) bad for your eyes.
注：如果主语是两个(或两个以上)的名词性从句，谓语动词常用复数。
What he said and what he did _____(be) always different last night .
2. 如果两个以上的名词组成一个整体概念作主语时，谓语动词须用单数。
The novelist and poet _____(be) going to Europe next year.
The novelist and the poet_____(be) going to Europe next year.
3. 表示时间、距离、金额、度量等词语作主语时，通常被视作整体，谓语动词用单数。
10 minutes_____(be)enough.
4. 加减乘除等数学运算谓语动词通常用单数。
2 and 3 ______5.
5.“the +姓氏名词的复数”表示“一家人、….夫妇”，作主语时，谓语动词用复数形式。
The Blacks ______(enjoy) working in China.
四．个体原则：
1. every +….and every +…..或each+…and each +…作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式。
Every man and every woman _____(be) busy at working.
2. 英语句中的each， either， neither等词，作代词充当主语，修饰名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
Neither of us _____(have) been abroad. Neither answer _____(be) wrong.
3. 由some, any every, no构成的复合词（somebody，nobody，everything，anything等）作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
Somebody ______(be)waiting for you at the school gate.
4. 成双成对出现的复数名词（glasses，shoes，trousers，pants，gloves等）作主语时，通常谓语动词用复数，但前面有a /the pair of；a /the suit of等词语时，则谓语动词要与量词（pair, suit, piece ）在单复数上保持一致。
A pair of scissors_______(be) useful tool for a dressmaker.
Two pieces of paper ______(be ) on the desk.
5. 以复数形式出现，却表示单数意义（maths, physics, news …）谓语用单数。
Maths_____(be) my favorite subject.
6.“the +形容词（old /young /rich /poor ）”表示“一类人”，作主语时，谓语用复数。
The young ______(like) listening to popular songs.
7.“the +姓氏的复数” 表示“某某夫妇，某某一家人”，作主语时，谓语用复数。
The Greens _______(be)having lunch now.
第二十四讲座：主谓一致---提高篇
复习重点：
1. 主谓一致主要遵循三个原则：语法一致、意义一致、就近一致。
2. 分数、百分数、不定式、动词-ing形式作主语时的主谓一致。
一、主谓一致的原则：
主谓一致是指主语和谓语在人称和数上保持一致。一般遵循下列原则：
1. 语法一致原则：主语和谓语在人称和数上一致，即主语是单数形式，谓语动词也采用单数形式；主语是复数形式，谓语动词也采用复数形式。
2. 意义一致原则：谓语的单复数取决于主语的意义。有时主语形式上为单数，但意义上却是复数，那么谓语根据意义也用复数形式；有时主语形式上为复数，但意义上却是单数，那么谓语根据意义应用单数形式。
3. 就近一致原则：谓语动词的形式与邻近的主语在人称和数上一致。
二、主谓一致的具体应用：
1. 名词作主语：
★ 集合名词作主语，如果表示整体概念，谓语动词用单数形式；如果强调个体，谓语动词用复数形式。常见的这类名词有：army, audience, class, family, team, crowd, staff, committee, enemy, government, population等。有些集合名词如cattle, people, police等，通常看作复数，谓语动词必须用复数。如：
The team is the best in the league.
★单复数同形的名词作主语，应根据其意义来决定谓语形式，常见的这类名词有：deer, fish, sheep, Chinese, Japanese, means, works（工厂）等。如：
There are ten sheep on the farm, but there are only four goats.
★表示单数概念的复形名词，如：学科（maths，physics等）、机构、书名、剧名等作主语，谓语动词通常用单数。如：
Maths is one of the most important courses in the senior school.
The Times is Britain’s oldest national daily.
★ 表示成双成对的名词作主语，谓语动词通常用复数形式，这类名词有：trouser, shoe, chopstick, sunglass等。但如果其前有a pair of, a kind of等修饰时，谓语动词一般用单数。如：
A pair of trousers is on the bed.
★当名词短语中心词为表示距离、金额、时间等的复数名词时，往往把这些复数名词看作一个整体，谓语动词用单数。如：
Four thousand dollars is more than she can afford.
★“the +形容词或过去分词”结构作主语时，如表示一类可数的人或事物，谓语动词用复数，这类词有wounded, rich, unemployed, blind等。如：The unemployed lead a miserable life.
★如果主语由more than one ... 或many a ... 构成，尽管从意义上看是复数，但谓语动词通常用单数形式；在“more than +复数名词”或“more +复数名词+ than one”结构之后，谓语动词通常用复数形式。如：
Many a playwright is satisfied with the play.
More than one person has been concerned in this.
2. 代词作主语：
★由代词each, every one, no one, either, neither, another以及合成代词something, anything, nothing, everything, somebody, anybody, nobody, everybody, someone, anyone, everyone作主语时，谓语动词均用单数。如：
Each book was in its proper place.
★关系代词who，that，which等在定语从句中作主语时，其谓语动词的数应与句中的先行词的数一致。如：
He is one of the students who were late this morning.
He is the only one of the students who was late this morning.
★ all, most, none, some等作主语时，其谓语动词的形式要根据它们所代替的内容来定。如：
Most of his spare time was spent in reading.
All of my classmates work hard.
3. 由连接词连接的名词或代词作主语：
★用and或both ... and ... 连接并列主语，如果意义为复数，谓语动词通常用复数。但由and连接的并列主语如果指的是同一个人、同一事物或同一概念，谓语动词则用单数形式，这时and后面的可数名词不带冠词。如：
Both the secretary and the manager have agreed to be present.
Law and order means different things to people with different political opinions.
★当主语后跟有说明主语的修饰语，如用with, as well as, along with, rather than, together with, including, in addition to与修饰语连接时，谓语动词的人称和数与主语保持一致。如：
The missing things, as well as the bag, have been found and returned to the owner.
★ 由or, either ... or ..., neither ... nor ..., not only ... but also ...等连接的名词或代词作主语时，谓语动词要与邻近的主语相一致。如：
Not only the students but also their teacher goes to the exhibition.
4. 数词作主语：
“分数或百分数+ of +名词”构成的短语作主语时，谓语动词的单复数取决于of后名词的数。如：
Only one third of the work was done yesterday.
Thirds fourth of the students come to school on time.
5. 从句及非谓语动词作主语：
★名词性从句作主语时，谓语动词通常用单数。但如果是两个或两个以上的从句由and连接表示两个概念时，谓语动词用复数。另外，what从句作主语时，谓语动词的数由其表示的意义来决定。如：
Whether we go camping tomorrow depends on the weather.
What caused the snow slide and how many tourists are injured are still unknown.
What you want is a big bag.
You need not get any more stamps. What we have are quite sufficient.
★动词-ing形式短语或动词不定式作主语时，谓语动词通常用单数。如：
Smoking / To smoke is a bad habit.
常见考点：
高考试题对主谓一致的考查重点是：名词作主语时的谓语动词形式；分数、百分数、不定式、动词-ing形式作主语时的主谓一致。
用括号内动词的正确形式填空：
1. So far David’s the only one of us who ________ (go) abroad.
2. Such singers as Liu Huan ________ (be) widely popular, of whose songs, however, some ________(be) difficult to sing.
3. Many a famous pop star _________________________ (perform) in the concert tonight, so I’m looking forward to it very much.
4. —Is everyone here?
—Not yet ... Look, there ________ (come)the rest of our colleagues!
5. The chief editor together with his editors ________ (be) discussing the new law about newspapers that ________ (be) newly published last month.
6. The manager and designer ________ (be) to give some suggestions for the design of the new building in a while.
7. I, who ________ (be) your deskmate now, hope we can help each other with our studies.
8. When to have the next meeting and whether to invite the director still ________ (remain) a mystery to us.
9. Nobody but doctors or nurses and those who ________ (be) invited by Doctor Liu ________ (be) allowed to enter the patient’s room.
第二十五讲座：倒装句---基础篇
1. 当句首为副词here，there 且主语为名词时，应用完全倒装。
Here comes the bus !
There goes the bell. !
2. only 修饰时间、地点、方式等状语时，应用部分倒装。
Only in this way can we solve the problem.
Only when you told me did I know her name.
注意：如果 only 修饰的不是状语，则句子不倒装。
Only Uncle Li knows how it happened.
3. 表示对前者的陈述也适用后者时，肯定倒装用“ so + 助动词／情态动词 + 后者”，前句事否定，而后面的人也不怎么样时用“ neither / nor + 助动词 / 情态动词 + sb”。
He can speak English，so can I.
If she doesn’t go there tomorrow，neither / nor will I.
注意：
1）“ so + 助动词 / 情态动词 + 主语” 表示前者的主语和后者的主语的情况一样，所谈到的是两个人，意为“……也是这样”；
2）“ so + 主语 + 助动词 / 情态动词”表示前者和后者所指同一人时，说话者表示同意前者的观点，意为“的确如此”。
— Li Lei likes sports.
— So he does and so do I.
4. 由 not only …… but also …… 引起的并列句，若将 not only 置于句首时，该分句应部分倒装， but also 引导的分句不倒装。
Not only did he give me some advice，but also he lent me some money.
5.“ no matter +疑问词+从句” 或 “疑问词+ever+从句”
注：从句应用陈述句语序，时态用一般现在时。
However hard the problem is，I must work it out.
第二十六讲座：倒装、强调、省略句---提高篇
一、倒装：
1. 完全倒装：
完全倒装是把句子的谓语全部置于主语之前。在下列几种情况下多用完全倒装：
地点状语位于句首，且主语为名词而谓语为不及物动词的陈述句。如：
On the top of the hill stands a big pine tree.
在“there + be / live / lie / stand / ...”结构中。如：
Once there lived an old fisherman in a village by the sea.
here, there, now, then, out, in, up, down, off, away等副词位于句首，主语为名词，谓语动词通常是be, come, go, run, rush, fly, follow, fall等词，时态为一般时。如：
Here are some advertisements about cars.
There come the rest of the students.
Down came the rain and up went the umbrellas.
注意：当主语是代词时，主语和谓语的语序不变。如：
Away he went.
Down it came.
有时为了强调或者为了使句子平衡，常把句子的表语置于句首，构成完全倒装。如：
Present at the meeting were Professor Smith, Professor Brown and many other celebrities.
Gone are the days when they had nothing to eat.
such作表语提前时。如：
Such is the influence of TV that it can make a person famous overnight.
有时为了强调，可将谓语部分的动词-ing形式、过去分词或不定式置于句首。如：
Standing beside the table was his wife.
Buried in the sands was an ancient village.
To be carefully considered are the following questions.
2. 部分倒装：
部分倒装是把谓语的一部分（助动词或情态动词）提到主语之前。使用部分倒装的情况有：
含否定意义的词或短语(如not, nor, never, seldom, hardly, scarcely, rarely, little, few, nowhere, not until, not only, no sooner, in no way, on no account, under no circumstances, by no means等)置于句首时。如：
Never would he know what she had suffered.
Hardly had he arrived when she started complaining.
On no account must we give up this attempt.
only所修饰的副词、介词短语或状语从句位于句首时。如：
Only when she came home did her mother learn the news.
当表示前面提出的某一情况也同样适用于后者时，通常要用“so / neither / nor +系动词/助动词/情态动词+主语”倒装结构。如：
He can speak English and so can I.
If she won’t go there tomorrow, neither / nor will I.
当虚拟条件句含有were, should, had时，可省略if，将were, should, had移到主语之前。如：
Should you require anything, give me a ring.
Had you come yesterday, you would have seen him.
so ... that结构中的“so +形容词/副词”置于句首时，主句通常要部分倒装，但如果谓语动词为be时，则为全部倒装。如：
So earnestly did the boy beg that his father gave his permission. （部分倒装）
So small was the mark that I could hardly see it.（全部倒装）
3. 常见考点：
高考对倒装的考查主要是方位词、否定词位于句首、so, neither, nor等位于句首及一些固定结构中的倒装。
1) “Never for a second,” the boy says, “_____ that my father would come to my rescue.”
A. I doubted B. do I doubt
C. I have doubted D. did I doubt
2) Not until he went through real hardship _____ the love we have for our families is important.
A. had he realized B. did he realize
C. he realized D. he had realized
二、省略：
1. 简单句中的省略：
简单句中，可以省略谓语(的一部分)或主语。另外，也可省略宾语等其他成分。如：
(I am) Looking forward to hearing from you soon.
—What do you think made Mary so upset?
—Losing her bicycle (made her upset).
2. 并列句中的省略：
在由并列连词and, but, or等连接的并列句中，后边的分句中可以省略与前边分句中相同的成分，以避免重复。如：
My room is on the fifth floor, and hers (is) on the eighth (floor).
3. 复合句中的省略：
当状语从句的主语与主句的主语一致，且谓语动词中有be时，从句的主语和be可以省略。另外，当状语从句的主语和谓语是it is / was时，it is / was常被省略。如：
The boy studies very hard though (he is) still rather weak.
You may turn to the dictionary when (it is) necessary.
注意：
在状语从句中，省略了从句中的主语和be动词，这时从句中可出现如下结构：连词(as if, as, once)+名词；连词(though, whether, when)+形容词；连词(whether, as if, while)+介词短语；连词(when, while, though)+动词-ing形式；连词)when, if, even if, unless, once, than, as)+ 过去分词；连词(as if, as though)+不定式。
在对话中，常用so或not来替代上文的一部分或整个从句。如：
—Do you think he will lend us a hand?
—I hope so. (= I hope he will lend us a hand.)
在限制性定语从句中，作宾语的关系代词that, which, whom, who等常可以省略。如：
He is the man (who / whom / that) you can depend on.
引导宾语从句的连词that常被省略。如：
We all know (that) light travels much faster than sound.
为避免重复，不定式常省去前面出现的相同部分，而只保留不定式符号to。但如果在省略的不定式结构中含有be, have时，这些词要保留。如：
I saw him playing with a gun, and I told him not to.
My brother has lost a lot of weight — he is three kilos lighter than he used to be.
—Hasn’t he finished writing the report?
—No, but he ought to have.
单独使用不定式符号to代替不定式后被省略的动词，常用在be afraid, expect, forget, hope, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, refuse, seem, try, want, wish等后面。如：
I asked him to see the film, but he didn’t want to.
如果从句的谓语动词与主句的谓语动词一样，从句中的谓语动词可以用do, did, does等代替。
4. 习惯上的省略：
由固定短语引导的疑问句。如：
What about having a game of chess?
What if it’s raining?
习惯性的交际用语。如：
Not at all. 不用谢。
No matter. 不要紧。
Thanks. 谢谢。
5. 常见考点：
高考对省略的考查主要集中在不定式中的省略和状语从句中的省略。
1) The driver wanted to park his car near the roadside but was asked by the police _____.
A. not to do B. not to
C. not do D. do not
2) Film has a much shorter history, especially when _____ such art forms as music and painting.
A. having compared to B. comparing to
C. compare to D. compared to
三、强调：
1. It is / was ... that / who(m) ...
该句型可用于强调除谓语以外的其它句子成分，强调句的结构是：it + is / was +被强调部分+ that / who(m) +其它部分。
强调的主语是人，可用who引导后面的部分，间或用that；若主语是物，则用that。
如果强调的宾语或介词宾语是人，用whom，间或用that；若宾语是物，用that。
强调状语时多用that引导。
强调句的否定形式：It isn’t / wasn’t +被强调部分+ that / who(m) ...。
一般疑问句形式：Was / Is it +被强调部分+ that / who(m) ...?
特殊疑问句形式：特殊疑问词+ was / is it that ...?
not ... until ...的强调句形式为固定结构，即：It is / was not until ... that / who(m) ...。
2. do / does / did + 动词原形：
如果需要强调谓语时，借用助动词do / does / did，且只能用于一般现在时和一般过去时的肯定句中。如：
Do be careful when you cross the street.
I’ll tell you something that does sound strange.
She did come late, very late. I had marked her absence, of course.
3. 常见考点：
高考对强调句的考查，主要考查强调句的陈述句、一般疑问句、特殊疑问句形式及与其它含it句型的区别。
1) It was with the help of the local guide __B___ the mountain climber was rescued.
A. who B. that C. when D. how
2) It was only after he had read the papers ___B__ Mr. Gross realized the task before him was extremely difficult to complete.
A. when B. that
C. which D. what
专项练习：
I. 用括号内所给内容的正确形式填空。
1. Seldom ___________ (I read) an article that was so full of lies.
2. Not until I began to work ____________ (realize) how much time I had wasted.
3. Our monitor suggested that the problem just referred to __________________ (be discuss) at the class meeting tomorrow.
4. If you start to do one thing, __________ (devote) yourself to it and finally you’ll be paid off.
5. Only by showing your sincerity ____________ (you can win) the trust of your friends.
6. Only when my sister apologizes for her rudeness ___________ (I speak) to her again.
7. Not once ___________ (it occur) to him that he might be falling in love with her.
8. So easy _______________ (the exercise be) that the student finished it in half an hour.
第二十七讲座：感叹句---基础篇
一、结构：
What/ How +被感叹的部分+ 主语+ 谓语！
What beautiful flowers they are !
二、变法：
一断， 二加 ，三调位。
一断表示在谓语动词的后面断开，二加表示在断开的两部分中间加what 或how,三调位表示前后两部分对调位置。
They had a good time yesterday.
一断：They had / a good time yesterday .
二加：They had（what）a good time yesterday .
三调位：What a good time they had yesterday.
三、what引导的感叹句：
1. what + a / an +adj + 单数名词 （+主语+ 谓语）！
_______ a clever boy he is !
2. what + adj + 复数名词 （+主语+ 谓语）！
_______ heavy boxes they are !
3. what + adj + 不可数名词（+主语+ 谓语）！
_______ bad weather !
四、how引导的感叹句：
1. How + adj / adv + 主语+ 谓语！
_________ hard they are working !
2. How + adj + a / an + 单数名词（+主语+ 谓语）！
How tall a boy he is !
3. How + adj / adv + the + 名词+ 谓语！
________ heavily the rain is falling!
五、what 与how引导的感叹句之间的转换：
1. What a beautiful girl she is != ______ beautiful the girl is !
2. How delicious the food is !=______ delicious food it is !
六、几个常见的感叹句：
1.______ great fun it is !
2.______ important information !
3.______ good news !
4.______ good advice / music !
5.______ a heavy rain !
6.______a strong wind !
七、感叹句中常见的不可数名词：
food, work, weather, fun, music, information, news, advice...
第二十八讲座：感叹句、祈使句---提高篇
(一) 祈使句：
1. 祈使句的否定式和强调式：
(1) 祈使句的否定式是在整个结构前加don’t或never。
e.g. Never come late.
Please don’t forget to take your medicine.
注意：
以let开头的祈使句的否定形式通常是在let’s或let us/me后加not。
e.g. Let’s not waste our time arguing about it!
(2) 祈使句的强调式是在整个结构之前加do。
e.g. Do give my regards to your parents!
2. 祈使句表假设的情况：
祈使句常用于固定句式“祈使句＋and/or/otherwise＋一般将来时陈述句”，若前后表顺承关系，用and；若前后表转折关系，用or或otherwise，祈使句则相当于一个条件状语从句。
(1) 祈使句＋and＋陈述句＝名词短语＋and＋陈述句＝if条件状语从句＋主句
e.g. Have a little patience and we’ll look into it soon.
＝Just a little patience and we’ll look into it soon.
＝If you have a little patience, we’ll look into it soon.
(2) 祈使句＋or＋陈述句＝if...not...＋主句
e.g. Work harder，or you’ll fail.
＝If you don’t work harder, you’ll fail.
(二) 感叹句：
表示强烈情绪(喜、怒、哀、乐、惊、恐等)的句子叫感叹句，通常由what或how引导。
1. 基本形式：
(1) What＋(a/an)＋形容词＋名词＋主语＋谓语！
e.g. What a clever boy he is!
What wonderful ideas you have!
(2) How＋形容词＋a/an＋单数可数名词＋主语＋谓语
e.g. How difficult a problem it is!
(3) How＋形容词/副词＋主语＋谓语！
e.g. How clever the boy is!
2. 其他形式的感叹句：
(1) how直接修饰谓语动词：How＋主语＋谓语！
e.g. How (much) we love our motherland!
(2) 常见的其他形式
e.g. How can you be so silly！
The designs and the colours！
考点归纳：
感叹句、祈使句：
(1) what与how引导的感叹句作为宾语从句出现在试题中，其难点有两方面：一是复数名词或不可数名词前面用what还是how; 二是感叹句的语序。
(2) 祈使句的主要考点是：根据句式特点判断是祈使分句还是状语成分；祈使句＋and/or＋结果分句。
Read this story, _____ you will realize that not everything can be bought with money.
A. or B. and C. but D. so
考查固定句式: 祈使句+and+陈述句。结合句意可知前后两个分句之间为顺承关系, 故选择并列连词and。A项表示两分句之间为转折关系; B项表示两分句之间为顺承关系; C项表示两分句之间为转折关系; D项表示两分句之间为因果关系。
第二十九讲座：反意疑问句---基础篇
一、结构：
陈述句 + 附加疑问句？
It’s hot today, isn’t it?
二、原则：
1. 前肯后否，前否后肯
2. 前名后代
3. 时态一致
三、变法：
一疑、二否、三连、四省、五转换(名变代)。
四、特殊的附加疑问句：
1. I’m …… , aren’t I ?
I’m right, ______ ______ ?
2. There be …… , ______ there ?
There will be fewer buses in the future,____ ______?
3. 句中有反义词的句子的反意疑问句，仍把它作为肯定形式。
He is unhappy, _____ ______ ?
4. Let’s 的反意疑问句为 shall we ?
Let’s go to the movie together,_____ _____ ?
5. 祈使句的反意疑问句为 will you ?
Don’t miss it,_____ _____ ?
6. 若陈述句部分含有never, few, little, hardly, no, seldom, nobody, nothing …否定词、半否定词时，反意疑问句用肯定形式。
He can hardly understand it , _____ ______ ?
7. 陈述句的主语为不定代词时：
1). 主语为指人的不定代词时，反意疑问句的主语用he / they.
No one was hurt, ______ _______ ?
2). 主语为指物的不定代词时，反意疑问句的主语用it.
Nothing is serious, _______ _______ ?
8. 表推测的情态动词的反意疑问句，其反意疑问句与情态动词后的动词一致。
He must be at school, ______ ______ ?
9. 陈述句的主语是this, that, these, those时，反意疑问句的主语分别为 it, they.
This is a new computer, ______ ______ ?
Those aren’t banana tees, ______ _______ ?
10. 当陈述句是主从复合句时， 其反意疑问句应与主句保持一致。若主句为I think / believe /suppose /imagine /expect 时，其反意疑问句应与从句保持一致。
He said that he would leave here tomorrow, _______ _______ ?
I don’t think you can do these exercises alone, _______ _______ ?
11. 陈述句中有has / have / had 时，一定要注意。
1). 若句中是 has to / have to / had to,表 “不得不” 反意疑问句的谓语用doesn’t / don’t / didn’t 进行反问.
They had to leave early, ______ ______ ?
2). 若句中是has / have / had 表“有“， 其反意疑问句的谓语用do/ does / did 进行反问。
He has few friends in the new school, ______ ______?
3). 若句中是has/ have / had +过去分词时，其反义疑问句的谓语用has/have/had进行反问。
He has never been to Beijing, _____ _____?
She had studied a few English songs by the end of last month,______ ______?
五、反义疑问句的回答：
反义疑问句的回答要根据事实作答，若事实是肯定的，就用yes , +肯定形式。若事实是否定的，就用No, +否定形式。
注意：在前否后肯的句子中，yes表示“不”而No表示“是的”。
She didn’t come to school yesterday, did she ?
_________, though she was not feeling well.
A. No, she didn’t B. No, she did C. Yes, she didn’t D. Yes, she did
第三十讲座：反意疑问句---提高篇
知识梳理：
反意疑问句又可叫做附加疑问句，由“陈述句＋反意问句”构成。
反意问句的动词总是助动词、情态动词或be动词的某种形式，反意问句的主语用代词充当。基本原则是“前否后肯，前肯后否”。
1. 陈述部分含有must的反意疑问句:
(1) 陈述句部分谓语动词含有must时，must
如表示“必须”，反意问句用needn’t; 如mustn’t表示“禁止”，其反意问句部分用
must。
e.g. You must get to school at 8 a .m., needn’t you?
You mustn't smoke here, must you?
(2) “must + be”表示“推测”时，反意疑问句部分用be的适当形式。如：
She must be a student, isn’t she?
(3) 陈述句的谓语部分是“must have + 过去分词”时，如果这个结构带有一个表示过去的时间状语，则反意疑问句部分用did作助动词；如果没有表示过去的时间状语，则反意疑问句部分用have作助动词。如：
They must have finished their work yesterday, didn’t they?
They must have finished their work, haven’t they?
2. 陈述部分含有used to和ought to的反意疑问句:
(1) 陈述部分谓语动词是used to时，用didn’t或usedn’t两种方式反问。
e.g. He used to go swimming in summer, didn't/ usedn't he?
(2) 陈述部分谓语动词是ought to时，用oughtn’t反问。
e.g. He ought to be praised for what he has done, oughtn't he?
3. 当陈述部分有neither, none, nobody, nothing, few, little, never, hardly, seldom等否定意义或半否定意义的副词时，反意问句应用肯定形式。
e.g. Nobody understood his speech, did they?
His sister seldom argues with people, does she?
注意:
陈述部分出现含有否定意义的前缀或后缀的词时，反意问句仍用否定结构。
e.g. He is unfit for his job, isn’t he?
4. 如果陈述句的主语是表示人的不定代词，如：anyone, someone, no one, everybody, nobody, somebody等时，反意疑问句的主语可用he，也可用they。
e.g. Everybody knows that, don’t they / doesn’t he?
5. 陈述部分谓语动词是dare, need时，如果作情态动词, 用dare, need本身反问；如果作实义动词, 则用do的适当形式反问。
e.g. You daren’t climb the rock, dare you?
The little girl doesn’t dare to go alone at night, does she?
We need to help them, don’t we?
6. 陈述部分谓语动词have作“有”解时，可用don’t或haven’t反问；作其他意义解释时用do的某种形式反问。
e.g. He hasn't any sisters, does/has he?
They have to receive strict training beforehand, don't they?
7. 含有宾语从句的反意疑问句
当陈述部分带有宾语从句时，疑问部分的主语与助动词应和主句保持一致。
e.g. He never said she would come, did he?
注意:
当陈述部分谓语动词是think, believe，suppose, expect, imagine且主语为第一人称时，疑问部分的主语和谓语动词均应和宾语从句的主语和谓语保持一致，且应注意否定转移；但如果主语不是第一人称，反意问句则与主句保持一致。
e.g. I don’t believe he will succeed, will he?
Mary thinks you will come to the party, doesn’t she?
8. 并列句的反意疑问句则根据最接近的分句来完成:
e.g. We forgot to bring our tickets, but please let us enter, will you?
9. 感叹句的反意疑问句:
陈述部分是感叹句时，一律用be或助动词的否定形式反问。
e.g. What a naughty boy he is, isn’t he?
How hard she works, doesn’t she?
10. 祈使句的反意疑问句:
祈使句的反意疑问句的构成，必须按其句子结构及讲话人的语气来决定其反意部分，有四种形式。
(1) 祈使句的肯定形式，其反意问句表示“请求”时，通常用will you；表示“邀请，劝说”时，用won’t you。
e.g. Be sure to write to us, will you? (表示“请求”)
Come to have dinner with us this evening,
won’t you? (表示“邀请”)
Try to be back by two, won't you? (表示“劝说”)
(2) 祈使句的否定形式，其反意问句通常只用 will you构成。e.g. Don’t smoke in the meeting room, will you?
(3) 以let开头的祈使句，构成反意问句时，除let’s用shall we构成外，其他均用will you。
e.g. Let the boy go first, will you?
Let’s take a walk after supper, shall we?
11. 反意疑问句的回答:
反意疑问句的回答，不是根据汉语习惯来确定用yes还是no，而是根据答语的内容来确定，不管主句为否定，还是反意问句为否定，回答时只看所提到的事情是否已/会发生。如果发生了，用肯定回答，否则用否定回答。要特别注意陈述部分是否定结构，反意问句部分用肯定形式时，回答的yes要译成“不”，no要译成“是的”。
e.g. —He likes playing football, doesn't he?
—Yes, he does. 是的。
—No, he doesn’t. 不是。
—You haven’t seen the film, have you?
—Yes, I have. 不，我看过。
—No, I haven’t. 是的，我没有看过。
第三十一讲座：状语从句---基础篇
一、引导词的选择：
1. 时间状语从句：
1). 由when、while、as（当……时候）引导的时间状语从句。
When jack got home, his mother was cooking.
2). 由after/ before (在….之后/ 前)引导的时间状语从句。
The football match played after school was over.
3). 由as soon as (一…..就……)引导的时间状语从句。
I’ll ring you as soon as I reach Beijing.
4). 由not….until（直到…..才…..）引导的时间状语从句。
They didn’t stop until they finished the work.
2. 原因状语从句：
由because、since、as（因为、既然、由于）引导的原因状语从句。
Since you have known about that, please tell us what to do.
3. 地点状语从句：
由wherever（无论在哪儿）引导的地点状语从句。
Wherever he goes, he always brings his pet dog.
4. 目的状语从句：
由so that (以便、为的是)引导目的状语从句。
He got up very early so that he could catch the early bus.
5. 条件状语从句：
由if或unless 引导条件状语从句。
I won’t go to his party unless I am invited.
6. 比较状语从句：
由than、 as…as、not as……as 引导比较状语从句。
There are more students in our class than in theirs.
7. 让步状语从句：
由though、even though/ if、although引导让步状语从句。
Although he didn’t pass the exam, his father didn’t get angry with him.
8. 方式状语从句：
由as if (好像)引导方式状语从句。
He talked about that as if he knew everything.
9. 结果状语从句：
由so…that…、such….that…（如此…..以致于…）引导结果状语从句。
It was raining so hard that we couldn’t see the road.
二、状语从句与主句的时态问题：
1. 时间状语从句、条件状语从句与主句的时态不一致。（主句用将来时，而时间、条件状语从句用一般现在时）
If it ________(not rain) tomorrow, we______(go) to climb the hill.
He ________ (become) a sodier when he ______(grow) up.
2. since引导的时间状语从句。 It is + 时间+ since + 一般过去时
It_____(be) ten years since we ________(leave) that city.
3. 由when、while引导的时间状语从句的时态：
主句（过去进行时）+when +从句（一般过去时）
主句（一般过去时）+when +从句（过去进行时）
主句（一般过去时）+while +从句（过去进行时）
主句（过去进行时）+while +从句（过去进行时）
注意：看动词为短暂性动词用一般过去时，动词为延续性动词则用过去进行时。
Mother _______(cook)supper when I ______(get)home yesterday.
Last Sunday I_______(meet)Lin Hong when I _______(walk)in the street.
While Han Meimei _______(sweep)the floor, Lucy _______(carry) water.
When the students ________(have)a meeting, the teacher _______(come) in.
4. 由when、after、before、by the time引导的时间状语从句的时态：
主、从句的谓语动作都以完成，则先发生的动作用过去完成时，后发生的动作用一般过去时。
When they _______(get) to the cinema last light, the film ________(start).
I _________(go) out with my friends after I _______(finish) all the homework last night.
第三十二讲座：状语从句---提高篇
一、状语从句的类型及连词见基础篇。
二、状语从句中的引导词：
1. while
while引导时间状语从句时，从句的谓语必须是延续性动词（如stay, wait, live等），而不能是非延续性动词。如：
Please don’t talk so loud while others are working.
while引导让步状语从句时，相当于although / though / as，但while / although引导的让步状语从句不用倒装语序，though引导的让步状语从句可以倒装也可以不倒装，而as引导的让步状语从句则必须倒装。如：
While / Although / Though the bride is happy, she will feel homesick at the beginning.
Happy as the bride is, she will feel homesick at the beginning.
2. until和till
until和till都表示“直到”，常可互换，但till一般不用于句首，也不用于强调句中。
until / till从句与肯定的主句连用时，主句的谓语必须是延续性动词，表示主句的动作一直持续到until / till所表示的时间为止。如：
You may stay here until the rain stops.
Mr. Bush remained there till his brother arrived.
until / till从句与否定的主句连用时，主句的谓语是非延续性动词，表示“直到……才”，即主句的动作到until / till所表示的时间才开始。如：
David won’t go to bed until / till his wife returns.
Leo didn’t come until he had gone over his lesson.
not until位于句首时，主句须用倒装语序。如：
Not until I began to work did I realize how much time I had wasted.
not until结构可用于强调句中。如：
It was not until she came to see us that we knew her mother was ill in bed.
3. when
when引导时间状语从句时，从句的动作既可与主句的动作同时发生，也可先后发生。如：
When we were at school, we went to the library every day.
When the meal was finished, Rachel washed up.
when可以引导条件状语从句，意为“如果”。如：
How can we explain it to you when you won’t listen?
when可以作并列连词，意为“正在那时，突然”，此时所引导的从句只能放在主句之后。如：
We were swimming in the lake when suddenly the storm started.
4. as
as可以引导时间状语从句，其动作是延续性的，表示“当……时，随着”。
The atmosphere gets thinner and thinner as the height increases.
as可以引导原因状语从句，一般放在句首，表示十分明显的原因。如：
As it is raining, we shall not go camping.
as可以引导让步状语从句, 通常用倒装结构。具体情况如下：
形容词或副词+ as +主语+系动词be或实义动词。
如: Much as I like it, I won’t buy.
名词+ as +主语+系动词（句首的名词前多不带冠词）。如：
Child as he is, he knows a lot.
实义动词+ as +主语+助动词（如果没有助动词, 则要加上do, does或did）。如：
Try as he would, he couldn’t lift the heavy box.
5. no sooner ... than ..., hardly / scarcely ... when ...
no sooner ... than ...和hardly / scarcely ... when ...引导的从句表示“一……就……，刚……就……”的含义。主句中的动词一般用过去完成时, 从句用一般过去时。no sooner, hardly位于句首时, 主句的主谓语要部分倒装。如：
The words had no sooner been spoken than he realized that he should have remained silent.
I had hardly got home when it began to rain.
No sooner had we got to the station than the train left.
Hardly had we begun when we were told to stop.
6. 由“疑问词-ever”构成的复合词与“no matter +疑问词”
由“疑问词-ever”构成的复合词可以引导让步状语从句。此时以-ever结尾的复合词在口语中可由“no matter +疑问词”代替。如：
I’ve told you that I’m going to buy that pen, however much it costs.
= ..., no matter how much it costs.
Don’t trust him, whatever he says. = ..., no matter what he says.
一、时间状语从句:
It was the middle of the night _____ my father woke me up and told me to watch the football game.
A. that B. as
C. which D. when
二、地点状语从句:
where在地点状语从句中，除了指地点外，还可指处境等。
由where引导的地点状语从句与定语从句的区别：where引导定语从句时，从句前应有一个表示（抽象）地点或处所的名词作先行词，而状语从句前没有先行词。
1. Half an hour later, Lucy still couldn’t get a taxi _____ the bus had dropped her.
A. until B. when C. although D. where
2. Many countries are now setting up national parks _____ animals and plants can be protected.
A. when B. which C. whose D. where
三、原因状语从句:
引导原因状语从句的常用连词有because, since, as, now (that)等。它们的用法区别是：because语气最强，述说直接原因，说明因果关系，常回答以why开头的问句；since, as和now (that)引导的从句用法相似，表示双方都知道的原因。
—Coach, can I continue with the training?
—Sorry, you can’t _____ you haven’t recovered from the knee injury.
A. until B. before C. as D. unless
四、让步状语从句:
_____ the forest park is far away, a lot of tourists visit it every year.
A. As B. When
C. Even though D. In case
五、目的状语从句:
Cathy had quit her job when her son was born _____ she could stay home and raise her family.
A. now that B. as if
C. only if D. so that
六、结果状语从句:
so ... that和such ... that表示“如此……以致于”, so后面接形容词或副词， such后面接名词。但名词前有many, much, few, little这些词修饰时, 要用so。“such + a(n) + adj. +单数名词+ that”可转换成“so + adj. + a(n) +单数名词+ that”。
The weather was _____ cold that I didn’t like to leave my room. (2008全国卷I)
A. really B. such C. too D. so
七、条件状语从句:
You will never gain success _____ you are fully devoted to your work.
A. when B. because
C. after D. unless
八、方式状语从句:
引导方式状语从句的常用连词有as, as if / though。as if / though引导的状语从句的谓语动词常用虚拟语气，表示与事实相反的假设。如果从句所表达的内容被看作是事实或者有可能是事实时，就要用陈述语气。
Jack wasn’t saying anything, but the teacher smiled at him _____ he had done something very clever.
A. as if B. in case C. while D. though
九、比较状语从句:
含as ... as ...的比较状语从句用在同级比较中, 若表否定用not so / as ... as ...。其中第一个so / as是副词, 修饰主句的形容词或副词的原形，后一个as是连词, 引导比较状语从句。
I have seldom seen my mother _____ pleased with my progress as she is now. A. so B. very C. too D. rather
专项训练：
1. _____ you start eating in a healthier way, weight control will become much easier.
A. Unless B. Although
C. Before D. Once
2. I don’t really like the author, _____ I have to admit his books are very exciting. A. although B. unless
C. until D. once
3. Lessons can be learned to face the future, _____ history cannot be changed.
A. though B. as
C. since D. unless
4. The young couple, who returned my lost wallet, left _____ I could ask for their names.
A. while B. before
C. after D. since
5. The meaning of the word “nice” changed a few times _____ it finally came to include the sense “pleasant.”
A. before B. after
C. since D. while
第三十三讲座：名词性从句---基础及提高篇
（一）名词性从句的结构和功能：
名词性从句包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句。名词性从句主要有四种从句结构：以that引导的从句；以whether/ if引导的从句，以特殊疑问词引导的从句；以what或wh-ever等连接代词引导的名词性关系从句。此外，as if/ as though也可引导表语从句。具体用法见下表：
（二）名词性从句的连接词：
引导名词性从句的连接词有：从属连词、连接代词和连接副词。
1. 从属连词：that(本身无意义)，whether(是否)，if(是否)。只起连接作用，在从句中不作任何成分。
2. 连接代词：who, whom, whose, which, what, whatever, whoever等。它们除起连接作用外，还可在从句中充当主语、宾语、定语、表语等成分。
3. 连接副词：when(＝the time when什么时候，何时)，where(＝the place where什么地方，何地)，how(＝the way that/in which怎样，以……方式，如何)，why＝the reason why为什么)。它们除起连接作用，还在从句中作状语。
温馨提示：
what与that引导名词性从句的区别：
1. what在名词性从句中可充当主语、宾语和表语，意义上相当于the thing(s) that，引导主语从句时，其谓语动词的单复数依句意而定。
e.g. What the lecturer said is very valuable.
We wonder what he will do next.
2. that引导名词性从句不充当任何句子成分，只起连接作用，无任何意义。引导主语从句时，常用it作形式主语，谓语动词用单数，引导宾语从句时，常被省略。
e.g. That she will refuse the offer seems unlikely.
I have found (that) all the tickets have been sold out.
It is a pity that you missed such a fine talk.
（三）主语从句：
1. 主语从句的基本用法：
1) that引导的主语从句既可放在句首，也可放在句尾，that起连接作用，无词义，在从句中不作成分，一般不能省略。
e.g. That we are invited to a concert this evening is good news to us.
＝It is good news to us that we are invited to a concert this evening.
2) whether引导的主语从句可放在句首，也可放在句尾；if引导的主语从句只能放在句尾，前面需要it作形式主语。whether/ if 起连接作用，“是否”，在从句中不作成分。
e.g. Whether he will go there or not is not clear.
It is doubtful whether/ if the work can be completed.
3) wh类连接词引导的主语从句：
wh类连接词包括wh类的连接代词(who, whom, whose, which, what, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever等)和连接副词(when, where, how, why, whenever, wherever, however等)。what, when和wh-ever类的词有时可不表疑问。wh类连接代词在句中既起连接作用，又可充当主语、宾语、表语、定语等成分。wh类连接副词在句中起连接作用，在从句中可充当时间、地点、原因、方式状语。
2. 主语从句的单复数问题
1) 从句作主语时，谓语动词一般用单数。
e.g. That he will come and help us is certain.
Who will go to the energy conference is not important.
2) what引导的从句作主语，表示单数概念，谓语动词一般用单数形式；表示复数概念，则谓语动词常用复数。
e.g. What he said is true.
What he needs are books.
（四） 宾语从句：
1. 宾语从句的基本用法：
1) 动词后接宾语从句的用法：
e.g. I know that he is friendly and hospitable.
Go to stamp sales and buy whatever you can afford.
温馨提示：
doubt, doubtful与sure后名词性从句连接词that, whether, if的选择。
①当doubt, doubtful用于肯定句时，后面的名词性从句的连接词常用whether或if；当doubt, doubtful用于否定句或疑问句时，后面名词性从句的连接词用that。
e.g. I doubt whether/ if he is at home.
We don’t doubt that they can complete the task ahead of time.
It is doubtful whether it is true or not.
②当be sure用于肯定句时，后面的宾语从句的连接词常用that；当be sure用于否定句时，后面的宾语从句的连接词常用whether或if。
e.g. We are sure that he is innocent.
The old man didn’t seem to be sure whether/ if he had met me.
2) 介词及形容词后接宾语从句的用法：
e.g. We are talking about whether we admit students into our club.
He was interested in whatever he saw there.
He is pleased that he has passed a tough test.
温馨提示：
①一般情况下介词后只能用wh类连接词引导的宾语从句。
e.g. I am surprised at what he said.
②介词后如果接that从句，要先加上it，再加that从句，即“介词＋it＋that...”结构。
e.g. You may depend on it that they will support you.
③介词except, but, besides及in后可接that从句。
e.g. I know nothing about him except that he lives here.
④常接宾语从句的形容词有sure, certain, glad, pleased, happy, afraid, surprised, satisfied, sorry等。
e.g. I’m afraid he won’t attend our wedding.
3) that引导的宾语从句：
e.g. We are glad that so many old friends will attend our tea party.
The headmaster said that the school reports had been sent off.
温馨提示：
在suggest, demand, order, insist等动词之后的宾语从句中用虚拟语气，“(should＋)动词原形”。
e.g. He suggested that we (should) set about doing the work at once.
4) whether/ if 引导的宾语从句：
e.g. I’ll try to find out whether/ if the machine is in good condition.
温馨提示：
① whether/ if引导宾语从句表示“是否”的意思时，一般情况下可互换。
② if引导宾语从句时可以有否定式，而whether从句则没有。
e.g. I don’t care if he doesn’t come.
5) 特殊疑问词引导的宾语从句：
由who, what, how, which, whose, where, why等词引导的宾语从句，可作动词、介词及形容词的宾语。
e.g. I can’t imagine how he did it.
We are worrying about what we should do next.
I wasn’t certain whose house I was in.
温馨提示：
如果疑问词是介词的宾语，介词可位于从句句首或句末。
e.g. I didn’t know in which building they lived.
＝I didn’t know which building they lived in.
2. 宾语从句的时态
1) 主句为现在或将来时态
主句谓语动词如果是现在时或将来时，从句谓语动词可用任何所需要的时态。
e.g. She says that she works from Monday to Friday.
I know he didn’t tell you that he would come then.
He will tell me what happened to him during my absence.
2) 主句为过去时态
主句的谓语动词是一般过去时，从句的谓语动词要用相应的过去时态。
e.g. He said there were no classes yesterday afternoon.
He asked me if I was reading the book Red and Black when he came in.
3) 表示客观事实或真理
如果从句表示客观事实或真理，不管主句的谓语动词是何时态，从句都要用现在时态。
e.g. The teacher said that the world is made up of matter.
（五） 表语从句:
1. 表语从句的基本用法
1) 基本结构：主语＋系动词＋表语从句，常用的系动词有be，seem，remain，look等。
e.g. My idea is that you should make good use of your time.
It seems that he has been to America.
2) as if/ as though引导的表语从句，系动词通常为look，seem，sound等，从句可以用陈述语气，也可以用虚拟语气。
e.g. It looks as if it is/ were going to snow.
3) that和what引导的表语从句的区别：
that引导表语从句时，起连接作用，没有实际意义，不作句子成分；what引导表语从句时，既充当连接代词，又作句子成分。
e.g. Our plan is that we’ll go there once a week.
That’s what he said.
4) 由连接副词引导的表语从句：
连接副词where，why，when等引导表语从句，分别在从句中作地点、原因、时间状语。
e.g. That is where the great writer used to live.
That is why he didn’t pass the exam.
That was when I was thirty.
2．表语从句需要注意的问题
1) 主语为名词reason，表语从句用that而不用why引导。
e.g. The reason why he was absent from the meeting was that he fell ill suddenly.
The reason for such a serious accident is that the driver was too careless and drunk.
2) 引导表语从句时，用whether，不能用if。
e.g. The question is whether he has signed the contract. (不能用if)
3) 表语从句中的虚拟语气：
如果主句的主语是名词idea, advice, suggestion, order, request, requirement等时，则表语从句的谓语应用虚拟语气，“(should＋)动词原形”。
e.g. My suggestion is that we (should) set out at once.
The doctor’s advice is that you (should)rest more and drink more.
4) 使用连接词时的注意事项：
连接代词和连接副词一般都表疑问，但what, when和where等连接词有两种含义，一种表示疑问，一种表示陈述。表陈述时，相当于the thing that, the time when, the place where, 常意为“……的人/事”、“……的时间”、“……的地点”等。
e.g. This is where he once lived.
This is what I want to know.
That was when he did the experiment.
3. 比较三个句式:
句式
意义
例句
That is why＋结果
“那就是……的原因”
That is why we don’t trust him.
That is because＋原因
“那是因为……”
That is because he often lies.
The reason why...is that...
“……的原因是……”
The reason why we don’t trust him is that he often lies.
（六） 同位语从句:
在主从复合句中作同位语的从句，叫同位语从句。表示名词的内容，加以解释。
同位语从句的基本用法：
1. 能接同位语从句的名词：fact, idea, news, promise, information, message, belief, doubt, hope, opinion, possibility, thought, wish, truth, question, problem, reply, answer, report, suggestion, advice, order, warning等等。
2. that引导的同位语从句
e.g. We were very excited at the news that our Chinese athletes won many gold medals.
The problem that they can’t get here early is hard to solve.
温馨提示:
同位语从句通常由that引导，但根据接同位语的名词不同，也可由whether, when, who, how, what, why等引导。
e.g. I have no idea when he will be back.
The question who was to blame has never been settled.
（七）引导名词性从句只用whether
不用if的情况:
1. 引导主语从句置于句首时：
e.g. Whether he can finish the work on time is not clear.
2. 引导表语从句时：
e.g. The problem is whether the meeting will be held.
3. 引导同位语从句时：
e.g. I have no idea whether he is willing to help us.
4. 引导宾语从句前置时：
e.g. Whether they will join in the Winter Camp I don’t care.
5. 作介词宾语时：
e.g. We aren’t interested in whether he will agree with us or not.
6. 作动词discuss的宾语时：
e.g. We are now discussing whether we should group these three companies.
7. 其后接动词不定式时：
e.g. Can you tell me whether to go or to stay?
8. 与or not直接连用时，用whether，即whether or not，如果分开时，两者都可以，即whether/ if... or not。
e.g. I don’t care whether or not he has a holiday.
＝I don’t care whether/ if he has a holiday or not.
（八）同位语从句与定语从句的区别:
1. 同位语从句既“说明、修饰”先行词，又“等同”于先行词。定语从句“修饰、限制”先行词，由“关系词”替代先行词，在从句中充当成分。
e.g. We are delighted at the news that we are going to spend our summer vacation in Dalian. (同位语从句)
Neither of us showed any interest in the news that John told us yesterday. (定语从句)
2. that在从句中的作用
同位语从句中that为连接词，只起连接作用，在从句中不作成分，一般也不能省略；定语从句中的that为关系代词，在从句中充当句子成分，可作主语、宾语和表语，作宾语时常可省略。
e.g. The news (that) he told me surprised me. (定语从句)
The news that he gave in surprised me. (同位语从句)
3. 其他引导词的使用
引导同位语从句的词除连接词that外，还可用whether，连接代词who，what及连接副词when, where, how, why等；引导定语从句的词除that外，还有关系代词who, whom, whose, which, as以及关系副词when, where, why。
（九） whever和“no matter＋wh”:
whever既可引导名词性从句，又可引导让步状语从句，而no matter wh只能引导让步状语从句。
e.g. Whatever/ No matter what I said，he wouldn’t listen to me. (让步状语从句)
He would believe whatever/ anything that I said. (宾语从句)
考点归纳:
名词性从句包括主语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句和表语从句。考查要点主要是连接代词和副词的正确使用，主语、谓语的语序，双重连接词以及特殊句型的使用等。其考点主要包括：
1. 名词性从句的连接词。如：有词义的连接代词who, whose, whom, what, which; 连接副词when, where, why, how; 从属连词that, whether, if, as if; 无词义的that在从句中不担任成分，有时可省略。
2. 名词性从句的语序和时态。
3. it作形式主语、形式宾语的情况。 如：
1) It＋be＋形容词＋that从句
2) It＋be＋过去分词＋that从句
3) It＋be＋名词＋that从句
4) It＋不及物动词(appear, happen等)＋that从句
4. 名词性从句中的虚拟语气。如：
1) It is (was)＋essential (important, natural…)＋that…；
2) It is (was) suggested (demanded, wished, desired…) that…等。
5. what引导名词性从句时的语义功能和语法功能。如：what＝the thing that/ anything that…；what＝the place that…；what＝the time that…；what＝the person that…等。
6. whoever, whatever, whichever引导名词性从句时的语义功能和语法功能。
重点考查连接词that, what的用法； 特殊疑问词引导的名词性从句； wh-ever引导的名词性从句。
十．热点预测:
主语从句:
1. 主要考点:
1) that引导主语从句时, 常用it作形式主语, 常见的句型:
①It+ be+形容词+ that从句
②It+ be+名词 (短语)+ that从句
③It+ be+过去分词(said/told/reported/decided等)+ that从句
④It+ 特殊动词 (seems/ appears/ happens/ matters)+ that从句
2) what与that在引导主语从句时的区别:
what引导主语从句时在从句中充当句子成分, 如主语、宾语、表语, 而that引导从句, 不充当成分。
e.g. What you said yesterday is right. (what引导主语从句, 作said的宾语)
That English is important is an undoubted fact. (that引导主语从句, 不作任何成分, 但不可省略)
3) 主语从句若含有“是否”意义, 其引导词只能用whether, 不能用if。
e.g. Whether he will be able to come tomorrow remains a question.
2. 突破技巧:
1) 掌握形式主语的句式及变化，根据句意选取合适连接词, 除that在句子中没有意义, 但不能省略外, 其他连接词均在句中有意义。
2) what, that, which, whether连接主语从句的区别。
宾语从句:
1. 主要考点:
1) 动词find, feel, think, consider, take (认为), make, believe, guess, suppose, assume等后面有宾语补足语时, 且宾语是从句时, 需用it作形式宾语而将that引导的宾语从句后置。
2) 宾语从句的语序为陈述语序; 主句谓语动词用一般现在时, 从句谓语动词可以用各种时态; 主句谓语动词用一般过去时, 从句需用过去的相应时态, 但从句若表示客观真理、规律, 用一般现在时。
e.g. He said that he had been to the space station.
3) 由whether或if引导的宾语从句, 要保持陈述句语序。此外, whether与if在作“是否”讲时, 一般可以换用, 但在下列情况下一般只能用whether, 不用if。
①引导的从句作介词宾语时。
e.g. Everything depends on whether we have enough money.
②从句中有or或whether or not连用时。
e.g. I wonder whether or not he will come.
Tell me whether or not I should invite Nick.
③后接动词不定式时。
e.g. Can you tell me whether to go or to stay?
2. 突破技巧:
1) 把握句意, 选取合适的连接词、时态、语序;
2) 注意whether与if的互换和区别。
表语从句:
1. 考查内容:
1) 表语从句常跟在这些系动词后, 如be, look, remain, seem等。
e.g. That is just what I want.
2) 除常用的连接代词、副词外, as if/ though, because, why等也可以引导宾语从句。
e.g. It looks as if it’s going to rain.
3) 引导表语从句的that不能省略; if不能用于引导表语从句。
e.g. The reason is that he got up late.
2. 突破技巧:
1) 理解句意, 把握语境, 扣准连接词在句中的含义;
2) 掌握系动词后的表语从句辨析that, because, if, whether。
同位语从句:
1. 考查内容:
1) 同位语从句中的名词：
在复合句中, 同位语从句说明其前面名词的具体内容, 同位语从句通常由that引导(that不能省略)。可用于同位语从句的名词有advice, demand, doubt, fact, hope, idea, information, message, news, order, problem, promise, question, request, suggestion, truth, wish, word等。
e.g. The news that the Shenzhou-Ⅹspaceship set off successfully is exciting.
I have no idea when he will come back home.
The thought came to him that Mary had probably fallen ill.
2) 同位语从句与定语从句的区别：
在限制性定语从句中, 关系代词that充当主语或宾语, 有实际意义, 作宾语时, 可省略。同位语从句中的that是连词, 不充当句子成分, 没有任何意义, 但不可省略。
e.g. The news (that) we heard on the radio was not true. (定语从句)
The news that our football team won the match was encouraging. (同位语从句)
2. 突破技巧:
1) 熟记同位语从句的常用名词;
2) 分析句子成分, 防止句式变化;
3) 采取“意义法”区别同位语从句与定语从句。
专项训练：
I. 用正确的连接词填空。
1. —Have you finished the book?
—No, I’ve read up to ________ the woman comes from.
2. Before going to the supermarket, I make a list of ________ we will need for the coming week.
3. My sister has ________ it takes to be a doctor.
4. Mr Curry refused to say ________ had organized the meeting. However, everyone knew it was Jim.
5. Many experts hold the view ________ the worker’s development is where the key to better production lies.
6. —I prefer staying at home all day on Sundays.
—That’s ________ I don’t agree. You should have a more active life.
7. Jeremy shut the door heavily behind him. No one knew ________ he was so angry.
8. —We haven’t discussed yet ________ we are going to place our new furniture.
—You can put it in the sitting room.
9. ________ some people regard as a drawback is seen as a plus by many others.
10. It never occurred to me ________ I could have the book sent to me.
II. 选用括号内合适的内容填空。
1. —What makes you so upset?
—________ (That, Because) I have lost my cell phone.
2. I’m somewhat tired of working here. I’ve been wondering ________ (if, why) I should resign.
3. The teachers have been trying to do ________ (whatever, however) is possible to help the students with their studies.
4. My brother had no doubt ________ (that, whether) he could pass the driving test, as he had practiced so much.
5. Denny hasn’t realized ________ (what, that) help the reference book I gave him can be of to his studies.
6. It is important ________ (when, that) we work out a plan to raise enough funds for the project.
7. In her letter was her promise ________ (that, what) she would bring me some foreign stamps when she returned from America.
8. I have no idea ________ (where, how) Bob got such a large sum of money from.
9. —I don’t exactly know ________ (how, whether) he is coming this time.
—By air, of course.
10. —________ (How, That) he managed to finish the job is of no interest to us all.
—On the contrary, in my opinion, we should learn from the ways he responded to the challenge.
第三十四讲座：定语从句---基础篇
一、定语从句（一）：
1. 定语从句的概念：
在复合句中，修饰某一名词或代词的从句叫定语从句。
2. 先行词：
被定语从句修饰的名词或代词叫先行词。
3. 关系词：
引导定语从句的连词叫关系词。如that、which、who、whom、whose、as、where、when、why等。
4.由that、which、who、whom、whose引导的定语从句。
关系词
指代
在定语从句中的作用
that
既指人也指物
作主语、宾语、表语
which
指物
作主语、宾语、表语
who
指人
作主语、宾语、表语
whom
指人
作宾语
whose
既指人也指物
作定语
as
人或物
固定短语
二、定语从句（二）：
1. 先行词是物时，一般情况既可用that也可用which. 但下列情况下，只能用that不用which。
1). 当先行词为指物的不定代词，如all、everything、something、anything、nothing、none、the one等时，只能用that。
There is nothing ______ I can do for you.
2). 当先行词被the only、the very、the last、all、no、little等词修饰时，只能用that。
This is the very book ______ I’m looking for.
3). 先行词被序数词修饰时，只能用that。
This is the first textbook ______ I studied in the middle school.
4). 先行词为最高级或被最高级修饰时，只能用that。
This is the most beautiful mountain ______ I have ever seen.=
I have _____ seen _____ a beautiful mountian.
5). 先行词既有人也有物时，只能that。
He told us many interesting things and persons _______ we had.
2. 先行词是物时，一般情况既可用that也可用which. 但下列情况下，只能用which不用that。
1). 关系代词前有介词时，关系词只能用which。
This is the building in ______ he lives.
2). 先行词本身是that时，关系词只能用which。
The clock is that _____ tells the time.
3). 引导非限定性的定语从句（先行词是物且先行词与关系词用逗号隔开），关系词用which。
His book, ______ was lost last week, has been found now.
3. 先行词是人时，一般情况下既可用who 也可用that 。但以下情况下，只能用who。
1). 当先行词为those、one、ones、anyone且作主语时，一般用who。
Those ______ are singing are all my classmates.
2). 在there be 句型中，先行词指人时，只能用who。指物时用that。
There is a girl ______ expects to see you.
3). 当先行词是I、you、he、they等时，只能用who。
He ______ plays with fire gets burned.
三、定语从句（三）：
由关系副词when、where、why引导的定语从句。
where = in / at +which when = in / on / at +which why = for + which
1. 由where引导的定语从句。
1). 先行词是表示地点的名词 2). 在定语从句中作地点状语
Is this the house ______ you lived? = Is this the house _____ _____ you lived?
= Is this the house _____ you lived in?
2. 由when引导的定语从句。
1). 先行词是表示时间的名词 2). 在定语从句中作时间状语
I will never forget the days ______ I met him.
= I will never forget the days ____ ____ I met him.
注：先行词是the last time 时，when 可省略。
When was the last time you saw the parrot?
3. 由why引导的定语从句。
先行词为reason 时，一般用why 。 why在句中作原因状语。
We don’t know the reason ______ they didn’t come.
四、注意事项：
1. 关系词在定语从句中作宾语时，常可省略。
The story _____ he told was very popular.
A. who B. whom C. whose D. /
2. that、who、which在定语从句中作主语时，定语从句的谓语动词应与先行词保持一致。
I loves singers who _______(write) their own songs.
She is one of the girls who ______(study) hard .
3. 在定语从句中不能出现代替先行词的人称代词。
Will you please show me the book ______ yesterday?
A. which you bought B. that you bought it C. you bought D. you bought it
4. 定语从句中whose 的确定：
无论先行词是人或物，在定语从句中做定语用whose。
判断：看定语从句的主语前有无限定词（my、your、Jim’s等），若没有，则用whose。
The girl _____ parents work in Beijing is Kate.
A. who B. whose C. which D. that
I know the boy. His handwriting is very good.
= I know the boy ____ handwriting is very good.
五、定语从句的简化：
把定语从句简化为形容词短语、过去分词短语、介词短语、现在分词短语。
1. She reveived a box which was full of presents.
She reveived a box _____ _____ presents.
2. He likes reading books that was written by Luxun.
He likes reading books _____ ____ Luxun.
3. I like Chinese tea which has nothing in it.
I like Chinese tea ______ _____ in it.
4. Do you know the girl who is wearing a red dress.
Do you know the girl ______ a red dress.
第三十五讲座：定语从句---提高篇
一．限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句：
限制性定语从句
非限制性定语从句
意义
描述主句所涉及的人或物的具体情况, 是主句不可或缺的一部分, 若省去, 主句意义不完整, 甚至没有意义
对主句所描述的人或物提供一些附加情况, 起补充说明作用, 若省去, 主句意义仍完整
结构要求
紧跟先行词, 主句和从句间不用逗号分开
主句和从句间用逗号分开
功能
修饰先行词
既可修饰先行词也可修饰整个句子
引导词
关系代词: who，whom，whose，which，that
关系副词：when，where，why
关系代词: who，whom，whose，which，as
关系副词：when，where
This is the house (which) we bought last month.
这是我们上个月买的那幢房子。
The house, which we bought last month, is very nice.
这幢房子很漂亮, 是我们上个月买的。
The man (whom/that/who) I met in the street was a driver.
我在街上碰到的那个人是个司机。
His mother, who loved him very much, died in 1998.
他的母亲很爱他, 但在1998年去世了。
注意:
① 专有名词具有“独一无二”的含义, 通常只能由非限制性定语从句修饰。
Lu Xun, who died in 1936, was a famous writer in China.
鲁迅于1936年去世, 是中国一位著名的作家。
② 既可以作为限制性定语从句又可作为非限制性定语从句, 注意意义上的差别。
There are 20 students in this class who are from the northeast of China.
在这个班里, 有20名来自中国东北的学生。
There are 20 students in this class, who are from the northeast of China.
这个班有20名学生, 他们来自中国的东北。
二．关系代词与关系副词：
(一) 关系代词：
that
关系副词
代替功能
在从句中的成分
例句
when(＝at/on/in/
during which)
时间名词
时间状语
She still remember the day when (on which) she won the prize.她仍然记得她获奖的那一天。
where(＝in/at which)
地点名词
地点状语
This is the factory where (at which) his father once worked.这就是他父亲曾经工作过的工厂。
(二) 关系副词：
why(＝for which)
reason
原因状语
He didn't know the reason why (for which) he was dismissed.
他不知道他为什么被解雇了。
注意:
① 在口语和非正式场合, when, where和why或相当于关系副词的“介词＋which”结构可用that来代替并可省略。
Do you know anywhere (that) I can get a drink?你知道在哪儿我能喝杯酒吗？
② why或that引导的定语从句, 先行词是reason, 且reason又作主句主语时, 表语从句不能用because引导, 而要用that引导。其句型为：The reason why...is that...或The reason that...is that...。
The reason why he was late for school was that he was injured in the traffic accident on his way to school.
他上学迟到的原因是他在上学路上的交通事故中受伤了。
The reason that he explained at the meeting was that he had to look after his mother in hospital.
他在会上解释的原因是他不得不去照顾他住院的母亲。
③ “地点模糊”的先行词后跟where引导的定语从句。当先行词为point, situation, conditions, case, position, stage, scene, spot, activity, family, job等表示某人/物所处的情况、发展的阶段或表达某事的某个方面时, 用where引导定语从句, where相当于from which, under which等, 表示“在这种情况下”, “从……中”等。
We’re just trying to reach a point where both sides will sit down together and talk.
我们只是尽力想能达到双方共同坐下来商谈的地步。
(三) 关系代词与关系副词的选择依据：
1. 考虑代替先行词的关系词在从句中充当的语法成分, 如果关系词在从句中作主语、表语、宾语和定语, 就用关系代词；如果关系词在从句中作状语, 就用关系副词。
The house where he lives
needs repairing.
which/that he lives in
that/which my explain her absence?
Have you asked her for the reason
why she was absent?
2. 辨别先行词表示的是人、物、时间、地点还是原因。
I don’t like the man who always speaks ill of others.
我不喜欢总是说他人坏话的人。
I will never forget the days when we worked together.
我永远也忘不了我们在一起工作的日子。
3. 判断从句是限制性还是非限制性定语从句。
A dictionary is a book that gives the meanings of words. 词典是解释词语意思的书。
A dictionary is a book, which gives the meanings of words.
词典是一本书, 它给出词语的意思。
4. 判断关系词在从句中作宾语还是作状语, 取决于定语从句中的谓语动词。
This is the point where I disagree.
这就是我不同意的地方。(disagree为不及物动词, 故关系词用where。)
This is the point (which/that) I disagree with.
这就是我不同意的地方。(从句缺少介词with的宾语, 用that/which引导, 也可以省略)
四．先行词：
1. 只用that不用which引导定语从句的情况。
(1) 先行词前有序数词或形容词用最高级修饰，或先行词本身就是序数词或形容词最高级时，用that不用which。
The first place that they visited in London was the Big Ben.
This is the best film that I ever seen.
(2) 先行词是不定代词all, little, few, much, something, anything, everything, none, nothing, some等时, 用that不用which。
Have you taken down everything that Mr Li said?
李老师讲的你都记下来了吗？
There seems to be nothing that is impossible to him in the world.
对他来说似乎世界上没有什么不可能的事。
All that can be done has been done.
所有能做的都做了。
(3) 先行词被all, every, no, some, any, little, much, one of, the only, the very, the right, the last, few, just等修饰时, 用that不用which。
All the guests that were invited to her wedding were important people.
所有应邀来参加她婚礼的客人都是重要人物。
This is the very dictionary that I want to buy.
这正是我要买的词典。
Give me any books that you would recommend.
给我你要推荐的书。
(4) 先行词既有人又有物, 兼顾两者, 用that不用which。
They talked about the persons and things that they remembered at school.
他们谈论着他们所能记起的在校时的人和事。
(5) 主句是以who或which开头的疑问句时, 用that不用which。
Who is the man that is standing by the gate?
站在门口的那个人是谁？
Which is the Tshirt that fits me most?
哪件T恤衫最合我的身？
(6) 当先行词在主句中作表语, 而且关系代词在定语从句中也作表语时, 用that不用which。
Shenzhen is no longer the city that it used to be.
深圳不再是过去的样子了。
(7) 主句是there be句型时, 修饰主语的定语从句用that不用which。
There is a seat in the corner that is still free.
在那个角落还有一个座位空着。
(8) 有两个定语从句时, 一个从句的关系代词已用which, 另一个要用that。
The country built up a factory which produces things that have never been seen before.
这个国家建立了一个生产以前从未见到过的东西的工厂。
(9) 用作关系副词, 修饰表示时间的名词, 如day, time, moment等代替when时, 用that不用which。
It happened on the day that (when) he was born.
这事碰巧发生在他出生的那天。
2. 只用which不用that引导定语从句的情况：
(1) 关系代词前有介词时, 用which不用that。
The chair on which she sat is made of wood.
她坐的那把椅子是用木头做的。
(2) 引导非限制性定语从句时, 用which不用that。
Football, which is a very interesting game, is played all over the world.
足球, 一项非常有趣的运动, 在全世界流行。
(3) 先行词后面有插入语时, 用which不用that。
Here is the English grammar book which, as I've told you, will help you improve your English.
这就是我告诉过你的那本英语语法书, 它能帮你提高英语水平。
(4) 先行词本身就是that时, 用which不用that。
What’s that which flashed in the sky just now?
刚才在天空中一闪而过的是什么？
(5) 代表主句中谓语的整体概念时, 用which不用that。
He can swim in the sea, which I can’t.
他能在大海里游泳, 我不能(在大海里游泳)。
(6) 代表整个主句时, 用which不用that。
He broke my cup, which made me angry.
他打破了我的杯子, 这使我很生气。
3. 只用who而不用that引导定语从句的情况：
(1) 先行词是指人的不定代词, 如: one, ones, anyone, no one, those, all, nobody, anybody, none等时, 用who不用that。
People all like those who have good manners.
人们都喜欢那些有礼貌的人。
(2) 在there be句型中, 多用who指代人。
There are some people who want to have holidays in Hainan.
有一些想去海南度假的人。
(3) 当先行词指特定的人时, 关系代词多用who, 不指特定的人时, 多用that。
The aunt who came to see us last week is my father’s younger sister.
上周来看我们的姑姑是我父亲的妹妹。
(4) 在非限制性定语从句中作主语时, 用who不用that。
Professor Wang, who is over sixty, still works hard day and night.
王教授已年过六旬, 依然夜以继日努力工作着。
(5) 当先行词有较长的后置定语或在被分割的定语从句中时, 用who不用that。
Professor Smith is coming soon who will give us a talk on how to learn English.
史密斯教授不久就要来给我们作一场关于如何学英语的讲座。
4. of whom, of which与whose的用法解析：
(1) whose的用法
① whose引导定语从句, 后应紧跟名词, 构成名词短语。
The boy, whose father is an engineer, studies very hard.
那位小男孩学习很努力, 他的父亲是位工程师。
② whose引导定语从句时, 先行词既可指人, 也可指物。
The bicycle, whose brake was damaged, has now been repaired.
那辆自行车的闸坏了, 现在已修好了。
③ whose在定语从句中与它所修饰的名词一起可作介词宾语, 可以与介词一起放在先行词与从句之间。在whose引导的定语从句中, 可用of which代替whose, 但词序不同, 即“whose＋名词＝the＋名词＋of＋which”；而用of whom代替时只能指人, 有时可以与whose互换。
The boss, in whose factory Mary's father once worked, is kind to her.
老板对玛丽很好, 玛丽的父亲曾经在他的工厂工作过。
He lives in the room whose window (the window of which) faces south.
他住在窗户朝南的房间里。
(2) 下列情况只用of which或of whom, 而不用whose引导定语从句。
① 定语从句的主语是some, many, few, little, much, most等词时, 用of which/whom, 不用whose。
Here are the questions, some of which I thought difficult for you.
就是这些问题, 我认为其中一些对你来说有难度。
Present at the meeting were almost experts on DNA, most of whom came from the USA.
出席会议的大多是DNA专家, 其中大部分来自美国。
② 定语从句的主语是all, both, neither, each, none等词时, 用of which/whom, 不用whose。
He has two sons, both of whom are doctors.
他有两个儿子, 都是医生。
I bought him two pieces of clothing, neither of which he likes.
我给他买了两件衣服, 他一件也不喜欢。
③ 定语从句的主语是表示数量的词时, 用of which/ whom, 不用whose。
Here are many books, two of which he borrowed.
这儿有许多书, 他借走了两本。
5. as与which引导定语从句的区别：
as与which都可以代指主句中的一部分或整个句子的内容, 有时可以互换。
He married her, as/which was natural.
很自然地, 他和她结婚了。
as的特殊用法：
(1) as引导的定语从句可以放在句首, 而which则不能。
As is known to us all, China is developing rapidly.
众所周知, 中国发展迅速。
(2) as表示“正如, 正像”, 而which无此意。
此时, as从句中常有know, expect, happen, point out, plan, suggest等单词或短语。
He came back home late, as we expected.
正如我们所料, 他回家晚了。
注意: as引导的定语从句常见句式有：
as is known to all(众所周知), as is often the case(经常是这个情形), as is mentioned above(如上所述), as is announced(如宣布的那样)。
(3) 当先行词被the same, such修饰时, 定语从句需用as引导。
It is such a difficult problem as none of us can work out.
这么难的一道题, 我们没人做得出。
He wears the same coat as I do.
他穿着跟我一样的外套。
注意:
当先行词被the same修饰时, that也可引导定语从句, 但意义有所不同。the same...as指同样或同类的事物；the same...that指同一个事物。
This is the same watch as I lost.
这块表与我丢的那块一样。(不是同一块表)
This is the same watch that I lost.
这就是我丢的那块表。(是同一块表)
五.考点归纳：
定语从句的用法较为复杂，高考除了单独考查定语从句知识外，还常常结合句式结构、时态等来综合考查。纵观近几年各地高考试题，不难发现其考点主要包括：
1. 考查关系代词和关系副词的区分。如: that, which和where, when的区分; that, which和why的区分等。
2. 考查whose的使用。whose可以指代人或物, 在定语从句中作定语, 后跟名词。指物时, whose＋名词＝the+名词＋of which＝of which＋名词。如：
The classroom whose door/the door of which/of which door is broken is on the second floor.
3. 考查as/which引导的非限制性定语从句。尤其要重视which，as引导的非限制性定语从句和it，what引导的主语从句的区分。
4. 考查定语从句中的主谓一致现象。如：
I, who am your close friend, will try my best to help you whenever you are in trouble.
5. 考查“介词＋关系代词”引导的定语从句。“介词＋关系代词”引导的定语从句，关系代词指人时用whom，指物时用which，不能用that。关系代词作定语时也可用whose。如：
The teacher in front of whose house stands a tall tree is very patient with his students.
同时还要重视“复杂介词或代词”出现时与并列句的区别。如：
He loved his parents deeply, both of whom are very kind to him. (定语从句)
He loved his parents deeply and both of them are very kind to him. (并列句)
此外，“介词＋which ＋名词”结构，也是一个较为特殊的结构。如：
He was very ill, in which case(＝and in this case) we sent him to hospital first.
6. 考查一些特殊的先行词。如: 当situation, point, case, activity, scene及period, festival, occasion等出现时, 要注意具体情况具体分析; 作主语、宾语和表语时, 用关系代词that/which; 作状语时, 用关系副词where/when或“介词＋which”, 表示在某种特定的情形下。
7. 考查定语从句、强调句、时间状语从句等的区别。如：
The news that he had passed the exam pleased him and his family. (同位语从句)
The news (that) he told me this morning is not interesting. (定语从句)
It was 1914 when the war broke out. (时间状语从句)
It was in 1914 that the war broke out. (强调句)
专项练习一：
单项选择：从A、B、C、D四个选项中选出最适合的一项。
1. Students should involve themselves in community activities _____ they can gain experience for growth.
A. who B. when
C. which D. where
2. We’ll reach the sales targets in a month _____ we set at the beginning of the year.
A. which B. where
C. when D. what
3. The exact year _____ Angela and her family spent together in China was 2008.
A. when B. where
C. why D. which
4. I borrowed the book Sherlock Holmes from the library last week, _____ my classmates recommended to me.
A. who B. which
C. when D. where
5. English is a language shared by several diverse cultures, _____ uses it differently.
A. all of which B. each of which
C. all of them D. each of them
6. Among the many dangers _____ sailors have to face, probably the greatest of all is fog.
A. which B. what
C. where D. when
专项练习二:
用最恰当的关系代词或关系副词填空：
1. Julian worked in a company, ________ is named after his grandfather, who founded.
2. I paid a visit to Brazil last year, ________ turned out to be a beautiful memory.
3. It’s the third in a sequence of three books, the first of ________ I really enjoyed.
4. No one would like to accept the blame for something ________ was someone else’s fault.
5. We then moved to Paris, ________ we lived for six years.
6. The boy ________ I spoke to a moment ago is the son of my employer.
7. These people, ________ identities will be kept secret, will be paid $40 a day.
8. My sisters, ________ photos I showed you yesterday, will come to see us this evening.
9. Are we living in an age ________ everyone is encouraged to share their ideas on blogs?
10. Laura was always helping her brother with his physics after school, ________, of course, made her parents very happy.
11. In old days, some schools wouldn’t admit the boys ________ families were poor.
12. The price of any product is linked to a complicated system of prices ________ everything depends on everything else.
专项练习三:
用适当的“介词+关系词”填空:
1. It isn’t a subject ________ I devote a great deal of thought.
2. The woman ___________ Mike told me last Friday proved to be a cheat.
3. The man wrote a letter of thanks to the cleaner, ____________ help he couldn’t have found his lost money.
4. I’ve seen many films, ________ Titanic is the most wonderful and shocking one.
5. This is the original novel ________ the world-famous film is based.
6. Her elder daughter, ________ she placed the greatest trust, failed to match her expectations.
7. Robert set up a KTV bar in the Fifth Street, ________ he invited all his friends.
8. The Bird’s Nest has a huge stage ________ Jackie Chan and Song Zuying have ever given their concerts.
第三十六讲座：it的用法、常用句型基础及提高篇
it可以作代词（如人称代词、非人称代词）和引导词，也可以用于强调句式中，还可以用于一些固定表达中。
一、it作代词：
1. 用作人称代词，指代：①上文提到过的人、事、物或情况等；②婴儿、性别不明或没必要区分性别的人或动物。此外，it也可指代未知的人。如：
In my opinion, life in the twenty-first century is much easier than it was used to.
Someone is ringing the doorbell. Go and see who it is.
It’s John on the phone.
2. 用作非人称代词，指时间、天气、距离或自然现象等。如：
It is only half an hour’s walk to the hospital.
It’s about two kilometers from here to the station.
It is raining heavily outside.
二、it作引导词：
1. it作形式主语的常用句型：
★ “It + be +名词+主语从句”中从句谓语常用“（should +）动词原形”。常用于本句型的主要有a pity, a shame, no wonder, no accident等。如：
It is a great pity that he should be so greedy.
It is a shame that he should attempt to injure the reputation of an honest man.
It was no accident that such a book should appear in the 18th century.
★ “It + be +形容词+主语从句”中从句谓语常用“（should +）动词原形（或完成时）”。常用于本句型的形容词主要有impossible, strange,
surprising等。如：
It is impossible that it should be a mere coincidence.
It’s strange that she should have been arrested for stealing.
It was surprising that he should have finished writing a novel in only twenty days.
★ “It +动词（+宾语或状语）+主语从句”。常用于本句型的动词主要有please, happen等。如：
It pleased me very much that he succeeded.
It pleases me that he should want to talk with me.
It so happened that he had just left for Tianjin.
★ “It +动词的被动语态+主语从句”。常用于本句型的动词主要有accept, admit, allow, announce等。如：
It’s accepted that the universe is endless.
It is generally admitted that he is a trustworthy person.
It was announced that all prisoners would be set free.
It was announced that the Prime Minister would speak on television that evening.
2. it作形式宾语：
★根据句子结构的需要，人们常用it作形式宾语，而将真正的宾语放在宾语补足语后。常用于这种句型的动词有believe, bring, consider, declare, feel, find, make, prove, think等。如：
I find it amazing that anyone would want to listen to that music.
I don’t think it possible to master a foreign language within 3 months.
I found it worthwhile reading this book.
★it作形式宾语的常用句型：
1）动词+ it + if / when从句
当enjoy, like, dislike, love, hate, prefer, appreciate等动词后需要接一个if或when引导的从句时，需要在动词后接it作形式宾语。如：
She won’t like it if you arrive late.
He hates it when people use his bike.
I’d prefer it if I didn’t have to do so much work.
I would appreciate it very much if you would help me with it.
2）动词+介词+ it + that从句：
能用于此句型的主要有：depend on, answer for, see to。如：
You may depend on it that he will turn up in time.
I can’t answer for it that the boy is honest.
I’ll see to it that all these letters will be sent to the post before twelve.
三、it用于强调句型中：
强调句型可以对句中除谓语动词以外的成分加以强调。
四、it用在一些固定表达中：
As someone puts it, ... 像某人所说的那样
Please see to it that ... 请务必……
When it comes to ... 当提到……时
It looks / seems as if ... 看起来好像……
It’s time for sth. 该做某事了
It’s time (for sb.) to do sth. （某人）该干某事了
It is (high) time that ... （早就）该……
It’s first / second / third / ... time + that ... 这是某人第几次干某事（从句谓语用现在完成时）
It is / has been +一段时间+ since ... 自从……已经……；
It wasn’t / won’t be long before ... 没过多久就 / 很快……
It’s + 时间段 + before ... 过……时间才……
五、it与one的区别：
两者均可代替前面提到的事物，区别是：it指的是与前面已提到的事物为同一物，此时的it等于“the +名词”；而one 指的是与前面已提到的事物为同一类物，此时的one等于“a +名词”。如：
I have a dictionary but I’ve lent it to Mary.
I haven’t a dictionary; can you lend me one?
专项练习：
I. 选用括号内合适的单词填空。
1. It was only after she had begun to carry out the task ________ (that, when) Mary realized it was extremely difficult to complete.
2. ___ (It, As) is our belief that we can make a good life if we work hard.
3. ___ (It, What) is suggested that parents should pay more attention to their children’s inner world.
4. As a matter of fact, _____ (that, it) is not failure itself, but what we think of failure and what we do afterwards that counts.
5. —Do you still drive your Ford car?
—No, I sold ____ (it, that) two years ago.
6. You must keep ____ (it, what) in mind that you can never be too careful when proofreading the newspaper.
7. Will ____ (that, it) be convenient for you to start work tomorrow?
8. ______ (There, It) is no doubt that the visiting team, which has better players, will win the match.
9. —I don’t think I can work out the maths problem. It’s too difficult.
—Think it over, and perhaps you will make ________ (it, that).
第三十七讲座：构词法基础及提高篇
1. 构词法的三种构成形式。
2. 派生、转化及合成词的灵活使用。
英语构词法主要有三种：合成、转化和派生。
一、合成：
合成是指将两个意思不同的单词结合成一个新词。合成形式主要有以下几种：
1. 合成名词：
名词+名词：postman, girlfriend, flowerbed, notebook
形容词+名词：blackboard, supermarket, greenhouse
名词+动词：daybreak, sunrise, breastfeed
动词-ing形式+名词：reading room, washing machine
名词+动词-ing形式：handwriting, papermaking
动词+名词：pickpocket, workroom
动词+副词：breakup
其它形式：get-together, go-between, passer-by
2. 合成形容词：
形容词 / 数词+名词+ed：warm-hearted, five-storeyed
名词+过去分词：home-made, hand-made
名词+形容词：world-famous, ice-cool
形容词/数词+名词：full-time, second-hand
形容词+过去分词： newborn
副词+分词：well-known, newly-built
其它形式：face-to-face, evergreen
3. 合成代词：
代词宾格/物主代词+ self/selves：herself, ourselves
某些不定代词some, any, every, no等+ body/one/thing：anyone, nothing
4. 合成介词：
介词+介词：throughout, within
5. 合成副词：
副词+名词：indoors, overhead, upstairs
介词+名词：alongside, beforehand
名词+形容词：sky-high
副词+介词：nearby
其它形式：meanwhile, headfirst
6. 合成动词：
副词+动词：overhear, overwork, underline
名词+动词：moonwalk, sunbathe
形容词+动词：whitewash, safeguard
二、转化：
转化是指一个单词的词形不经过任何变化而由一种词性转化为另一种词性。
1. 名词转化为动词：
有些词在转化过程中词义变化不大，如try, swim, shout, cry, kiss, wash,
guess等。有些动词转化为名词时意义有一定的变化，如feed（v. 喂养 → n. 饲料），draw（v. 画画，抽，拉 → n. 平局）等。
2. 形容词转化为动词、名词或副词：
①有些形容词可以转化为动词。如：quiet （adj. 安静的 → v. 使安静）。
②有些形容词可以转化为名词。如：quiet (adj. 安静的，寂静的 → n. 安静，寂静); calm (adj. 镇静的 → n. 泰然自若)。
③有些形容词可以转化为副词。如：dear, high, low, cheap, full, near, close, long等。
3. 介词转化为名词：the ups and downs of life
4. 连词转化为名词：no ifs, ands, or buts
5. 一些其它情况的转化：如：
They forwarded his mail to his new address. (adv. → v.)
The people are walking north. (n. → adv.)
三、派生：
派生是指通过给一个单词加前缀或后缀构成另一个词。前缀一般改变词义而不改变词性, 后缀一般改变词性而不改变词义。
常见前缀：
名词前加a-变为形容词或副词。如：asleep等。
名词或形容词前加be-变为动词。如：behead等。
名词或形容词前加en-变为动词。如：endanger, encourage, enrich, enlarge, enable等。
形容词前加il-, ab-, un-, ir-, dis-, in-等变为反义词。如：illegal, illogical, abnormal, unable, unsafe, irregular, dishonest, disappointed, incorrect等。
常见后缀：
1. 形容词后缀：
名词后加-ful变为形容词，表示“充满……的，具有……性质的”。如：hopeful, thankful等。
名词后加-less变为形容词，表示“没有……的”。如：hopeless, useless等。
名词后加-ic, -ical变为形容词，表示“与……有关的，动作/行为……的”。如：technical, scientific等。
名词后加-ous变为形容词，表示“有……性质的”。如：poisonous, mountainous等。
动词后加-able变为形容词，表示“可……的，能……的，具有……性质的”。如：comfortable, relaxable等。
动词后加-ed变为形容词，表示“……的”。如：excited, amazed, satisfied等。
2. 名词后辍：
动词后加-ance变为名词，表示状态或行为。如：performance, guidance等。
动词后去不发音的-e加-tion或直接加-tion变为名词，表示状态或过程。如：decoration, translation, election等。
动词后加-er或-or变为名词，表示人。如: survivor, worker, instructor等。
动词后加-ee变为名词，表示动作的承受者。如: employee, trainee等。
动词/名词后加-ess变为名词，表女性或雌性。如：hostess, actress, princess等。
动词后加-ment变为名词，表示“……的行为”。如：arrangement, movement等。
名词后加-ship变为名词，表示状态、性质、品质、地位、资格等。如：relationship, friendship等。
形容词后加-ness变为名词，表示“……的性质、状态或特点”。如：happiness, sickness, fairness等。
3. 动词后辍：
形容词后加-en变为动词，表示“使成为，变得”。如：strengthen, threaten等。
形容词后加-fy 变为动词，表示“使……化，使成为”。如：beautify, simplify等。
形容词后加-ize变为动词，表示“……化”。如：specialize, modernize等。
4. 副词后缀：
形容词或名词后加-ly变为副词。如：carefully, monthly, quickly, clearly等。
表示地点或方位的词后加-ward(s)变为副词。如：southward(s), backward(s), outward(s)等。
第三十八讲座：英语五种基本句型
基本句型一： Ｓ +Ｖ （主＋谓）
基本句型二： Ｓ +Ｖ+ Ｐ （主＋谓＋表）
基本句型三： Ｓ +Ｖ+ Ｏ （主＋谓＋宾）
基本句型四： Ｓ +Ｖ+ ｏ+ Ｏ （主＋谓＋间宾＋直宾）
基本句型五： Ｓ+ Ｖ+ Ｏ+ Ｃ （主＋谓＋宾＋宾补
句型1： Subject (主语) ＋ Verb (谓语)：
此句型的句子有一个共同特点，即句子的谓语动词都能表达完整的意思，这种句型中的动词大多是不及物动词，动词后不可以直接接宾语，后面可以跟副词、介词短语、状语从句等。常见的动词如：work, sing, swim, fish, jump, arrive, come, die, disappear, cry, happen等。如：
1. The sun was shining. 太阳在照耀着。
2. The moon rose. 月亮升起了。
3. The universe remains. 宇宙长存。
4. We all breathe, eat, and drink. 我们大家都呼吸、吃和喝。
5. Who cares? 管它呢？
6. What he said does not matter. 他所讲的没有什么关系。
7. They talked for half an hour. 他们谈了半个小时。
8. The pen writes smoothly. 这支笔书写流利。
Ｓ
Ｖ （不及物动词）
1. Time
2. The moon
3. The man
4. We all
5. Everybody
6. I
7. They
8. He
9.He
10.They
flies.
rose.
cooked.
eat, and drink.
laughed?
woke.
talked for half an hour.
walked yesterday.
is playing.
have gone.
句型2：Subject (主语) ＋ Link. V(系动词) ＋ Predicate(表语)：
此句型的句子有一个共同的特点：句子谓语动词都不能表达一个完整的意思，必须加上一个表明主语身份或状态的表语构成复合谓语，才能表达完整的意思。这类动词叫做连系动词，这种句型主要用来表示主语的特点、身份等。其系动词一般可分为下列两类：
(1)表示状态。这样的词有：be, look, seem, smell, taste, sound, keep等。如：
1) This kind of food tastes delicious. 这种食物吃起来很可口。
2) He looked worried just now. 刚才他看上去有些焦急。
3) Several players lay flat on the playground. 几个队员平躺在操场上。
4) We should remain modest and prudent any time.
我们在任何时候都应该保持谦虚谨慎。
5) This kind of food tastes terrible. 这种食物吃起来很糟糕。
6) The picture looks more beautiful at a certain distance.
这幅画在一定的距离看更漂亮一些。
(2)表示变化。这类系动词有：become, turn, get, grow, go等。如：
1) Spring comes. It is getting warmer and warmer. 春天到了，天气变得越来越暖和。
2) The tree has grown much taller than before. 这棵树比以前长得高多了。
3)Spring comes. It is getting warmer and warmer. 春天到了，天气变得越来越暖和。
4) Don't have the food. It has gone bad. 不要吃那种食物，已经变质了。
5)The facts prove true. 事实证明是正确的。
Ｓ
Ｖ（是系动词）
Ｐ(表语)
1. This
is
an English dictionary.
2. The dinner
3. He
4. Everything
5. He
6. The book
7. The weather
8. His face
smells(闻)
fell
looks
is
is
became
turned
good.
happy.
different.
tall and strong.
interesting.
warmer.
red.
句型3：Subject(主语) ＋ Verb (谓语) ＋ Object (宾语)：
这种句型中的动词一般为及物动词, 所谓及物动词，就是这种动词后可以直接接宾语，其宾语通常由名词、代词、动词不定式、动名词或从句等来充当。此句型句子的共同特点是：谓语动词都具有实义，都是主语产生的动作，但不能表达完整的意思，必须跟有一个宾语，即动作的承受者，才能使意思完整。例：
1) He took his bag and left.（名词） 他拿着书包离开了。
2) Li Lei always helps me when I have difficulties. (代词)
当我遇到困难时，李雷总能给我帮助。
3) She plans to travel in the coming May Day.（不定式）
她打算在即将到来的“五一”外出旅游。
4) I don’t know what I should do next. (从句) 我不知道下一步该干什么
5)You can put the books in your bag. 你可以把书放在书包里。
6) Farmers in our area grow lots of vegetables. 我们这里的农民种很多种蔬菜。
7) She lost the chance to make her appearance on the stage.
她失去了在舞台上露面的机会。
8) I prefer to make web pages.我更喜欢做网页。
Ｓ
Ｖ（实义动词）
Ｏ(宾语)
1. Who
2. She
3. He
8. He
5. They
6. Danny
7. I
4. He
knows
laugh at
understands
made
ate
likes
want
said
the answer?
her.
English.
cakes.
some apples.
donuts.
to have a cup of tea.
"Good morning."
句型4： Subject(主语)＋Verb(谓语)＋ Indirect object(间接宾语)＋Direct object (直接宾语)：
此句型的句子有一个共同特点：谓语动词必须跟有两个宾语才能表达完整的意思。这两个宾语一个是动作的直接承受者，另一个是动作的间接承受者。这种句型中，直接宾语为主要宾语，表示动作是对谁做的或为谁做的，在句中不可或缺，常常由表示“物”的名词来充当；间接宾语也被称之为第二宾语，去掉之后，对整个句子的影响不大，多由指“人”的名词或代词承担。引导这类双宾语的常见动词有：buy, pass, lend, give, tell, teach, show, bring, send等。如：
1) Her father bought her a dictionary as a birthday present.
Her father bought a dictionary for her as a birthday present.
她爸爸给她买了一本词典作为生日礼物。
2）The old man always tells the children stories about the heroes in the Long March.
The old man always tells stories about the heroes to the children in the Long March.
老人经常给孩子们讲述长征途中那些英雄的故事。
3) Yesterday her father bought her a bicycle as a birthday present.
昨天她父亲给她买了一辆自行车作为生日礼物。
4）The old man is telling the children stories in the Long March.
老人正在给孩子们讲长征中的故事。
这种句型还可转换为其他两种句型：1)动词 ＋ 宾语 ＋ for sb.； 2)动词 ＋ 宾语＋to sb.
Please show me your picture. =Please show your picture to me.
请把你的画给我看一下。
I'll offer you a good chance as long as you don t lose heart.
=I'll offer a good chance for you as long as you don't lose heart.
只要你不失去信心，我会给你提供机会的。
Ｓ
Ｖ（及物）
ｏ（多指人）
Ｏ（多指物）
1. She
2. She
3. He
4. He
5. I
6. I
7. I
8. He
passed
cooked
brought
bought
showed
gave
told
showed
him
her husband
you
her
him
him
me
a new dress.
a delicious meal.
a dictionary.
nothing.
my pictures.
a hand.
how to run the machine.
that the bus was late.
句型5： Subject(主语)＋Verb (动词)＋Object (宾语)＋Complement(补语)：
此句型的句子的共同特点是：动词虽然是及物动词，但是只跟一个宾语还不能表达完整的意思，必须加上一个补充成分来补足宾语，才能使意思完整。这种句型中的“宾语＋补语”统称为“复合宾语”。宾语补足语的主要作用或者是补充、说明宾语的特点、身份等；或者表示让宾语去完成的动作等。担任补语的常常是名词、形容词、副词、介词短语、分词、动词不定式等。常见的动词有: tell, ask, advise, help, want, would like, order, force, allow等。如：
1）You should keep the room clean and tidy. 你应该让屋子保持干净整洁.（形容词）
2) We made him our monitor. (名词)我们选他当班长。
3) His father told him not to play in the street.(不定式)他父亲告诉他不要在街上玩。
4) My father likes to watch the boys playing basketball. (现在分词)
5) Yesterday I had a picture taken with two Americans. (过去分词)
6) Keep the children quiet, please. 请让孩子们安静下来。
7) He painted the wall white. 他把墙漆成白色。
8) We found him an honest person. 我们发现他是一个诚实的人。
9) His mother told him not to play on the street. 他母亲告诉他不要在街上玩。
注意：动词have, make, let, see, hear, notice, feel, watch等后面所接的动词不定式作宾补时，不带to。如：
6) The boss made him do the work all day. 老板让他整天做那项工作。
7) I heard her sing in the next room all the time last night.
昨天晚上我听见她在隔壁唱了一个晚上。
Ｓ
Ｖ（及物）
Ｏ（宾语）
Ｃ（宾补）
1. We
2. They
3. They
4. They
5. What
6. We
7. He
8. I
keep
painted
call
found
makes
saw
asked
saw
the table
the door
supper
the house
him
him
me
them
clean.
green.
dinner.
dirty.
sad?
out.
tocome back soon.
getting on the bus.
There be 句型:
此句型是由 there + be + 主语 + 状语构成，用以表达存在有，一种无主语的有。它其实是倒装的一种情况，主语位于谓语动词 be 之后，there 仅为引导词，并无实际语。Be 与其后的主语在人称和数量上一致，有时态和情态变化。如，
现在有 there is/are …
过去有 there was/were…
将来有 there will be…/there is /are going to be...
现在已经有 there has/have been…
可能有 there might be...
肯定有 there must be …/there must have been...
过去一直有 there used to be …
似乎有 there seems/seem/seemed to be …
碰巧有 there happen/happens/happened to be …
此句型有时不用be动词，而用 live, stand, come, go, lie, remain, exist, arrive, 等。
第三十九讲座：情景交际
Ⅰ. 社会交往：
一、问候：
1. 基本用语:
1) 见面问候：
Good morning. Hello/Hi. …
2) 代向某人问候：
Best wishes/ regards to sb.＝give one’s regards to sb. ＝give one’s best regards to sb.
3) 替某人向……问好：
say “Hi/ Hello” to sb. from sb.＝give one’s regards to sb.
Please remember me to...
回答：I will. Thanks.
4) —How do you do? (初次见面)
—How do you do?
—How are you? (比较熟悉的人)
—Fine, thank you. And you? /Very well, thank you.
—How are you getting along with...?
—Everything is fine!
—How are you doing?
—I’m just great!
—How is everything?
—Very well, thank you!
—How is your vacation/ holiday/ weekend?
—Not bad!
—What’s up?
—Couldn’t be better, thank you!
—What’s going on?
—Just so-so.
2. 注意要点：
1) “How are you?”用于询问对方的身体情况，可根据实际情况回答，如：Fine/Very well, thank you.(very) good不能用来表示身体健康。假如身体确实不太舒服并想让对方知道，不妨说“Not too well, I’m afraid.”
2) 对于不认识的人，想要他(或她)停下的说法：Hey, Sir/ Madam！或Just a moment, Sir/ Madam.
3) 与英美人见面寒暄时，不应问及他(或她)的年龄、婚否、收入等个人隐私情况。
二、介绍：
1. 基本用语:
1) This is Mr/ Mrs/ Miss/ Ms/... May I introduce you to...? I’d like you to meet...
2) How do you do? Nice/ Glad/ Pleased to see/meet you. Nice meeting you...
3) My name is... I’m a... (student/ teacher，etc.) May I know your name?
2．注意要点:
1) “Nice to meet you.”与“Nice to see
you.”有一点区别：前者是初次见面被人介绍相识后的寒暄用语(认识你很高兴)；后者与前者在意思上相同，但是用于熟人之间一段时间未见面后再次相遇。两者回答用语与问候语相同。
2) “Nice to meet you.”表示初次见面时的问候，而“Nice meeting you.”则是初次见面告别时的用语。
三、告别：
1．基本用语:
1) 直接的告别语有：
Goodbye/ Byebye/Bye！
See you (tomorrow)！See you later!
Farewell!
Good night.
2) 委婉的告别语有：
I’d like to say goodbye to everyone.
I’m calling to say goodbye.
I’m afraid I must be leaving/ off now.
I think it's time for us to leave now.
3) 其他带有祝愿以及叮嘱等意义的告别语：
I’ll look forward to seeing you soon.
Let’s hope we’ll meet again.
Hope to see you again.
Drop in anytime you like.
2．注意要点:
告别前通常要说一两句客套话，如：I’m afraid I must be off/ going now. 长久告别时，还可同时表达希望今后多联系 (Keep/ Get in touch.)、要对方保重身体 (Take care.)、问候对方家人(Please send my best regards to your family.)等。
四、感谢：
基本用语:
1) 感谢用语：
Thank you very much．
Thanks a lot.
Many thanks.
Thanks for...
It’s very kind of you to...
I appreciate your help.
Thank you all the same.
It’s most thoughtful of you.
I don’t know how to express my thanks.
2) 答语：
Not at all.
That’s all right/ OK.
You’re welcome.
It’s really nothing.
Don’t mention it.
五、道歉：
1. 基本用语:
1) 道歉用语：
I’m sorry. I’m sorry for/ about...
I’m sorry to do... I’m sorry to have done...
Excuse/ Pardon me (for...)
Please forgive me for...
sb. be afraid that...
What a pity/ shame! It’s a pity that...
2) 答语：
It is not important. It’s quite all right. Never mind.
It doesn’t matter (at all). Not at all.
It’s nothing. That’s nothing.
Please don’t worry. It’s nothing to worry about. Don’t mention it.
That’s okay. Don’t let it bother you.
2．注意要点:
1) “Excuse me”常用于下列情形：需要打断别人谈话或工作时；有求于他人时；因故需要暂时离开时；就某事表示不同意见时；自己的言行将会影响他人时。(即：在说或做可能令人不悦的事情之前使用以引起别人注意)打扰别人为“劳驾”；请求别人让路、向别人问路、打听消息意为“对不起，请问……”。回答时说：Yes?
2) “Sorry.” 说话人做了错事或无意中与别人发生冲撞时于事后向他人表示歉意；可表示因不能满足他人要求而表示歉意。
3) “I beg your pardon?”表示听话人未能听清楚他人所说的话，希望说话人重复所说的话时的礼貌用法，“麻烦再说一遍”。
4) “I’m sorry to hear it/that.”则是对说话者本人或近亲属已经发生的不幸表示遗憾。
六、邀请：
1．基本用语:
1) Would you come to...? Would you like to...? I’d like to invite you to...
2)Yes, I’d love/be glad/happy to(...)．
I’ll be glad to. Of course.
Yes, it’s very kind/nice of you.
Yes, great. Sure. Yes, with pleasure.
3) I’d love to, but... I’m sorry, but I can’t.
2. 注意要点:
1) 接受他人邀请时通常还要表示一下感谢：
Yes, I’d love to.
Yes, it’s very kind/ nice of you.
Yes, with pleasure.
2) 如果是稍有保留地接受，可这样说：
I will if I can.
It’s very kind of you to invite me, but I’m not sure if I can come.
3) 拒绝他人的邀请一般不直接说No，而要婉言谢绝(通常会说明理由)，并要声明自己是愿意接受“邀请”的，但因某种原因不能接受，并表示歉意或感谢。常用：
I’d like to, but I’m too busy.
I really enjoy it, but I’ve got to go now.
I wish I could accept your invitation, but
I’m afraid I don’t have time to go.
Thank you for your kindness, but I’ve got an appointment at that time.
七、祝愿和祝贺：
基本用语：
1) Best wishes to you! I wish you good health. Good luck! Good luck with... Wish you success！May you success/succeed!
2) Merry Christmas！
3) Congratulations (on...)！Well done!
4) Enjoy your vacation！Enjoy your stay in China.
八、提供帮助：
基本用语：
1) 提供帮助：
Can/Could/Shall I help you?
What can I do for you?
Is there anything (else) I can do for you?
Would you like to...?
Can you do me a favor?
2) 接受帮助：
That would be nice/fine. That's very kind of you. Thank you for your help.
Yes, please. Here, take this/ my...
九、打电话：
1. 基本用语:
Hello！May I speak to...? Hello！Is...in?
May/Could I speak to...? Is that...(speaking)?
Hold on, please. Hello, who is it/that?
He /She isn’t here right now.
Can I take a message for you?
This is... speaking.
2. 注意要点:
代接电话的人叫某人接电话时，先对打电话的人说：Hold on, please. Just a minute, please. 然后叫人接电话：You are wanted on the phone. There’s a call for you.
十、就餐：
基本用语:
What would you like (to have)...?
Would you like something (to eat/drink)?
Help yourself to some...
Let me give you... Make yourself at home.
I’d like... A cake/ Two eggs, please.
Yes, please. Just a little, please.
I’ve had enough. I’m full, thank you.
No, thanks.
Can I have the bill, please?
It’s my treat this time. I’ll pay.
Let’s go Dutch this time.
Waiter! The bill, please.
十一、就医：
听到自己的亲人、朋友或熟人等谈到有关身体健康的问题时，如“I think I have a bad cold.”如果是朋友，回答“I’m sorry to hear that.”或“You’d better see a doctor.”如果是说给医生听，医生需用“Take it easy.”来回答。
1) 医生询问病人的用语：
What’s the matter with you？
What’s wrong with you?
2) 病人应答语：
There’s something wrong with my back.
I have a headache/ My head aches.
I have got a cough. I have got a pain here.
It hurts here and there.
I don’t feel well today.
3) 医生诊断、提建议及安慰用语：
Let me take your temperature.
It’s nothing serious.
You had better ask for a leave and have a rest for a few days.
Drink more water and have a good rest.
Take these pills 3 times a day.
十二、提醒注意：
Don’t forget your raincoat.
Remember to lock the door.
Make sure that all the windows are closed.
No Smoking! No Spitting!
Look out! Be careful!
Wet floor! Don’t touch! It’s dangerous!
Keep off! Wet paint!
十三、建议与劝告：
以建议或者劝告的形式要某人做一件事，不同于直接命令，因为说话人只是提出建议，而把做与不做的决定权留给听话人。对于他人提出的建议和忠告，若认为可以接受，要表示赞赏或感谢。在拒绝对方的建议时，一般要给出理由。
基本用语：
1) I advise you (not) to... You’d better (not)... I suggest that you (should)...
Why not...? Why don’t you do...?
How/ What about doing...?
Shall we...? Let’s...
2) Yes, I suppose so.
Yes, but don’t you think...?
That’s great. That’s a good idea.
Why not?
3) That’s impossible, but thank you all the same.
It’s not our fault. I’m afraid I can’t do that.
I’m afraid I can’t follow your advice.
Ⅱ. 情感：
一、高兴：
I’m glad/ pleased/ happy to...
That’s nice/ wonderful/ great.
How wonderful/nice!
二、惊奇：
Really?/ Is that so? Oh dear！/My God！Good heavens!/ Thank Goodness！
I can hardly believe my ears/ eyes.
三、忧虑：
What’s wrong？
What’s the matter (with you)?
Is there anything wrong?
Oh, what shall I do?
We were all anxious about...
四、满意：
Good！Well done！Perfect! That’s fine. That’s better. That’s good enough.
I’m pleased with…
五、遗憾：
I’m so sorry！It’s a great pity！
What a shame! That’s too bad!
I wish I had never given it up.
If I had been there, he would not have made such a serious mistake.
六、同情：
I’m so sorry!
I’m so sorry about your illness.
I’m sorry to hear you are going away.
Please accept my deep sympathy.
Ⅲ. 态度：
一、同意与不同意：
当对方提出某种观点、意见或请求时，要表示恰当而具体的态度。要有明确答复。
1. 同意：
Certainly/ Sure/ Of course. All right. Yes, I think so. That’s true. Good! Excellent!
What a good idea! It couldn’t be better.
That’s a good idea... It’s a good idea that...
I agree(with you). That’s the right thing to do.
2. 不同意：
No, I don’t think so. I’m afraid not.
I’m afraid I (really) can’t agree with you.
It’s not very nice. I don’t think that is a good idea.
Personally, I feel that it’s unwise.
What a terrible idea！No way！
二、肯定与不肯定：
对某件事情的真实性是否肯定、是否有把握，在英语中常用sure，certain，doubt等词或may，might，must等情态动词表达。may，might具有试探性，must表示一种逻辑推断的必然。此外，为了增强客气的口吻，表示不肯定时可以伴随一些表示遗憾、担忧或歉意的表达方式。
三、可能与不可能：
He may... It is possible that...
It is likely that...
He is not likely to do/ that...
It looks as if/ though it might rain later.
It appears to me that we’ll have to go on foot.
I doubt that...
That’s/ It’s quite impossible.
It’s very unlikely. That’s hardly possible. That’ll never happen.
四、偏爱与爱好：
Which do you prefer, tea or coffee?
I prefer tea to coffee.
prefer to do rather than do
prefer doing to doing
I’d like to go by train.
My favorite subject is physics.
I’d rather drink coffee than tea.
五、意愿与打算：
当希望别人做某事或者不愿意让别人做某事，或者表达自己的一种希望、愿望时需要恰当用词，这样才能准确地传达自己的意图。
I’m going to... I will...
I would like to... I feel like...
I (do not) wish/ want/ hope to...
I wish that...
I intend/ mean/ plan to...
I’m ready to...
I would rather not tell you.
I would do it if I should have the chance.
If only I could see him.
六、征求或表达意见：
在表明自己对事物的判断时，好坏要明确，是非要分明。尤其在对方干得比较出色时，要多加鼓励。如Well done！Good job！Quite perfect！等。
如果要陈述自己的某些观点时，英语中一般要使用一些较委婉的短语，如：in my opinion, as I see it, so far as I know, personally speaking等。
考点归纳：
1) 常用于接受或拒绝请求、邀请的应答用语有：With pleasure./ Yes, help yourself./ No problem./ Good idea./ Sorry, but…/ I’d rather you…/ Thank you, but…/ No way./ Forget it.等。
2) 常用于感谢的应答用语有：That’s all right./ You are welcome./ Don’t mention it./ It is my pleasure (My pleasure)./ Not at all.等。
3) 常用于道歉的应答用语有：Never mind./ It doesn’t matter./ Not at all./ That’s all right./ That is nothing.等。
4) 常用于祝愿和祝贺的应答用语有：Good luck!/ Best wishes to you!/ Have a nice time!/ Congratulations!/ Merry Christmas!/ Thank you./ The same to you.等。
2. 考查文化差异语。汉语和英语在交际文化方面有许多共同之处，但也存在诸多差异。这些差异往往是考查的重中之重。避免母语交际定式的干扰，根据英语的文化交际习惯来应答是掌握文化差异的关键。
3. 考查语言结构语。根据不同的交际情景，说话者会采用不同的交际用语来表达自己的态度和情感。当说话人对刚刚提出的说法或意见持肯定态度时，可以说：Yes，I think (suppose, believe) so./ Yes, I’m afraid so. 对刚刚提出的说法或意见持否定态度时，则说：No，I don’t think (suppose) so./ No, I don’t believe so./ No, I believe (suppose) not./ No, I hope not./ No, I am afraid not.
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